APUSH Semester 1 Final Study Guide

* What was the Half-Way Convent? Why was it introduced? (Chapter 4)

- "New formula" for church membership introduced by ministers in 1662 - Modified the "convent" between the church and its adherents to admit children to baptism (but not full communion) if their parents were baptised but not yet "converted" church members - Introduced because the population increases had caused the gradual dispersion of Puritans away from their church/neighbours and religious zeal decreased and caused alarm, especially because of the decreasing number of "conversions" - Half-Way Convent weakened the distinction between the "elect" and others

* What role did Pocahontas play between the Powhatan and the English? (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- "Saved" John Smith from being "executed" although this was probably actually a ritual to make Smith part of Powhatan society and not an attempt to kill him - Pocahontas mediated between Indians and colonists - Married John Rolfe in 1614 which helped restore peace

* What was the British mission in Lexington and Concord? (Chapter 7)

- A British detachment was sent to Lexington and Concord to sever stores of colonial gunpowder and kill "rebel" leaders Adams and Hancock - When the Minute Men refused to disperse rapidly enough, shots were fired and 8 Americans were killed - The redcoats continued to Concord and were then forced to retreat by Americans

* How were the slave laws shaped with a racial undertone? (Chapter 4)

- A few early African "immigrants" gained freedom and some even owned slaves; as the number of African-Americans increased, white colonists started to perceive them as a racial threat - Initially the legal difference between slaves and indentured servants was unclear, but when later distinctions were made they were primarily based on race - "Slave codes" first used in Virginia in 1662; the earliest code made black people and their children their masters' property for life - Some colonies criminalised teaching slaves to read or write - Slavery in America started for economic reasons but by the end of the 17th century rsce was a significant factour

* What was the Olive Branch Petition? How did the King respond? (Chapter 8)

- Adopted by the Continental Congress in July 1775 - Professed American loyalty to the crown and begged the king to prevent further hostilities - After Bunker Hill, King George III ruined all hope of reconciliation and in August 1775 he officially declared the colonies in rebellion, meaning that skirmishes were then considered treason and were punishable by hanging - In September 1775, the king sealed arrangements for hiring thousands of German troops (who were all called Hessians by the Americans) to help crush the rebellion; this deal shocked the colonists because they had felt that the conflict was an internal matter, but after the deal foreign mercenaries were involved

* How was the relationship of Cabeza de Vaca and the Indians different from the other Spaniards? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- After Narváez's group was attacked and most fled, de Vaca and some other survivours fled to an island off the coast of what is now Texas - de Vaca's group was taken in by local Indians and lived with them for ~6 years (mostly as slaves) until de Vaca and 3 others escaped - The 4 of them wandered the southwest for a few years and, having earned reputations as healers, were generally treated kindly

* What was the Mayflower Compact? (Chapter 3)

- Agreement to form crude government and submit to majourity rule - Was not a constitution but set precedent for later constitutions

* What was the Iroquois Confederacy? (Chapter 2)

- Alliance between five Indian tribes (Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas) in the Mohawk Valley (which is now NY State) - Initially competed with neighbouring Indians for territorial supremacy - Later competed with the French/English/Dutch for control of fur trade

* What factors helped the Spanish conquer the Aztecs? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Alliances with tribes willing to overthrow the Aztecs - Translatours helped the Spanish communicate with natives - Cortés held Aztec emperour Moctezuma hostage - Moctezuma was eventually killed and so was his brother, so the Aztec resistance lost their main leaders - Smallpox epidemic in Aztec capital Tenochtitlán - Spanish got reinforcements from Cuba - Spanish had horses, firearms, metal armour, and more abundant resources

* What role did beaver pelt play in the Indians' exchange for firearms with Europeans? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- American Indians could only get guns by trading for them with Europeans - Europeans almost exclusively wanted beaver pelts - Competition for beaver pelts became a majour factour in regional conflict

* What strains began to appear in the Atlantic economy by the 1730s? (Chapter 5)

- American population expanded rapidly which drastically increased the demand for British products but the slow-growing British population had a surplus of American products - Trade imbalance led colonists to question ability to earn money to buy British products so the colonists decided to seek non-British foreign markets

* In what ways did the Americans fail to show unity and support the British cause in the Seven Years' War? (Chapter 6)

- Americans believed they were the cutting edge of British civilisation and wanted credit for risking their lives to defend their land during the war - Some American shippers worked with enemy French and Spanish ports, keeping some hostile islands from starving while the British were trying to isolate and subdue them; this led the British to forbid all exports from the New England/middle colonies - Some colonists refused to provide troops and money for the war effort; others demanded the rights and privileges of Englishmen without the responsibilities of Englishmen - Intercolonial disunity had always been an issue mainly because of distance, geographical barriers like rivers and mountain ranges, conflicting religions, varying nationalities, different types of colonial governments, boundary disputes, and resentment of poor-/middle-class toward aristocrats; however, the war caused soldiers from different colonies to interact and recognise their similarities, which began to increase unity

* What elements were starting to stratify American society before the Revolution? (Chapter 5)

- Armed conflicts in 1690s-1700s allowed some merchants in New England and the middle colonies to make massive profits as military suppliers - Prominent individuals were seated in churches/schools according to social rank - War created class of widows and orphans dependent on charity for survival

* How did the Pueblo react to all of the changes forced on them by the Spanish? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- At first the Pueblo outwardly placated the Spanish while preserving their own traditions and tolerating economic and religious oppression - In 1680 the Rio Grande Pueblos started a synchronised revolt against the Spanish when they were no longer able to protect their society while coexisting with/accommodating the Spanish

* What drastic changes in England at the end of the 17th century contributed to the shift in colonial labour force? (Chapter 4)

- Bacon's Rebellion led masters to look for less "troublesome" workers - Increasing wages in England meant less people were willing to be indentured servants - Decreasing mortality rates made it "less risky" to own slaves - West Indian planters brought new crops like rice and indigo to the Carolinas, leading to an increase in labour demand

* Why was the Act of Toleration needed? (Chapter 2)

- Baltimore permitted unusual freedom of worship at first in the hope that this would encourage toleration of Catholicism - Large Protestant population threatened to overrule and persecute Catholics, so Maryland Catholics supported the Act of Toleration to prevent this

* What characteristics made the Scots-Irish so successful as frontiersmen? (Chapter 5)

- Before coming to America they had moved from Scottish Lowlands to northern Ireland - Experience in colonisation/agitation in Ireland led to success as frontiersmen

* In what ways was founding of Pennsylvania different from other colonies? (Chapter 3)

- Best-advertised colony and the claims made were generally true - Liberal land policy encouraged substantial holdings and attracted many immigrants - Colonists bought land from the Indians and maintained peaceful relations with them

* Why was the Massachusetts coast largely depopulated when the Pilgrims arrived? How did the Pilgrims interpret the situation? (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- Between 1616-1619 an epidemic in the area had killed many natives and generally decreased the local population - The Pilgrims believed that G-d had sent a plague among the Indians so that the Pilgrims could settle in the area

* What event changed the imperial dynamic between the British and the Spanish? How were the British different after this event? (Chapter 2)

- British defeat of the Spanish Armada - Increased British naval dominance in the North Atlantic - England became a unified national state under a popular monarch and people felt some sense of nationalism/religious unity

* What led to the Boston Massacre? (Chapter 7)

- British officials landed two regiments in Boston in 1768 - Resentful colonists harassed British troops constantly - On March 5, 1770, ~60 townspeople began taunting a squad of 10 redcoats and threw snowballs at them - The British troops acted apparently without orders but were provoked by the crowd and opened fire, killing or injuring 11 citisens

* To what extent did French missionaries find success with Indian tribes? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- Brought messages of salvation during hard times (i.e. during/after disease epidemics) - Issues like increased dependence on French trade, wars with other tribes, and smallpox epidemics convinced many Indians to turn to Christianity - The French did not force conversions so some Indians continued practising their traditional religions or combined them with Christianity

* Describe the role of tobacco in early Virginia's development (Chapter 2)

- By 1612, John Rolfe had learned to grow tobacco and make it more appealing so European demand increased drastically - Tobacco planted all over Virginia and many colonists extended the frontier of settlement west to accommodate the need for more land - Expansion led to more encroachment on Indian land - Tobacco crops stabilised the economy, but also created economic dependence and gradually ruined the soil

