APUSH Test 33 - > 38

What was the Watergate Scandal?

During the campaign, five men had been caught breaking into the Democratic party's headquarters in the Watergate building. They were snooping files and planting microphones. It was discovered they were part of CREEP (the Committee to Reelect the President). At about the same time, Nixon's V.P., Spiro Agnew, had his own mini-scandal involving past bribes. Agnew resigned and Gerald Ford was chosen as the new Vice President. The Senate investigated Watergate. It was then learned Nixon had tape recordings of all Oval Office conversations, so the tapes were sought. Nixon refused which looked bad. Also, in the "Saturday Night Massacre", Nixon fired Watergate investigators and the attorney general, which also looked bad. Some tapes were handed over in 1974 at the Supreme Court's ruling. They revealed Nixon's foul mouth—embarrassing but not impeachable. A month later, impeachment for "obstruction of justice" was going forward so Nixon handed over all of the tapes. Those revealed Nixon had indeed ordered a cover-up—this was an impeachable offense. Rather than get booted out of office, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974. Gerald Ford was sworn in as the new president.

How did minority rights advance during the war?

FDR banned discrimination in defense industries. FDR also set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to serve as a watchdog over the discrimination ban. Generally, despite segregated units, the war and the efforts of Blacks encouraged African-Americans to strive for equality. The slogan was the "Double V"—victory overseas vs. dictators and victory at home vs. racism. Black organizations increased in membership. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) neared the half-million mark and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) was founded. The mechanical cotton picker was invented. This freed blacks from the age-old cotton picking job—another reason many moved.

How did FDR change US trade policy

FDR believed in low tariffs. He felt trade was a two-way street. Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act which set up low tariff policies. The act cut down the most offensive parts of the Hawley-Smoot tariff law merely amending them. In some instances, tariff rates were cut in half (provided the other nation did the same). The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act started to reverse the high-tariff trend and started a low-tariff trend that would dominate the post-WWII period.

How does America start "bulking up" for war?

FDR called for America to build up the military. Congress appropriated $37 billion, a huge number. A conscription law was passed—America's first peacetime draft. It would train 1.2 million troops yearly and 800,000 reserves. There was also concern that Germany may take the orphaned Dutch, Danish, and French colonies in Latin America. At the Havana Conference, it was agreed that the Europe-stay-away policy of the Monroe Doctrine would be shared by 21 American countries. AMERICA IS STILL NEUTRAL

What was the early U.S. policy in the war?

FDR held back the reins against Japan, and vowed to "get Germany first." Many folks were upset at putting Japan second on the list, but Germany was the more pressing problem. The plan was to absolutely not let Britain fall to Germany and meanwhile send just enough effort to hold Japan at bay for the time being. The problem was preparedness. To execute this plan, the U.S. needed time to gear up for war. The task was monumental: to change industry for a total war, organize a massive military, ship everything in two directions across the world, and feed the Allies

What happens next in the fight for Civil Rights?

Freedom Riders, generally young white northerners, rode buses through the South to draw attention to segregation. Some Southerners turned violent against the buses—this drew more attention to the Freedom Riders Kennedy slowly stepped into the civil rights movement. He was concerned that if he linked with Martin Luther King, Jr., it might be revealed that King had friends who had communist connections. Robert Kennedy had J. Edgar Hoover investigate and keep a file on MLK to that end, even tap MLK's phone line. John Kennedy did help SNCC get started with funds. They started the Voter Education Project to register southern black voters. Martin Luther King, Jr. organized a peaceful protest of segregation in Birmingham, AL in early 1963. The protesters were attacked by police dogs, electric cattle prods, and high pressure water hoses. In August, 1963, MLK led 200,000 demonstrators in the famous "March on Washington." There he gave his "I Have a Dream" speech, then met with Kennedy for talks.

What did Truman do with this momentum?

He started a program named "Point Four." It was to give money and technical help to underdeveloped nations. It was a humanitarian effort, but it was also to prevent them from going communist. He outlined a new domestic program called the "Fair Deal." It was a mini-New Deal. The Fair Deal was to improve housing; increase employment, minimum wage, farm price supports; start a new TVA, and extend Social Security. Many of these programs were shot down in Congress. Its major successes were in upping the minimum wage, passing the Housing Act (1949) to provide public housing, and extending old-age benefits in a new Social Securities Act (1950).

What was Ford's presidency like?

He was seen as a nice guy, more of an everyman, but a bit of an average-minded and clumsy fellow. None of the negatives were really fair, but that was much of the public view. Surprisingly, Ford pardoned Nixon for any illegal actions he might have done. Ford's popularity went downhill when he gave amnesty to draft dodgers. He felt they'd not served out of heartfelt reasons, so they were welcome to return to the U.S. Ford's foreign relation activities centered on the Helsinki accords with the U.S.S.R. In these agreements, (1) the boundaries of eastern Europe were agreed upon, (2) agreements were made on traveling from the U.S. and U.S.S.R., and (3) guarantees were made of human rights.

How did WWII end?

Hitler killed himself in a bunker (Apr. 1945), along with his mistress-turned-wife Eva Braun. The German officials surrendered on May 7; May 8, 1945 was named V-E Day (Victory in Europe). The celebration began. The war with Japan was still on. Meanwhile, the U.S. had been working on a super-secret project all along: to build the atomic bomb. The Manhattan Project secretly developed and built the world's first atomic bomb. It was tested in Alamogordo, NM (July 1945) and was ready for use. Still belligerent, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan (Aug. 6, 1945). 70,000 died instantly, 180,000 total casualties. On Aug. 8, Russia entered the war against Japan and attacked Manchuria. On Aug. 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. 80,000 were killed or missing. That's was it. Japan surrendered on Aug. 19, 1945.

What were the early challenges to this system?

In 1947, Jackie Robinson, became the first black to play in the Major Leagues. This symbolic move was the one of the first steps in the Civil Rights movement. Pres. Harry S Truman integrated the military in 1948, a major step. In Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Supreme Court ruled that black professional schools were not equal to white. This was referring to the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896) saying "separate but equal" facilities were okay. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused the custom of giving up her bus seat to white riders. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott was led by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., succeeded in changing the custom, and was thrust onto the national stage. The case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS (1954) was the bombshell. Building on the Sweatt v. Painter case, Brown v. Board said segregated public schools were unconstitutional and should be integrated with "all deliberate speed." In Greensboro, NC, the "sit-in" movement began. Black students protested segregated lunch counters by sitting at white-only counters. They wouldn't get served, but their sitting down shut down the counters until the policy was chang

Who were the voices on both sides of the WW2 debate? What does FDR decide?

In America, two voices spoke to FDR on whether the U.S. should get involved: Isolationists set up the America First Committee. Charles Lindbergh was a member. Interventionists set up the Committee to Defend the Allies. Both sides campaigned their positions; FDR chose a middle route at this time. In the Destroyer Deal (1940), America transferred 50 old destroyers from WWI days to Britain. In return, the U.S. got eight defensive bases in the Americas, from Newfoundland down to South America. The pattern (Quarantine speech, Neutrality Acts, cash-and-carry, Destroyer Deal) showed the U.S. was clearly taking steps from isolation toward intervention.

What happens in Cuba?

In Cuba 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista whom America supported. Castro began to nationalize Cuban lands, many were owned by Americans. Castro's communistic actions pleased and endeared him to the Soviet Union. Almost 1 million Cubans fled to America, mostly to Miami and Tampa (still headquarters for American cigars). In protest, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 and started a strict economic embargo. There was talk of invoking the Monroe Doctrine to keep Russia out. Khrushchev said the doctrine was dead and threatened nuclear missiles if Cuba was attacked.

What was the War Powers Act of 1973?

In mid-1973, people were surprised to learn that the U.S. had made some 3,500 secret bombings of Cambodia. This despite assurances from the government that Cambodia's neutrality was intact. The "credibility gap" widened. To reign in the executive, Congress passed the War Powers Act (1973). It said (1) the president must report to Congress within 48 hours of putting troops in harm's way in a foreign country and (2) there would be a 60 to 90 day limit.

What attack ultimately ends U.S. neutrality? Why does this attack happen?