* Define predestination (Chapter 3)

- Calvinist doctrine that G-d has foreordained some people to be saved and some to be damned - Although they considered their pre-established fates to be irreversible, Calvinists sought to lead "sanctified" lives (especially those who believed they were destined to salvation because they wanted to demonstrate to others that they were in fact members of the "elect")

* What challenge did Anne Hutchinson present to the colonial leaders? (Chapter 3)

- Carried concept of predestination to logical extremes - Claimed that living a "holy life" did not necessarily lead to salvation - Argued that those who were truly "saved" did not need to obey the laws of G-d or men (antinomianism) - Claimed her knowledge came directly from G-d - Was taken to trial in 1638 and was skilled at theological argument, so she confused inquisitours for days but was ultimately banished from the Massachusetts colony

* What changed along the St. Laurence River between the journeys of Jacques Cartier (1534) and Samuel de Champlain (1603)? Why? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- Cartier found densely populated towns and systematic agriculture - de Champlain found that the villages were gone and the land was overgrown - Tribes had gone to war to compete for European trade and destroyed each others' settlements; additionally, disease outbreaks caused a large number of deaths in the area

* What caused Pope's Rebellion (1680)? What occurred? (Chapter 1)

- Caused by Roman Catholic missionaries' efforts to suppress native religious customs - Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic church in the province, killed some priests and many settlers, rebuilt a "kiva" on the ruins of the Spanish plaza at Santa Fé

* Describe the causes and fighting of King Philip's War (Chapter 3)

- Caused primarily by English encroachment on Indian land and by English attempts to assert authourity - Frontier settlements were especially vulnerable to attacks, so many English refugees fell back toward Boston - War ended in 1676; 52 Puritan towns had been attacked, 12 had been destroyed; hundreds of colonists and even more Indians had died, including Metacomet; many Indians were sold into slavery, including Metacomet's wife and son - The war slowed English westward expansion for decades but also drastically reduced the Indian population in New England

* What benefits did tobacco provide? (Chapter 4)

- Chesapeake region was extremely hospitable to tobacco production - Demand for workers "employed" many displaced Europeans and helped them get to America

* Why were the Carolinas founded? (Chapter 2)

- Civil war in England in the 1640s interrupted colonisation - After Charles II was restored in 1660, the "Restoration" period started and empire building resumed with more intensity and royal involvement - The Carolinas were founded in 1670 after the king granted land to a few aristocrats - Aristocrats hoped to grow provisions for plantations in Barbados and to export non-English products (wine, silk, olive oil, etc.)

* What geographical elements led life to be healthier in New England than in the Chesapeake? (Chapter 4)

- Cleaner water and cooler temperatures led to the slower spread of deadly bacteria - In New England in the 17th century, the life expectancy of settlers increased by 10 years from the Old World life expectancy

* Describe the structure of colonial Maryland (Chapter 2)

- Colonists were only willing to come if they could get their own land and many who came were Protestants who started small farms - Maryland prospered because of tobacco - Most labour was done by white indentured servants

* What were the two very different descriptions that Columbus and other explorers gave of the Indians? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Columbus claimed Indians were simple/timid, accepted trade offers, were generous, were "noble savages" that would be "good and intelligent servants" and "would become Christians very easily" because they "had no religion" - Others claimed that Indians were "fierce cannibals" and "treacherous/dirty savages"

* What tenets did Roger Williams establish in Rhode Island? (Chapter 3)

- Complete religious freedom, even for Catholics and Jews - Did not demand any oaths regarding religious beliefs; attendance at worship was not compulsory; did not charge taxes to support state church - Sheltered the Quakers - All men had suffrage (although property qualifications were put in place later)

* How did New Englanders shape the land? (Chapter 4)

- Condemned Indians for "wasting" land by "underusing" it and used this logic to justify their expropriation of land from the natives - Europeans felt "duty" to "improve" land by clearing woodlands for pastures/tillage, buildings roads/fences, and setting up permanent settlements - Continuous land clearing sped erosion and flooding while changing local climates

* How did the Portuguese use the African and Asian systems of slavery? What did they change? (Chapter 1)

- Copied Arab/African slave-trading practises like separating people from the same communities to create cultural barriers that prevented organised resistance - Developed their own system of slave trafficking to work sugar plantations - Portuguese slave trade occurred on a much larger scale than Arab/African slave trade; slave trade became a "big business"

* Why was the Ohio Valley the location of so much conflict between the British and the French? (Chapter 6)

- Critical area for westward expansion of British colonies - For the French it was part of the land they wanted to retain and they needed it to link their claims in Canada to those in the Lower Mississippi Valley - Rivalry for land in the Ohio Valley increased tension between the British and the French especially in 1749 when a group of British land speculatours secured "legal rights" to ~500,000 acres of land in the area where the French were building forts on the Ohio River (including Fort Duquesne)

* What impacts did frequent childbirth have on New England women? (Chapter 4)

- Death during childbirth - Decreased vitality - Child-raising became a full-time occupation

* Define Edict of Nantes (Chapter 6)

- Decree issued by the French crown granting limited toleration to French Protestants - Ended religious wars in France and inaugurated a period of French preeminence in Europe and across the Atlantic - Its repeal in 1686 prompted a new migration of Protestant Huguenots to North America

* What is the idea of "republicanism?" (Chapter 7)

- Definition of a just society as one in which all citisens willingly subordinated their private/selfish interests to the common good - Belief that both the stability of society and the authourity of government depended on the virtue of the citisenry and its capacity for selflessness, its self-sufficiency, and especially its interest in civic virtue - Republicanism was by nature opposed to hierarchical/authouritarian institutions such as aristocracy and monarchy

* Define blue laws (Chapter 3)

- Designed to restrict personal behaviour in accord with a strict code of morality - Passed across colonies but especially in New England and Pennsylvania - Also called sumptuary laws

* What three characteristics were common to plantation colonies? (Chapter 2)

- Devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products in some degree - Slavery - Permitted some religious toleration

* How did slave religion exemplify the new American culture? (Chapter 5)

- Diversity of different African cultures represented in America led to the creation of a unique New World culture - Slave religion was derived from combinations of several African models and incorporated many Western elements - Many slaves became Christians but fused African and Western traditions

* What was the 'requerimiento' and what did the Spaniards believe it justified? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Document created by theologians in 1515 at the request of the King of Spain - Required Indians to "acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and Superiour of the whole world" - Spanish used it to justify conquest

* What was the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut? (Chapter 3)

- Document drafted by Connecticut River colony settlers in 1639 - Was in effect a constitution; established a regime that was democratically controlled by "substantial" citisens - Some essential features of the Fundamental Orders were later borrowed for the colonial charter and the state constitution

* How did the Glorious Revolution impact the American colonies? (Chapter 3)

- Dominion of New England collapsed when news of the Glorious Revolution reached the colonies - Boston mob overthrew Andros' regime - Unrest in New York and Maryland in 1689-1691 until new royal government restored "order" - Many of the new royalist "officials" were incompetent but still blocked Americans from obtaining political power

* Define Valley Forge (Chapter 7)

- Encampment where Washington's poorly-equipped army spent a winter in which hundreds died and thousands deserted - The plight of the starving soldiers reflected the main weakness of the American army, which was its lack of supplies and munitions

* Why did the British essentially ignore the colonies? Why did Charles II change this? (Chapter 3)

- English Civil War distracted most of the English so the colonists were effectively on their own - When Charles II was restored in 1660 he wanted to maintain aggressive control of the colonies - When the English returned to the colonies they found that the colonists had little respect for royal orders

* What are some possible explanations for the Pequot War? (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- English may have wanted Pequot land near the Connecticut River for trade purposes - English may have felt threatened by the Pequots' priour power and/or by their control over regional wampum trade and the associated intertribal diplomacy out of concern that the Pequot would form alliances and attack colonists - Could have just been an English act of genocide - Conflict may have escalated from conflict between the Pequots and the English over trade, tribute and/or land

* What did the Navigation Laws seek to accomplish? (Chapter 3)

- English wanted to tie colonies more closely to England by preventing colonial trade with countries that were not under English rule - The Navigation Laws actually led to an increase in smuggling as colonists tried to maintain foreign trade