In protest of Japan's actions in China, the U.S. put an embargo on Japan. The main blow was cutting off oil, which Japan needed for its sprawling empire. American code-breakers knew the Japanese were up to some no-good. The best thinking was that Japan would attack British Malaya or the Philippines. Japan certainly wouldn't try to hit Hawaii, maybe a sneak sabotage attack, but nothing foolish like an all-out attack. An all-out attack on Hawaii is what came. The attack on Pearl Harbor was one of the most surprising in history. The attack came in the morning of December 7, 1941 (FDR's "date which will live in infamy"). Japanese bombers caught the Americans sleepy. Several ships were sunk or damaged including the U.S.S. Arizona. 3,000 Americans were killed or wounded. The only good news was that the American aircraft carriers were out at sea. If they'd been destroyed, the American naval situation would've been hopeless. On December 8, the United States declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. and the U.S. declared war right back. War was now official.

What was Kennedy's foreign policy?

JFK moved America's policy away from "massive retaliation" to "flexible response." He didn't want a small nation with relatively small problems to give America two options: backing down or nuclear holocaust. Rather, he wanted to deal with situations with a variety of options. The logic was good, the reality came to haunt the U.S.—America could now get in just a little bit, maybe a bit more, but then once in, how to get out without looking bad? This would be the story of Vietnam. To match the situation with the force necessary, Kennedy upped spending on the Special Forces (Green Berets). East Berliners were flooding into West Berlin—this was an unacceptable embarrassment to the U.S.S.R. So, the Soviet Union began to build the Berlin Wall that same year to keep folks in.

What was happening in Japan at this time?

Japan had to be managed after the war. Gen. Douglas MacArthur essentially ran as a dictator to draw up a new Japanese constitution based on the U.S. Constitution (1946). Japan was a success story. It quickly and successfully embraced democracy and also recovered economically to become one of the world's richest and most productive nations. China, however, was having problems. Mao Zedong led communist forces in a civil war against Chiang Kai-Shek's (AKA Jiang Jieshi) Nationalist government. Mao and the communists won in 1949. Chiang Kai-Shek and the Nationalists had to retreat offshore to the island of Formosa (Taiwan). With a huge nation like China going communist, this was a bad loss for the U.S. in the Cold War.

What was the U.S. response to the rise of Italy and Nazi Germany?

Japan invaded China in 1937. FDR did not name the action a war, however, so the Neutrality Acts were not invoked and both China and Japan could still buy American war-stuffs. Japan went at it again when they bombed and sank the American gunboat the Panay. Two were killed, 30 wounded—possible grounds for war. Japan apologized, paid an indemnity, and the situation cooled. As WWII broke out, America rooted for Britain and France, but was committed to neutrality. The Neutrality Acts were invoked which cut supplies to belligerents. Wanting to help Britain and France, FDR and Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 which said the U.S. would sell war materials on a "cash-and-carry" basis. Cash-and-carry meant no credit and no U.S. ships hauled the stuff.

What happens next in Latin America/Cuba?

Kennedy improved relations with Latin America with the Alliance for Progress (called the "Marshall Plan for Latin America"). His goal was to curb the threat of rising communism by narrowing the rich-poor gap. JFK got a major embarrassment with the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961). The CIA secretly trained Cuban exiles with the goal of invading Cuba, rallying all the people, and overthrowing Castro. Castro's troops met and halted the attack at the Bay of Pigs. Kennedy would not help the attackers, there was no ground-swelling of support from within Cuba, and the attack was crushed. Cuba was again on the world stage with the Cuban Missile Crisis that took place in October of 1961. Aerial photos showed that the U.S.S.R. was putting nuclear missiles in Cuba. For America, Russian nukes 90 miles from Florida could not stand. JFK chose to impose a naval blockade since it was middle-ground between an invasion and an embargo. For 13 days, the world was as close to nuclear war as it'd ever been. Thankfully, Khrushchev backed down and the Soviet ships turned back. In return for removing the missile sites, Kennedy agreed to remove missiles from Turkey

What was the New Frontier?

Kennedy's social reforms for federal aid for education, for the poor, and civil rights legislation. Kennedy started the Peace Corps where mostly young, idealistic Americans would go to third world nations to help out and teach. Usually the fields were health, agriculture, languages and math. The House Rules Committee was expanded—this might help avoid conservative hang-ups. A noninflationary wage agreement was settled, contingent on companies keeping prices down. Kennedy initiated the quest to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade.

What were the steps of the cold war peace process?

Khrushchev met Eisenhower at Camp David. Things sounded good at the Russian leader spoke of evacuating Berlin. This "spirit of Camp David" didn't last long. The next year, there was to be a summit in Paris. Berlin was to be the main topic. The night before the summit, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down. The plane had indeed been spying on Russia in their airspace (a no-no). The "U-2 Incident" was an embarrassment to the U.S and to Ike. The summit fell apart.

What was LBJ like?

LBJ was a master at getting Congress to go his way by giving the "Johnson treatment"—getting up-in-the-face and jabbing a finger-in-the-chest. LBJ was a true cuss from Texas. He was vain, super egotistical, and crude. LBJ went liberal as president. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act that JFK had called for and LBJ signed it. The law banned discrimination in public facilities and sought to end segregation. It also set up the Equal Employment Opportunity Comm. (EEOC) to serve as watchdog for fair hiring practices. Johnson spoke of his vision which he called the "Great Society". It was a continuation of New Deal types of programs. The idealistic thinking was that America was so prosperous, there was no reason to accept anything less than prosperity for all. He launched a "War on Poverty."

What happens to unions post-WWII?

Labor unions had made steady gains during the Depression and the war. With the economy now strong, the pendulum now swung back against unions. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It banned "closed shops" (closed to anyone not joining the union). It also made unions liable for certain damages and that union leaders take a non-communist oath. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, Taft-Hartley weakened labor unions. Unions tried to move into the South and the West, in the CIO's "Operation Dixie." This was unsuccessful. Two factors caused the failure: (1) Workers in the South and West were generally not factory workers but were scattered around and thus not easily unionized, and (2) these areas had a longtime value on individual freedom and hard work, and thus a disdain for labor unions which focused on group action to yield more pay with lower hours.

How does the black power movement grow / begin?

Martin Luther King's approach was nonviolent. By 1965, he was making progress, though it was slow. To many young African Americans, it was too slow—they wanted to take matters into their own hands. New black leaders dismissed nonviolent protest. Some made fun of MLK calling him "de Lawd." Malcolm X had been influenced by black militants in the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam had been founded by Elijah Poole (who changed his name to Elijah Muhammad). The Black Panthers roamed the streets of Oakland armed with powerful weapons "for protection." Stokely Carmichael (from Trinidad) led the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC had begun with the peaceful sit-ins of the 50's. Now, it'd taken a rather "non-Nonviolent" stance. They preached Afro-centrism and separatism. Riots scare northern whites.

What happened to ethnic Japanese people in America?

Mostly living on the west coast, Japanese-Americans were rounded up and sent to internment camps. The official reasoning was to protect them from rogues on the streets who may want to take out their Pearl Harbor frustrations on them. The ulterior motive was that there was distrust. Some believed the Japanese-Americans were more loyal to Japan than the U.S. and were really spies. This was untrue. Though jailed without due process of law, the Supreme Court upheld the internment camps in the Korematsu v. U.S. case.

What happened to Germany?

Nazi leaders were tried at the Nuremberg Trials just after the war for crimes against humanity. Everyone's rationale was that they'd just been following their orders. Twelve hanged, seven were given long sentences. Hermann Goering killed himself with cyanide. There was disagreement with what to do about Germany. The U.S. wanted Germany to rebuild as that's good for Europe's economy. Russia wanted reparations. To avoid Germany rearming, the country was divided into four zones. The U.S., France, Britain, and Russia would oversee one zone. The idea was to reunite Germany, but Russia balked at the idea. Germany was going to remain split. West Germany would be a democracy, East Germany was a puppet communist nation. Berlin was located in East Germany (Russia's section) and it was also split into four zones. The end result was a free West Berlin located inside Russian-controlled East Germany, like an island. Russia suddenly cut off the railway to West Berlin (1948) in attempt to strangle West Berlin into giving itself over to the East. America's response was the Berlin Airlift where the U.S. simply flew in needed supplies to West Berlin. The operation was on a massive scale, and it worked. The Soviet Union ended their blockade the next year.