* What was the initial reaction the Powhatan had to the English? Why? (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- English were not initially considered to be a serious threat - There were not many English settlers present and they were obviously inept - Powhatan tried to integrate the English into the Powhatan community

* Describe the intent of colonial Maryland (Chapter 2)

- Established by Baltimore in 1634, was the 4th English colony in North America and the 2nd plantation colony - Baltimore wanted to make profits and also to create a refuge for Catholics, who were still being persecuted in England

* What were the social conditions for New Englanders in the colonies? (Chapter 5)

- Existing landholdings were frequently subdivided as families grew so average farm size decreased drastically - Children had to hire out as wage labourers or migrate past Allegheny Mountains

* What was the extent of the Clergy's power in Massachusetts? What was the limit? (Chapter 3)

- Extent: Clergy influenced church admission, defended the government's "duty" to enforce religious rules - Limit: Congregation could hire/fire ministers and set their salaries, clergymen were barred from holding formal political office, colonists supported the separation of church and state

* What geographical features marked the middle colonies? (Chapter 3)

- Fertile soil and broad expanses of land facilitated heavy exports of grain - Rivers provided access to fur trade and allowed transportation - Forests used for lumber and shipbuilding - River estuaries and landlocked harbours stimulated commerce and seaports

* What demographic characteristics marked the middle colonies? (Chapter 3)

- Fewer industries present than in New England, but more than in the South - Populations were generally more ethnically mixed than in other regions - Relatively high amount of religious toleration and democratic control - Profitable land was easier to acquire, which led to more socioeconomic democracy (except in New York) - Landholdings were only significantly larger in aristocratic New York - Improvements were made in population, transportation, and communication - Colonists mostly developed their own governments

* What was the initial goal of the Jamestown colony? (Chapter 2)

- Find gold and/or passage through America to the Indies - The Virginia Company and King James I both wanted publicity

* Define Barbados slave code (Chapter 2)

- First formal statute governing the treatment of slaves - Provided for harsh punishments against offending slaves but lacked penalties for masters who mistreated slaves - Similar statutes were adopted by southern plantation societies in the 1600s-1700s

* Describe John Winthrop's role in Massachusetts Bay Colony (Chapter 3)

- First governour of the colony - Believed he had a "calling" from G-d to lead - Served as the governour or deputy governour for a total of 19 years - Had skills that helped Massachusetts prosper such as fur-trading, fishing, and shipbuilding - Helped establish unity and common purpose among settlers

* Why did the British issue the Proclamation of 1763? What did it do? (Chapter 6)

- Flatly prohibited settlement beyond the Appalachians - Designed to work out problems with the Indians fairly in order to prevent further conflicts similar to Pontiac's uprising - Not intended to oppress the British colonists

* What steps did the Spanish take to fortify their American holdings against European encroachment? (Chapter 1)

- Fortified/settled American borderlands - Built fortress at St. Augustine in 1565 to block the French and protect the sea lanes to the Caribbean

* What role did colonial assemblies play? (Chapter 5)

- Found various ways to assert authourity and independence, such as withholding the salary of the colony's governour unless he yielded to their demands - Manipulated governours to get their way and thereby assert power over the British - The actions of colonial assemblies foreshadowed revolution

* What unexpected boon did high death rates bring to some Southern women? (Chapter 4)

- Fragility of Southern families advanced the economic security of Southern women - Southern colonies generally allowed married women to retain separate title to property and gave them the right to retain their husbands' estates if their husbands died - Puritan lawmakers in New England did not grant these rights to women

* To what extent was the Massachusetts colony politically liberal? (Chapter 3)

- Franchise for all men belonging to Puritan congregations; they could vote on provincial issues - In town governments, local issues could be publicly discussed and voted on by all male property holders

* What was the general balance of power between the Indians and the French? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- French empire in North America depended on Indian alliances so the French aimed to be diplomatic and respectful - The Indians and the French cooperated frequently and both groups adapted to each other's presence/culture to maintain peace - The French were primarily interested in trade so they typically did not attempt to dominate the Indians or their land - Some tribes welcomed the French into their societies - Some tension caused by issues like Christian missionaries, spontaneous invasions of tribal land, genocidal wars, contagious disease outbreaks, guns, alcohol, and religion-related sociopolitical schisms; despite these issues, French-Indian alliances were strengthened by the fact that England was a common enemy

* What role did the Mississippi River play in French colonisation? (Chapter 6)

- French fur trappers ranged around waterways to hunt beavers for pelts, which were valuable in Europe - Rivers and other waterways were used for transportation and trade - The French planted fortified posts along the Mississippi River to block the Spanish

* What did the French introduce into Indian warfare? How did this change, and not change, the Indian military situation? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- French introduced firearms - Changes: Indians developed new fighting tactics to adapt, guns gave some groups advantages over others, competition for beaver pelts increased and many beaver territories were "trapped out," intertribal warfare became more lethal - Bows and arrows were still used and were typically better than guns (lighter, more reliable/accurate, required less maintenance), wars were still fought for traditional reasons like honour and revenge

* What image of themselves did the colonists have at the end of the Seven Years' War? (Chapter 6)

- French power was thrown completely from the North American continent by the peace settlement at Paris in 1763 (although it left a limited French population in Canada), allowing Britain to become the dominant power in North America - Britain also led the world in naval power - British colonists had increased confidence in their military strength because they had fought along with the British regulars and gained valuable experience

* How did the Seven Years' War play out for colonists on the frontier? (Chapter 6)

- General Braddock and a detachment of British regulars set out in 1755 to take Fort Duquesne; the group moved slowly and eventually encountered a much smaller French and Indian army, which they initially repulsed but were eventually routed by after appalling losses - The Indians were encouraged by this victory and took to a wider warpath that encompassed the entire frontier from Pennsylvania to South Carolina; Washington tried to defend this frontier with only ~300 men, but Indian attacks occurred as close as 80 miles from Philadelphia

* What was the status of literature in the colonies in the mid-1700s? (Chapter 5)

- Generally undistinguished in the same way as art for many of the same reasons - Notable exceptions to this included Phyllis Wheatley and Benjamin Franklin - Franklin was best known for writing "Poor Richard's Almanack," which was well-known in Europe and was the most widely read book in America except for the Bible

* Why was the Massachusetts colony not a democracy? (Chapter 3)

- Governour Winthrop distrusted the "commons" and thought that democracy was the "meanest, worst" form of government - Freemen elected the governour and assistants, but only "visible saints" could be freemen - According to the government's doctrine, the purpose of government was to enforce G-d's laws, so religious leaders had significant influence and laws/taxes applied to both believers and non-believers

* What role did the governor play in most colonies? (Chapter 5)

- Governours were appointed by the king and were generally able leaders, although some were incompetent/corrupt - 8 colonies had royal governours by 1775

* What did the Act of Toleration do? (Chapter 2)

- Guaranteed toleration to all Christians - Decreed death penalty for anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus and therefore sanctioned less toleration than the colony previously had

* Why did the Pilgrims settle at Plymouth? (Chapter 3)

- Had been threatened with persecution in England - Settled temporarily in Holland but were unhappy when their children began to assimilate - Wanted a place to live as purified English Protestants - Negotiated with the Virginia Company to plan a landing location, but in 1620 they "accidentally" landed off-course and settled in Plymouth Bay, which was outside of Virginia Company domain

* How did climate shape New England? (Chapter 4)

- Harsh climate was hot in the summer and cold in the winter - Soil and climate eventually encouraged a diversified economy because of the lack of tobacco cultivation, slaves, and river access - New England industry focused on shipbuilding and fishing

* Describe the group that comprised the "First Families of Virginia" (Chapter 4)

- Hierarchy of wealth/status developed in the early 18th century and the top was comprised of powerful planters who owned significant amount of land and slaves, ruled the economy, and basically monopolised political power - The "First Families of Virginia" included the Fitzhugh, Lee, and Washington families, who owned massive amounts of land and dominated the House of Burgesses

* How was the reality of the First Families of Virginia different from their image? (Chapter 4)

- Image: Wealthy sophisticated cavaliers imitating rich Englishmen - Reality: Hardworking businesslike people who worked extensively over issues like plantation management

* Describe the empire governed by Powhatan (Chapter 2)

- In 1607, Powhatan dominated natives in the James River area and established Powhatan's Confederacy - The English called all local Indians Powhatans - The English may have been seen as potentially useful at first so Powhatan tried to be conciliatory with them in the hope that they might help him defeat his rivals

* Why did the Iroquois hate the French? (Chapter 6)

- In 1608 the establishment of permanent beginnings of a French empire in Québec was led by Samuel de Champlain - Champlain entered into friendly relations with nearby Huron Indian tribes and joined them in battle against the Iroquois - The Iroquois subsequently inhibited French expansion into the Ohio Valley, sometimes attacked French settlements, and frequently served as allies of the British

How did the First Anglo-Powhatan War end? Did this peace last?