What was Nixon's Vietnamization?

Nixon entered the White House promising an honorable end to the war. He pursued "Vietnamization", or returning U.S. troops and turning the war over to the Vietnamese. This became the "Nixon Doctrine" saying the U.S. would honor its commitments, but the Vietnamese would have to go it without massive American troop numbers. Frustration was best seen in the infamous My Lai Massacre (1968). At that village, U.S. troops snapped and killed the entire village, including women and children. My Lai increased protest at home and helped lead to charges of "baby killers"—an unfair charge for nearly all of the troops.

What is detente? How did it play out?

Nixon visited China, in 1972. It was a symbolic visit where each side promised to get along better. Three months later, Nixon went to Russia. With better U.S.-China relations, he felt Russia would be inclined to give in a bit. He was right. The U.S.S.R. was low on food. A deal was struck where the U.S. would sell $750+ million grain to the Soviets. There was some disarmament as well. America and the Soviets agreed to an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) reduction and to a string of "Strategic Arms Limitations Talks" (SALT). Getting along better with China and Russia brought on another round of détente (eased tensions).

What type of government spawns abroad as a result of the depression?

Post WWI chaos and the Great Depression helped spawn totalitarian regimes (dictatorships with total power), notably Joseph Stalin in the USSR, Benito Mussolini in Italy, and Adolf Hitler in Germany. Hitler was the most dangerous. He was a fantastic speaker who told the "big lie" often enough that people started believing it. Germany and Italy linked up when Hitler and Mussolini agreed on the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936). Under Mussolini, more show than substance, Italy attacked and beat Ethiopia in 1935. Fascist nations love prepping for war, fighting, then championing their victories, even if it means beating up on a very poor nation like Ethiopia (they'd fought with spears). America simply stayed isolationist. The events were an ocean away, or more, the U.S. had her own problems, and America didn't want to get drawn into Europe's problems like with WWI. Trying to avoid getting sucked further into foreign problems, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act which forbade countries that owed money to the U.S. from getting any more loans.

What happened in the 1976 campaign?

President Ford tried to get elected on his own, the Democrats chose Jimmy Carter. Carter capitalized on being a "Washington outsider," and therefore untainted by the supposed corruption of D.C. (he'd previously been governor of Georgia). The election was very close, but the Republican "brand" had been too tarnished by Watergate nonsense. Carter won 297 to 240.

What was Ike's foreign policy?

Sec. of State John Foster Dulles wanted to go beyond the policy of containment. He wanted to "rollback" communism, to liberate countries that had been taken over The new policy also spoke of "massive retaliation", the threat that any nuclear action would result in a massive response. This stepping up of policy centered on "deterrence" (convincing an enemy to not act) and it greatly increased the stakes of the Cold War. BRINKSMANSHIP

Who did Senator McCarthy charge as communists? What was his ultimate undoing?

Sen. Joseph McCarthy claimed that Sec. of State Dean Acheson had knowingly hired 205 communists. Despite lacking evidence, the red-hunt was on. McCarthy's claims got wilder and out of hand. He accused Gen. George Marshall as being in some kind of communist conspiracy. McCarthy met his downfall when he threw charges at the U.S. Army. Hearings were held on TV where the nation saw him as reckless, a bully, and making the whole thing up on the fly. He was later condemned by the Senate and died three years later of alcoholism.

What happens with consumer culture / conformity in the 1950s?

Similar to the 1920's, the 50's were an era of consumerism. Diner's Club cards made their appearance, McDonald's started, Disneyland was built, TV's came to nearly all homes. Reflecting TV sales, $10 billion was spent on TV ads and movie attendance went down. "Televangelists" went to airwaves to save souls, like Billy Graham (Baptist), Oral Roberts (Pentecostal Holiness), and Fulton J. Sheen (Catholic). Sex appeal was used to sell. Elvis "the Pelvis" Presley's dance moves were dubbed inappropriate by the older generation. On his second appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show" he was only filmed from the waist up. Marilyn Monroe was featured on the cover of the new magazine Playboy and was called the "Sex Goddess for the Nuclear Age." Women are given a role as the homemaker in this society. Betty Friedan started the modern feminist movement with her book The Feminine Mystique (1963). A former homemaker herself, Friedan wasn't satisfied with just being a suburban mother and felt women were selling themselves short—they could get jobs of their own and do so much more. Many women liked what they read.