- In 1614 a peace settlement ended the war - Peace lasted ~8 years but after being continually harassed by Europeans and being attacked again in 1622, the Indians launched a series of attacks that killed 347 settlers - Virginia Company called for "perpetual war without peace or truce" to commit genocide against the Indians, and European raids systematically killed many natives and forced the survivours to move west - The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1644) was the Indians' last effort to dislodge the Virginians; this effort eventually failed

* Describe the role of slavery in early Virginia's development (Chapter 2)

- In 1619, a Dutch ship brought ~20 Africans to Jamestown and sold them - Most white colonists could not afford to buy slaves, so few Africans were brought to Virginia at first and only 300 Africans lived there in 1650 but made up ~14% of the area's population by the end of the century

* Describe the role of the House of Burgesses in early Virginia's development (Chapter 2)

- In 1619, the Virginia Company authourised settlers to summon an assembly, which was called the House of Burgesses - Beginning of representative self-government and established a significant precedent - First of many miniature "American parliaments"

* Describe the causes and fighting of the Pequot War (Chapter 3)

- In 1637 hostilities escalated between the Pequot and the English because of English encroachment - English besieged a Pequot village on Connecticut's Mystic River; English and their Narragansett allies burned the settlement and shot survivours - The Pequot tribe was virtually annihilated

What was Bacon's Rebellion? (Chapter 4)

- In 1676, ~1,000 Virginians led by Nathaniel Bacon staged a rebellion - Rebels resented Governour Berkeley's friendly policies with Indians because the government monopolised the fur trade and refused retaliation against Indians for attacks on frontier settlements - Bacon and the other rebels attacked Indians whether they were friendly or hostile, chased Berkeley out and burned the capital - After Bacon died of disease, Berkeley brutally suppressed the uprising and hanged more than 20 rebels - The rebellion caused the masters of indentured servants to become paranoid about future uprisings and they started looking for less "problematic" labourers, eventually turning to slavery

* How did the English treat the Irish? How did this relate to their conquest of North America? (Chapter 2)

- In the 1570s-1580s, the English violently suppressed Irish uprisings and appropriated Irish land - Committed atrocities against native Irish people - Developed contempt toward Irish "savages" similar to their contempt for native North Americans

* What was the result of the Boston Massacre? (Chapter 7)

- In trial, only 2 redcoats were found guilty of manslaughter - Colonial discontent continued

* How did the Spanish conquer the Inca? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Incan society was in turmoil, people were rebelling - The usurper Atahualpa was in charge but was taken hostage by the Spanish - Spanish demanded a ransom for Atahualpa but after it was paid they strangled him anyway - Spanish violently suppressed Incan resistance

* What changes in England led to the growth of a "surplus population"? (Chapter 2)

- Increasing population - Landlords "enclosed"/appropriated farmers' land, which led to precarious tenancy and sometimes eviction, especially in Puritan areas - Economic depression hit Puritan-dominated wool trade in the late 1500s and many displaced farmers were unable to find jobs so they became beggars and wandered England

* What was the Indians' only hope against English colonial encroachment? Who led this movement? (Chapter 3)

- Intertribal unity - Movement led by Metacomet in 1675 - The tribes launched a series of coordinated assaults in the English in New England

* What were some of the changes brought to North America by the Columbian Exchange? (Chapter 1)

- Introduced new animals (cattle, pigs, horses, etc.) - Introduced new crops (especially sugarcane) - Introduced new diseases (smallpox, yellow fever, malaria, etc.) that devastated the Native American population - Expanded slave trade

* In what ways did the Europeans physically transform the Indians' land? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Introduced new plants (rice, wheat, oranges, etc.) - Introduced domesticated animals (horses, sheep, goats, pigs) which ruined native plants and drove off native animals - Cut down grasses/plants/trees

* What were the social conditions for convicts/paupers from England living in the colonies? (Chapter 5)

- Involuntarily sent to America - Included robbers, rapists, and murderers but many were just victims of circumstances and unfair English penal codes - Some came to be highly respectable citisens

* What were "mourning wars?" (Chapter 2)

- Iroquois method of expanding their numbers - Objective was large-scale adoption of captives and refugees

* What saved Jamestown from utter collapse? (Chapter 2)

- John Smith's leadership/resourcefulness - Establishment of strict rules and discipline

* What led to the conception of Indians as hostile "savages"? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Lack of understanding/cultural rift between Indians and Europeans led to mistreatment of Indians by Europeans, which created hostility - The two groups eventually clashed and Europeans saw this as "proof" of Indian "savagery"

* What living patterns were generally used by North American tribes at the time of European arrival in terms of relationship with the physical world? (Chapter 1)

- Lacked desire/means to aggressively manipulate nature - Revered the natural world and endowed nature with spiritual properties - Sometimes started forest fires deliberately to create better hunting habitats

* What were some of the advantages that the British had at the beginning of the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Larger population than American colonies - Greater monetary wealth - More naval power - Professional army of ~50,000 - Treasury to hire foreign soldiers (including ~30,000 Hessians) - Enrolled ~50,000 American Loyalists and many Indians

* What (limited) rights did women possess in New England? (Chapter 4)

- Laws made secure provisions for widows' property rights - Laws extended important protections to women within marriage - Authourities could and did intervene in cases of spousal abuse - Women had some spheres of autonomy like midwifery

* What were the committees of correspondence? (Chapter 7)

- Main purpose was to spread resistance by circulating letters and to thereby maintain opposition to British policy - Led to intercolonial committees later on

* What significant roles did women play in the fighting of the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Maintained farms and businesses while men were at war - Camp followers cooked and sewed in exchange for money and/or rations

* What was the status of science in the colonies in the mid-1700s? (Chapter 5)

- Making progress despite often being overruled by superstition - Lagged behind Old World

* What did the Stamp Act do? (Chapter 7)

- Mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps certifying payment of tax - Required stamps on bills of sale for ~59 trade items and certain types of documents

* What was the American reaction to the Proclamation of 1763? (Chapter 6)

- Many Americans were angered because they believed that the land beyond the Appalachians was their birthright - Many traveled along westward trails in complete defiance of the Proclamation

* What was the demographic profile of a Puritan? (Chapter 3)

- Many were from economically depressed woolen districts in England - Wanted to "purify" the Church of England - Discontent with multiple aspects of society (economically, religiously, etc.)

* How did the reliance on sugar cultivation in the West Indies alter the population of the West Indies? (Chapter 2)

- Massive numbers of enslaved Africans were brought to the West Indies (over 250,000 by 1640) - By 1700 there were 4 times as many Africans as whites in the English West Indies and the region's population has been primarily black since then

* What demographic trend distinguished American colonists from other British people? What were the consequences of this trend? (Chapter 5)

- Massive population growth in the colonies (from less than 300,000 in 1700 to ~2.5 million in 1775) - Decreased the English-American ratio from 20:1 in 1700 to 3:1 in 1775 - Dramatic power shift between Britain and the colonies

* What role did newspapers play in colonial society? (Chapter 5)

- Method of airing colonial grievances - Rallied opposition to British control

* What did colonial Americans do in their spare time? (Chapter 5)

- Militias occasionally assembled for "musters" which lasted several days and mostly consisted of drilling - Winter sports were common in the North - Cards, horse racing, and hunting were common in the South - Dancing was popular in the non-Puritanical South - Stage plays were popular in the South but not in the North - Funerals and weddings were opportunities for social gatherings - Lotteries raised money for churches and colleges

* What was the brutal reality about support for the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Morale in the Revolutionary Army was undermined by American profiteers who sold to the British because they were more concerned about profit than unity - Only a select minourity of colonists attached themselves to the cause of independence with selfless devotion

* What general patterns emerged in colonial life? (Chapter 4)

- Most colonists were farmers - Women did housework and managed family life regardless of their race, whether they were enslaved, or where they lived in the colonies - Men maintained land and animals - Children helped with all household tasks and occasionally attended school if possible - Americans generally better off than most 17th-century Europeans - Some colonists tried to recreate stratified social structure and this led to tension between economic classes

* What was the status of architecture in the colonies in the mid-1700s? (Chapter 5)

- Mostly based off of Old World designs - Adapted to the climate and religious conditions of the New World

* Where did taverns frequently arise? What purposes did they serve? (Chapter 5)

- Mostly built along main routes of travel and in cities - Allowed all social classes to interact - People engaged in political discussions and spread information and public opinions

* In what ways did Quaker beliefs guide the government of Pennsylvania? (Chapter 3)

- Natives were fairly, and some tribes even migrated to Pennsylvania as a result - Led by a representative assembly elected by landowners - No tax-supported state church or demands for allegiance - Death penalty only applicable in cases of treason and murder - No provision for military defense - Dislike of slavery, mix of ethnic groups, progress toward social reform; emphasis on economic opportunity, civil liberty, and free religion - Blue laws put in place

* What were the social conditions for enslaved African-Americans in the colonies? (Chapter 5)

- No equality with whites - No chance of socioeconomic mobility

* What were the colonists' reactions to the Stamp Act? (Chapter 7)

- Nonimportation agreements - Stamp Act Congress (gathering of 27 delegates from 9 colonies who began to unify the colonies' leaders) - Sons and Daughters of Liberty

* What characteristics of North Carolinians made them distinctive from South Carolinians? (Chapter 2)

- North Carolinians were mostly impoverished outcasts and religious dissenters - Many were "squatters" who raised crops like tobacco on small farms with few/no slaves - Regarded as irreligious "riffraff" with strong resistance to authourity - North Carolina was the most democratic, open-minded, independent colony as well as the least aristocratic (besides Rhode Island) - North Carolina did not initially import large numbers of slaves

* Describe the situation of the Church of England (Anglican) before the Revolution (Chapter 5)

- Official faith in Georgia, both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and New York; British officials made unsuccessful attempts to impose it on other colonies - Established in England; in America it served as a prop of royal authourity so many Anglicans supported the king in political discussions - Less extreme than Puritanical New England religion - Clergy had dismal reputation

* What were the lasting impacts of the Great Awakening? (Chapter 5)

- Old Lights were skeptical but New Lights defended the Great Awakening; Congregationalists and Presbyterians split over the issue - Many believers in conversion became members of denominations like Baptism and Methodism to find tolerance for emotion in religion - Great Awakening's emphasis on direct/emotive spirituality undermined older clergy - Set off schisms in many denominations, increased competition of churches, encouraged missionary work with Indians and slaves - First spontaneous mass American movement - Tended to break sectional/denominational boundaries and contributed to the growing sense that Americans were a single people united by common history and shared experiences

* What was the most significant European export to the Americas? How many died, and what did it do to survivors? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Old World diseases (smallpox, measles, plague, flu, cholera, etc.) - Killed ~8 million in Hispaniola, ~23.7 million in Mexico, ~8.5 million in Peru (~90% mortality) - Increases in warfare/famine/other colonisation-induced traumas and recurrent epidemics of chronic diseases led to massive decreases in native populations (~89% from 1492-1650)

* Why was the Stamp Act repealed? (Chapter 7)

- On the day the act was to go into effect, all officials had been forced to resign so there was nobody to sell stamps - Dependence of Britain on American colonies caused the economy to suffer, which led people to pressure Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act

* Describe colonial schools in the mid-1700s (Chapter 5)

- Only accessible to the wealthy minourity because farm labour required extensive time and energy, which prohibited most people from attending school - Education designed for leadership, not citisenship; school was not legally required and it was relatively uncommon for girls to attend - Primary emphasis was on religion

* What living patterns were generally used by North American tribes at the time of European arrival in terms of social patterns? (Chapter 1)

- Only ~4 million people total in 1492, spread very thinly across continent - Most settlements were impermanent - Women tended crops and as a result frequently had substantial authourity - Men hunted/fished, gathered fuel and cleared fields for planting

* What were some of the advantages that the Americans had at the beginning of the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Outstanding leadership - Open foreign aid from France - Officers volunteered to fight for pay - Fighting defensively increased motivation - Self-sustaining on agriculture - Moral advantage

* Describe the initial relationship between the Pilgrims and the Indians (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- Over half the Pilgrims died in the first winter so Samoset came to the rest of them and introduced them to Squanto - Squanto was a local Patuxet Indian who helped the Pilgrims adjust by teaching them skills like planting corn and fishing as well as interpreting/intermediating for them in their dealings with local Indians - In 1621, Massasoit made a treaty of peace/friendship with the Pilgrims - Initial relationship between Indians and Pilgrims was very diplomatic and cooperative

* Describe the Intolerable Acts (Chapter 7)

- Parliament's response to the Boston Tea Party; acts were passed by majourities in 1774 to punish Massachusetts in general, but specifically Boston - The most drastic of these acts was the Boston Port Act, which closed the Boston Harbour indefinitely until damages were paid and order was ensured - Other acts meant the chartered rights of colonial Massachusetts were revoked, restrictions were put in town meetings, the Quartering Act was passed, and British officials who killed colonists were sent to Britain for trial (meaning they were most likely not punished)

* What was Franklin's plan at the Albany Congress? Why did it ultimately fail? (Chapter 6)

- Plan was for colonial home rule; intercolonial congress summoned by the British government to increase colonial unity and to assure Iroquois support in the escalating war against the French - Failed because although delegates unanimously accepted the plan, the individual colonies and the London regime rejected it because the colonists believed it didn't give enough independence while the British believed it gave too much - All people agreed on the need for union but disagreed on the details

* What was the 'encomienda' supposed to be? What was it in reality? (Chapter 1)

- Policy created by Spanish government allowing it to "commend" (give) Indians to certain colonists who promised to try to Christianise them - Meant to be a technique to facilitate Spanish invasions; in reality it was basically slavery

* What is the image of the "noble savage"? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Portrays Indians as living pure simple lives - Contrasted Indian societies with European/American societies' aggressive materialism

* What were the social conditions for Southerners in the colonies? (Chapter 5)

- Power of planters was increased by disproportionate ownership of slaves - Wealth unevenly distributed among whites, concentrated with those who owned the most slaves - Emphasised differences between the wealthy and the poor

* What was Arminianism? Why was it threatening to Calvinism? (Chapter 5)

- Preached that individual free will, not divine decree, determined a person's eternal fate and that all humans (not just the "elect") could be "saved" if they freely accepted G-d's grace - Decreased doctrinal rigour from many denominations because of trends toward liberalism and clerical intellectualism, but despite these trends Americans remained deeply religious

* Describe the economy of South Carolina (Chapter 2)

- Prospered by developing close economic ties with sugar islands in English West Indies - Many of the originals settlers of the Carolinas had moved from Barbados and they brought the slave system with them and established slave trade there - Carolinian settlers got help from the Savannah Indians to take other Indians hostage despite protests from authourities; many Indians were sold into slavery in the West Indies, while others were sent to New England - The Savannah Indians ended their alliance with the Carolina settlers in 1707 and the Carolinians murdered most of them by 1710

* Why did the Dutch found New Netherland? (Chapter 3)

- Protestant England helped the Dutch overthrow the Catholic Spanish in the late 16th century - In the 17th century, the Netherlands became a majour commercial/naval power and challenged England - The Dutch reached the Delaware Bay/New York Bay in 1609 then moved along the Hudson River - New Netherland was founded in the Hudson River area in 1623-1624 by the Dutch West India Company - The Dutch wanted to establish a quick-profit fur trade

* How did the priests seek to undermine Pueblo women? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Pueblo women's influence was mostly related to control of the household/corn production/fertility - Priests tried to undermine this influence and inhibit women's rights