How does U.S. society change because of the war?

Since most able-bodied men were off at war, industry needed workers. The bracero program brought workers from Mexico to harvest crops. The program was successful and stayed on about 20 years after the war. Women stepped up and took the war jobs. For many women, this was the first "real job" outside of the home. Almost certainly, this was the first job for women in industry—women built planes, artillery shells, tanks, everything. The symbol for women-workers was "Rosie the Riveter" with her sleeves rolled up and rivet gun in hand. Without question, the war opened things up for women in the workplace. Women "proved themselves" and gained respect.

How does American culture change in the 60's

The 1960's were a boom of cultural changes and challenges. Young people propelled the cultural changes—the slogan was, "Trust no one over 30." The roots of the counterculture went back to the "beatniks" of the 1950's. Poet Allen Ginsburg and writer Jack Kerouac's book On the Road were the prelude for the hippie generation. One of the first big protests took place at Univ. of California at Berkeley in 1964 called the "Free Speech Movement." This protest was rather clean-cut, later ones would be "far out" with psychedelic drugs, "acid rock", and the call to "tune in and drop out" of school. A "sexual revolution" took place in the 1960's because of birth control. Gay people also ask for more rights. A drug culture emerged. Smoking "grass" turned into dropping LSD. The dirty underworld of drug dealers and drug addicts emerged.

What was the Containment/Truman Doctrine? What was the Marshall Plan?

The American position toward Russia became formal with the George F. Kennan's "containment doctrine." It simply said the U.S.S.R. was expansionist by nature and but it could be held in check by firm American containment. Pres. Truman made the containment policy official by announcing the Truman Doctrine (1947). In the doctrine he asked Congress for $400 million to aid Greece and Turkey who were feeling communist pressures. Though focused on Greece and Turkey at the time, the Truman Doctrine was greatly broadened—the U.S. was to stop communism anywhere it seemed to be trying to expand militarily and economically. This policy would dominate U.S. foreign policy for the next four decades. Western Europe's economy was struggling badly. To help, Truman and Sec. of State George C. Marshall started the Marshall Plan, a massive project to lend financial help to rebuild Europe. The plan helped in the formation of the European Community (EC). Some $12.5 billion was spent over four years, a huge sum. Congress thought the number too high (they'd already given $2 billion to U.N. agencies), but a Russia-sponsored revolution in Czechoslovakia changed their minds. The Marshall Plan worked. Western Europe's economies rebounded, and communist groups in those nations lost influence.

What were the early steps at shaping the post war world?

The Atlantic Charter had called for a new League of Nations. That was realized (UN). A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, NH (1944). There, the Allies set up the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to propell world trade and regulate currency exchange rates. It also started the World Bank to give loans to needy nations (ravaged by war or just poor).

What happened on D-Day?

The D-Day Invasion began on June 6, 1944. It was the largest amphibious assault in history. The Allies had to cross the channel, wade ashore, cross the wide beach, scale 100 foot bluffs, and overtake German bunkers—while being shot at by machine guns and artillery. The Allies did it. After gaining a toehold at Normandy, the Allies began spreading out. Gen. George S. Patton led U.S. troops across the French countryside. Paris was liberated in August of 1944—a major morale boost for the Allies.

What happens on the home-front of the war?

The Great Depression ended when huge orders for the war effort came in. More than $100 billion was ordered in 1942. The War Production Board took control of industry. It halted production of non-essential items like passenger cars. Rubber was a much-needed item and gasoline was rationed to help save tires. Agricultural production was incredible. Though many farm boys went to war, new equipment and fertilizers yielded record harvests. Prices rose, however. The Office of Price Administration regulated prices. Critical items were rationed to keep consumption down, like meat and butter. The War Labor Board set ceilings on wages (lower wages means lower prices).