* What changes came as a result of Pope's Rebellion? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Pueblos liberated their land, but then Popé's coalition collapsed - Subtle resistance became more commonplace and the Spanish became less harsh - Spanish reduced demands for labour and tribute and became more tolerant to traditional Pueblo religion - Spanish New Mexico was more concerned with defending northern border than harassing Pueblos - Cultures began to intertwine so changes were slower and less drastic - The Spanish and Pueblo accommodated each other

* Describe the Puritan view toward/actions during the Pequot War (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- Puritans saw Pequot War as a struggle between "savagery and civilisation" - In 1637 the Puritans ambushed the Pequots' main village and essentially broke their resistance - After attacking the village the Puritans burned lodges, murdered survivours, sold women and children into slavery - After the war the Puritans continued to believe that the Indians were just "heathen savages" and continued to trespass on Indian land

* What was the Quebec Act? Why was it so hated? (Chapter 7)

- Québec Act guaranteed the French the right to their Catholic religion, permitted them to retain many of their old customs and institutions, and extended the old Québec boundaries to the Ohio River; the act did not provide for representative assembly or trial by jury in civil cases - Land speculatours were angry about the extension of Québec's boundaries - Anti-Catholics disliked Roman Catholic expansion because they worried that it set a precedent for America

* What were the basic tenets of Quakerism? (Chapter 3)

- Refused to support the Church of England with taxes - Congregated in simple meetinghouses without paid clergy - Did not take any oaths - Strongly opposed strife and warfare; refused military service

* What was the situation precipitating King Philip's War? (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- Relationship between Indians and English deteriorated after Massasoit's death in 1661, and worsened when Massasoit's son Wamsotta died in 1662 after being taken hostage by the English - Puritans continued encroaching on Indian land to assert authourity and persecute them, such as by arresting Indians for "trespassing" on Indian land "claimed" by the English - In 1671 the colonists demanded that Metacomet surrender the Wampanoags' weapons - In December 1674, Sassamon reported Metacomet's war preparations to the Plymouth governour and was then found dead, so the Puritans arrested 3 Wampanoags, charged them with murder, and executed them - Metacomet forged a multi-tribal coalition; some tribes remained neutral and others moved women and children to less volatile areas; some tried to side with the English but many were imprisoned out of paranoia

* What were some of the disadvantages that the Americans had at the beginning of the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Relatively small population compared to Britain - Poorly-trained militia - Badly organised - Jealousy and economic difficulties between colonies - Scarcity of basic military supplies - Unreliable militiamen - Smallpox outbreaks

* What was the Great Awakening? (Chapter 5)

- Religious revival that went through colonies in the 1730s-1740s - First started in Northampton, Massachusetts, by pastor John Edwards, who affirmed the need for complete dependence on G-d's grace to achieve salvation

* What was the principal Carolinian crop? Why was this so successful? (Chapter 2)

- Rice - Considered "exotic" in England - Grown in Africa, so many people brought as slaves were already familiar with rice cultivation

* Describe the colony of New Amsterdam (Chapter 3)

- Run by the Dutch company in the interest of stockholders - Investours were not interested in religious toleration/free speech/democratic practises - Governours were usually harsh and despotic - Religious dissenters who were opposed to the Dutch Reform Church were regarded with suspicion and Quakers in the area were abused - Repeated protests by colonists eventually led to the establishment of a local assembly with some legal power - The society was aristocratic; promoters of the colony were rewarded; the area gradually became more diverse

* What underlying factours contributed to the Salem Witch Trials? (Chapter 4)

- Salem's issues grew from superstition and prejudice, as well as from wars with Indians and from the unsettled religious/social conditions in Massachusetts - Accusers were often from subsistence farms and most accusations were directed at property-owning women from families associated with Salem's market economy - Trials reflected social stratification and Puritan desperation for "purity"

* Describe the fighting in King Philip's War (Unit 1 English Colonisation)

- Scattered acts of violence increased in frequency and eventually escalated into war - Metacomet's allies attacked the English, who then declared war against the Narragansetts in November 1675 after misinterpreting their offer to shelter noncombatants as a threat - In December 1675, over 1,000 of the English attacked the main Narragansett stronghold and killed hundreds in the "Great Swamp Fight;" the survivours of this attack joined Metacomet - Both the Indians and the English had issues with cold, hunger, and diseases; both also tried to expand the fight by involving other tribes, which forced them to fight on multiple fronts - Indians attacked and burned Lancaster, Massachusetts in February 1676 but their alliance/resistance was collapsing - In August 1676, the English shot and killed Metacomet, which led to the collapse of Indian resistance in southern New England; many Indians in the area went north to join the Abenakis and sided with the French in future conflicts against the English

* What was the trading pattern that Champlain began? (Unit 1 French Invasion)

- Sent traders to villages to learn languages/cultures - Formed alliances with local tribes to gain access to resources like western fur territories - American Indians sought French alliances to trade for European goods

* Why did the Puritans seek to leave England? (Chapter 3)

- Separatist Puritans were extremists - Moderate Puritans wanted to reform the Church of England and were resented by bishops and monarchs - Puritans were supported by Parliament, but in 1629, Charles I dismissed Parliament and sanctioned anti-Puritan persecution - Puritans feared for their faith and safety, so they got a charter from the Massachusetts Bay Company and ~1,000 started off a colony in 1630

* What two goals drove the founding of Georgia? (Chapter 2)

- Serve as a "buffer state" to protect the more valuable Carolinas from the Spanish and French - Serve as a haven for people imprisoned for debt

* What impact did German settlers have in Pennsylvania? (Chapter 5)

- Settled primarily in Pennsylvania after fleeing religious persecution, economic oppression, and war - Totaled ~1/3 of Pennsylvania's population - Germans were Protestants and most were Lutheran, which enhanced Pennsylvania's religious diversity

* What were the living conditions in the early years of the Jamestown settlement? (Chapter 2)

- Settlers were attacked after landing near Chesapeake Bay - 40 colonists died before reaching America and a shipwreck in 1609 killed colonial leaders - Colonists died in large numbers from disease, malnutrition, and starvation - People were usually too focused on finding gold to find food and many did not know how to hunt - Only 60 of the 400 original 1609 settlers survived the first winter

* Define the War of Jenkins' Ear (Chapter 6)

- Small-scale clash between Britain and Spain that started in 1739 in the Caribbean and in the buffer colony Georgia - In 1742 it merged with the much larger War of Austrian Succession

* How did expansion proceed in colonial New England? (Chapter 4)

- Society grew in a more organised manner than expansion in the Chesapeake region had - Towns were legally chartered by colonial authourities - Distribution of land was entrusted to proprietours who, after receiving a land grant, moved to their designated place and set up a town

* What challenges did tobacco present? (Chapter 4)

- Soil exhaustion - Demand for new land led to expansion, which caused conflict with the local Indians - Demand for labour encouraged people to hire indentured servants (~100,000 came by 1700 and they made up ~75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th century) - The headright system did not benefit workers; land scarcity made masters reluctant to include land grants in the freedom dues of indentured servants so freed workers remained extremely poor - Tobacco cultivation was emphasised over food production which led to shortages - Overproduction of tobacco created a surplus that decreased its value

* What factours intensified the conflicts between the Powhatan Indians and the Virginians? (Chapter 2)

- Starving colonists raided Indian food supplies - De La Warr arrived in 1610 with orders from the Virginia Company that were effectively a declaration of war against local Indians - De Le Warr used "Irish tactics" against the Indians (raided and burned villages/houses/cornfields, stole provisions, etc.)