What happened in Cambodia? How does that impact the war?

The North Vietnamese had been using their neighbor as a staging-ground for attacks. The land was out-of-bounds for U.S. troops, but the North channeled supplies through Cambodia down the "Ho Chi Minh Trail." In 1970, Nixon ordered the U.S. to invade Cambodia to put a stop to the uneven playing field. On U.S. universities, there was much protest to moving into Cambodia. The logic went, "The U.S. is not at war with Cambodia, why are we invading there?" A protest at Kent State University got out of hand and the National Guard was called in to disperse the protestors. For some reason, the Guard opened fire and killed four protesters. The rift between hawks and doves had widened. Nixon pulled out of Cambodia after only two months. U.S. troops resented Nixon's reversal and having to fight with "one hand tied behind their back."

What happened in the election of 1948?

The Republican had won control of the House in 1946 and were feeling confident in '48. They nominated Thomas Dewey as candidate for president. The Democrats wanted Gen. Eisenhower, but he refused the nomination. So, Pres. Truman was up for reelection. This split the party. Southern Democrats (called "Dixiecrats") nominated Gov. Strom Thurmond of SC for the States' Rights Party. A new Progressive Party offered former V.P. Henry Wallace. It was really a Dewey vs. Truman race. Dewey seemed to have the momentum, but the Democratic vote had been split three ways. The Chicago Daily Tribune jumped the gun and infamously printed the headline "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN." Truman actually won 303 to 189 in the electoral (Thurmond also got 39). The Democrats also retook Congress. Pres. Truman had gotten support from regular folks, especially farmers, workers, and blacks.

What happens in the election of 1960?

The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon (V.P. candidate Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.) and the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy (V.P. candidate Lyndon B. Johnson). The 1960 TV debates were important. Kennedy was young, handsome, articulate, and spoke into the camera (to the viewers). Nixon came off as sweaty, shifty, and unshaven. As V.P. for 8 years, Nixon was likely the front-runner. But, the TV debates helped draw the race to dead even and again showed the power of TV. Kennedy won the very close election, 303 to 219 in the electoral. The popular vote differed by only 118,000 votes out of 68 million cast.

What was the background behind the

The Soviet Union felt put-out by the Americans because: (1) the U.S. had waited until 1933 to officially recognize the U.S.S.R., (2) the Allies had been slow to start a second front, (3) America withdrew the lend-lease program to Russia in 1945, and (4) America rejected Russia's request for a $6 billion reconstruction loan, but gave one for Germany for $3.75 billion. Russia had been attacked from the west twice within about 25 years, so, Stalin wanted a protective buffer from Western Europe. To create that protection, Russia set up puppet communist governments in Eastern Europe. These "satellite nations" would serve as a buffer zone to the Soviet Union. They'd both been isolationist, but now had to drive international policies. Both had a history of "missionary" diplomacy—of trying to press their ways onto others. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. had opposing economic-political systems (capitalism and democracy vs. communism) and they didn't trust the other side. The "Cold War" had begun. Their actions and policies would dominate international affairs for the next 40 years.

What happens in the sun-belt at this time?

The Sunbelt, from California to Florida, began a boom of its own. There was a shift-of-power from the old Northeast and Midwest to the new South and West—from the Frostbelt and Rustbelt to the Sunbelt. Symbolizing this shift, California became the most populous state in the 50's, passing New York. Immigration helped increase the Sunbelt's population. Many of the government's new military facilities were built in the Sunbelt. Good-paying jobs came with them.

What happened in the middle east?

The U.S. worried Russia would invade the Middle East for its oil. The CIA pulled off a coup in Iran and placed a young shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi in charge as essentially a dictator. In Egypt, nationalist Gamal Abdel Nassar wanted to build a dam on the Nile. America and Britain offered some help, then Nassar flirted with communism. Sec. Dulles removed the U.S. offer and Nassar took over the Suez Canal. This threatened the oil supply to the West. In 1940, the U.S. produced 2/3 of the world's oil. By 1948, the U.S. was a net importer of oil - the oil