* What was the status of art in the colonies in the mid-1700s? (Chapter 5)

- Still very similar to European styles, especially British - Generally discouraged and underdeveloped because it was too time-consuming and/or expensive for most Americans - Many colonial artists had to travel to London to pursue their ambitions

* What were some of the disadvantages the British had at the beginning of the Revolutionary War? (Chapter 7)

- Struggle with Ireland continued - France was waiting for an opportunity to attack - London government was confused/inept - Many Brits did not want to fight Americans - British army in America had scarce provisions and second-rate generals who treated soldiers brutally

* What elements enabled Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs? (Chapter 1)

- Superiour weaponry - Translatours who could understand the natives' languages - Ships were burned to prevent retreat - Much larger force - Aztec chief Moctezuma believed Cortés was a deity and allowed him to approach Tenochtitlán unopposed - Cortés attacked in 1521, the same year a smallpox epidemic killed many natives

* How did rocks shape New England? (Chapter 4)

- Surfaced from heavily-glaciated soil after winter freezes - Made agriculture difficult - Less immigrants came because of the apparent lack of good land, so the region was less ethnically diverse

* What was the 'encomienda' system? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- System in which Spanish authourities assigned Indian workers to mine owners/plantation owners - Agreement was that the mine/plantation owners would help defend the Spanish colony and convert the workers to Christianity

* What finally ensured that the Indians would not assimilate into Virginian society? How did it accomplish this? (Chapter 2)

- The 1646 "peace treaty" - Effectively banished Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral land - Separated Indian and white settlement areas - By 1669, only ~2,000 Indians still lived in Virginia (which meant their population in the area had decreased by about 90% from 1607) and by 1685 the English considered the Powhatans extinct

* Why did the colonists oppose the Tea Act? (Chapter 7)

- The British East India Company had ~17 million pounds of unsold tea - The collapse of the company would cost the London government significant amounted of tax revenue so the ministry helped the company by awarding it a total monopoly of American tea - Americans opposed the Tea Act because they saw it as a trick to make them accept another tax

* How was Pontiac's uprising crushed? (Chapter 6)

- The British responded to the uprising by waging a primitive version of biological warfare - A British commander ordered smallpox-infected blankets to be distributed among the Indians

* What new world was opened to the Europeans and what commodities did that access? (Chapter 1)

- The Portuguese found a more efficient route to the south of Africa, allowing Europeans to access sub-Saharan Africa - The Portuguese set up ports along the African shore for purchasing gold and slaves

* What challenges existed for New Amsterdam? (Chapter 3)

- The directours-general were largely incompetent and shareholders wanted dividends at all costs - Indians retaliated against Dutch cruelties - Swedes trespassed on land claimed by the Dutch, which led the Dutch to dispatch a small military expedition to the area in 1655, but eventually the Swedish colonists were absorbed by New Netherland - The colony was a secondary interest to Dutch authourities - In 1664, the English forced the Dutch to surrender New Amsterdam, which then became New York

* What was the overall pattern of warfare in the colonies until 1750? (Chapter 6)

- The earliest wars in the colonies were fought between French fur traders and British colonists; both sides recruited as many Indian allies as possible - Neither France nor Britain considered America worth large numbers of regular troops at this point so combatants fought with guerrilla tactics

* In what ways was the Seven Years' War different from previous colonial wars? (Chapter 6)

- The first 3 Anglo-French wars all started in Europe; the 4th (also called the Seven Years' War or the French and Indian War) started in America after the Washington's "incident" in the Ohio Valley in 1754 - The war continued on an undeclared basis for ~2 years before officially becoming the Fourth Anglo-French War, which was then the most far-flung conflict ever because the British and French fought not only in America and Europe but also in the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the sea

* Why didn't many French people move to the colonies? (Chapter 6)

- The government of New France (Canada) eventually came under direct control of the king after several commercial companies failed - The royal regime was almost entirely autocratic; the people did not elect representative assemblies and did not have the right to trial by jury (which English colonies did have) - Land-owning French peasants, unlike dispossessed English tenant farmers, had little economic incentive for migrating - The population of Catholic New France grew slowly; Protestant Huguenots may have had religious motives to migrate but were denied refuge in New France because this new area was predominantly Catholic - The French government favoured their Caribbean island colonies over New France because the islands produced sugar and rum

* What image of the British did the colonists have at the end of the Seven Years' War? (Chapter 6)

- The myth of British invincibility ended because colonists had seen the British military struggle during the war - British officers showed contempt for American militiamen after the war and refused to acknowledge any American militia commission above the rank of captain, which led to increased tension

* What led to Pontiac's uprising? (Chapter 6)

- The removal of the French from Canada decreased American dependence on British protection, and the Spanish were temporarily removed from Florida - The removal of the French and the Spanish deprived Indians of the ability to play European rivals against each other, so in the future the Indians would have to negotiate exclusively with the British - The Ottawa chief, Pontiac, realised the Indians' precarious new position and led several tribes (aided by a few French traders) in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country in 1763 - Pontiac's uprising laid siege to Detroit in the spring of 1763 and eventually overran all but 3 of the British posts to the west of the Appalachians and led to the deaths of ~2,000 soldiers and settlers

* How was the slave experience somewhat "easier" in the Chesapeake than in the Carolinas? (Chapter 5)

- The tobacco grown in the Chesapeake was less physically demanding than Southern crops like rice - Plantations were larger and closer together which allowed slaves to have more frequent contact with friends and relatives - By ~1720, the proportion of female slaves had started to increase, which made family life possible

* What was mercantilism? (Chapter 7)

- Theory embraced by British authourities and used to justify their control over the colonies - Belief that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth (and therefore its military and political power) could be measured by the amount of gold/silver in its treasury, which could only be increased if a country exported more than it imported and that therefore possessing colonies was advantageous - Colonies could both supply raw materials to the country that controlled them (thereby reducing that country's reliance on foreign imports) and provide a guaranteed market for that country's exports

* How was the cultivation of sugar different from that of tobacco? (Chapter 2)

- Tobacco was a "poor man's crop" because it could be planted easily, produced quickly, and only required simple processing - Sugarcane was a "rich man's crop" because it had to be planted extensively to yield commercially viable amounts of sugar and therefore required extensive land clearing; it also required an elaborate refinement process in sugar mills, so it required more land and labour

* Define coureurs de bois (Chapter 6)

- Translated as "runners of the woods" - Referred to French fur-trappers, also known as "voyageurs" (travelers) who established trading posts throughout North America

* Describe life early in the Chesapeake. How did the settlements grow? (Chapter 4)

- Unpleasant, uncivilised and short (mostly because of diseases) - Settlements grew slowly during the 17th century, mostly through immigration from England - The number of women in the colony eventually increased, which led to more families and by the end of the 17th century the population of the colony grew without immigrants

* Why did the Navigation Laws not hurt the colonists? (Chapter 7)

- Until 1763, the various Navigation Laws imposed no significant burden, mostly because they were only loosely enforced - Enterprising colonial merchants quickly learned to disregard or evade problematic rules - Americans also directly benefited from the mercantile system because London paid colonies producers of ship parts despite British competitours' protests; colonists also benefited from free protection from the British army and navy

* Two "spectacular exploits" of Spanish 'conquistadores' (Chapter 1)

- Vasco Nuñez Balboa (first European to "discover" the Pacific Ocean, which was then called the South Sea) claimed all the lands with coasts on the South Sea for Spain - Ferdinand Magellan left with 5 ships from Spain in 1519; after issues including storms and confrontations in the Philippines, only one ship survived, but when it returned to Spain in 1522 it had completed the first circumnavigation of the world

* What was the general situation of the Aztecs when the Spanish arrived? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

- Very complex/structured civilisation - Society divided by castes - People were superstitious and adhered to traditional beliefs - Had developed efficient agricultural systems - Spanish arrived at the end of a majour Aztec calendar cycle (which was culturally considered a dangerous time)

* What accumulating pressures led to an exploration breakthrough for Europeans? (Chapter 1)

- Wanted cheaper route to East Asian resources or alternative sources of those resources (silk, drugs, spices, etc.) - Items imported to Europe from Asia were extremely expensive because of issues like distance and risk; few people could afford the prices so profits were limited

* Describe the situation of the Congregational Church (Puritan) before the Revolution (Chapter 5)

- Was influential, formally established in all New England colonies except Rhode Island - Grew from the Puritan Church

* What qualities made Washington such an effective leader? (Chapter 8)

- Washington was an effective leader because if his courage/self-discipline/sense of justice - Acted as a symbol/rallying point

* How were Separatists different from other Puritans? (Chapter 3)

- Were the most devout of all Puritans - Believed that only "visible saints" should be admitted to church membership - Vowed to completely break with the Church of England to separate themselves from "the damned"

* What Whig ideas lay behind the Revolutionary movement? (Chapter 7)

- Whigs were concerned about the threat to liberty posed by the arbitrary power of the monarch and his ministers relative to elected representatives in Parliament - Attacked the use of patronage/bribery by the king's ministers, saying that this was in indication of a wider moral failure in society that they called "corruption" - Whig ideas and republican ideas made colonists extremely defensive of their rights

* Why were the Pilgrims fortunate in their leaders? (Chapter 3)

- William Bradford was prominent among Pilgrims and was highly educated - Pilgrim leaders were concerned with preserving religious "purity" and avoiding "corruption"

* What objections did Roger Williams raise? (Chapter 3)

- Williams was an extreme Separatist and became a minister in Salem - Wanted to make a clean break from the Church of England - Challenged the legality of the Bay Colony charter and condemned it for land expropriation without compensation - Denied the authourity of the civil government to regulate religious behaviour - In 1635 the Bay Colony found Williams guilty of disseminating "new and dangerous opinions" and banished him; he then fled to Rhode Island and built the Baptist church in 1636

* Describe the circumstances and outcome of John Peter Zenger's case (Chapter 5)

- Zenger was a newspaper printer who was charged with seditious libel after his paper assailed a corrupt royal governour - Zenger argued that he had printed the truth; the royal chief justice instructed the jury to ignore the matter of truth/falsity and maintained that the fact of printing was enough to convict - Zenger's layer (Andrew Hamilton) argued that "the very liberty of both exposing and opposing arbitrary power" was at stake; this argument swayed the jurours, who defied the judges by returning the verdict that Zenger was not guilty

* What is the most likely (and supported) theory to explain the peopling of the Americas? (Chapter 1)

- ~35,000 years ago many of the world's oceans froze into glaciers and the sea level dropped, revealing a land bridge in what is now the Bering Sea between Siberia and Alaska - Bridge used by small bands of nomadic Asian hunters who continued crossing the Bering isthmus, most likely following migratory herds, until ~10,000 years ago when the Ice Age ended/glaciers melted/sea level rose and covered the land bridge, isolating the Americas while also allowing travel to the south and east, which helped some people reach South America

* Define Protestant Reformation (Chapter 2)

16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church launched in Germany by Martin Luther; started by King Henry VIII in England in the 1530s

* When was the Sugar Act passed? (Chapter 7)

1764

* When was the Stamp Act passed? (Chapter 7)

1765

* When was the Declaratory Act passed? (Chapter 7)

1766

* When was the Stamp Act repealed? (Chapter 7)

1766

* When were the Townshend Acts passed? (Chapter 7)

1767

* Define three-sister farming (Chapter 1)

Agricultural system employed by North American Indians in which maize, beans, and squash were grown together to maximise yields

* Why were the Indian tribes in New England particularly weak? (Chapter 3)

An epidemic had killed over 75% of the natives in the area shortly before the Pilgrims arrived

* Define Leisler's Rebellion (Chapter 4)

Armed conflict between aspiring merchants led by Jacob Leisler and the ruling elite of New York; one of many uprisings that erupted across the colonies when wealthy colonists attempted to recreate European social structures in the New World

* Define Paxton Boys (Chapter 5)

Armed march on Philadelphia by Scots-Irish frontiersmen in protest against the Quaker establishment's lenient policies toward Native Americans

* What were the basic tenets of Calvinism? (Chapter 3)

Calvinists believed that: - G-d is all-powerful, all-good, and all-knowing - Humans were wicked/morally weak because of original sin - Predestination meant that the "damned" couldn't be saved - Nobody could be sure of "predestined salvation" so people were constantly in doubt and searching for signs of "conversion"

* What were the colonists' reactions to the Townshend Acts? (Chapter 7)

Colonists denounced the Townshend Acts as taxation without representation

* What were the colonists' reactions to the Declaratory Act? (Chapter 7)

Colonists made it clear that they wanted a measure of sovereignty and would take drastic action to get it

* Who was John Rolfe? (Chapter 2)

Considered the "father of the tobacco industry" and the economic saviour of the Virginia colony; later married Pocahontas

* What did the Declaratory Act do? (Chapter 7)

Defined constitutional principle that the British government had absolute unqualified sovereignty over the North American colonies

* How did the Virginia government treat former indentured servants before Bacon's Rebellion? (Chapter 4)

Disenfranchised most indentured servants, accused them of apathy toward their country and of disrupting elections

Who invented the cotton gin?

Eli Whitney

* Define Regulatour Movement (Chapter 5)

Eventually-violent uprising of backcountry settlers in North Carolina against unfair taxation and the control of colonial affairs by the seaboard elite

* Define triangular trade (Chapter 5)

Exchange of rum, slaves, and molasses between the North American colonies, Africa, and the West Indies; a small but immensely profitable subset of the Atlantic trade

* Define black legend (Chapter 1)

False notion that Spanish conquerours did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ

* Define squatters (Chapter 2)

Frontier farmers who illegally occupied land that was owned by others and not officially open for settlement

* What was The Association? (Chapter 7)

Group created by the First Continental Congress that called for the complete boycott (non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption) of British products

* What did the Sugar Act do? (Chapter 7)

Increased duty on foreign sugar imported from West Indies

* What was Tammany Hall? (Chapter 14)

It was an organisation first of all, thanks for nothing stupid pedantic textbook authour

* Who was De La Warr? (Chapter 2)

Jamestown governour who led a relief party to the settlement in 1610; later imposed a military regime and started murdering Indians

* Define primogeniture (Chapter 2)

Legal principle that the eldest son in a family would inherit all family property/land

* What was the building block of Iroquois society? (Chapter 2)

Longhouses

Which colonies were collectively called the New England colonies?

Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire

* Who was Samuel Adams? (Chapter 7)

Master propagandist who organised Massachusetts's committees of correspondence

* Define indentured servants (Chapter 4)

Migrants who, in exchange for trans-Atlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial employer for a term of service that typically lasted 4-7 years; their migration addressed the chronic labour shortage in the colonies and facilitated settlement

* Define Great English Migration (Chapter 3)

Migration of ~70,000 refugees from England to the North American colonies, primarily to New England and the Caribbean

* Define New Lights (Chapter 5)

Ministers who took part in the revivalist emotive religious tradition pioneered by George Whitefield during the Great Awakening

* How did the Franciscan friars seek to change Pueblo views on sexuality? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

Missionaries told the Pueblo people that sex was a sin

* Define jeremiad (Chapter 4)

Often-fiery sermons lamenting the decreasing piety of parishioners; first delivered in New England in the mid-17th century

* Define Old Lights (Chapter 5)

Orthodox clergymen who rejected the emotionalism of the Great Awakening in favour of a more rational spirituality

* Define 'mestizos' (Chapter 1)

People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico

* What was Dunmore's Decree? (Chapter 7)

Proclamation issued by Virginia's royal governour in November 1775 that promised freedom to any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British Army

* Who was Thomas Hooker? (Chapter 3)

Puritan colonial leader who founded the colony of Connecticut after conflict with Puritan leaders in Massachusetts

* What did the Townshend Acts do? (Chapter 7)

Put external/indirect levies on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea

* What were the colonists' reactions to the Sugar Act? (Chapter 7)

Resentment and protests, which did not decrease until the duties were lowered considerably

* Define joint-stock company (Chapter 2)

Short-term partnership between multiple investours to fund commercial enterprise; this method was used to fund England's early colonial ventures

* Define nation-states (Chapter 1)

Societies in which political legitimacy and authourity overlay a large degree of cultural commonality

* Define headright system (Chapter 4)

System employed in tobacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants; the system allowed an individual to acquire 50 acres of land if he paid for a labourer's passage to the colony

* The debate that arose around 1550 was centered on what topic? (Unit 1 Spanish Invasion)

The morality/justifiability of the Spaniards' inhumane treatment of American Indians

* Why were the Townshend Acts passed?

The proceeds of the Townshend Acts were used to pay colonial governours

* Define Columbian Exchange (Chapter 1)

The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New World societies and Old World societies after 1492

* Why was the Sugar Act passed? (Chapter 7)

To raise colonial tax revenue for the British crown

* Why was the Stamp Act passed? (Chapter 7)

To raise revenues ti support the new military force

* Why was the Declaratory Act passed? (Chapter 7)

To reaffirm Parliament's right "to bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever"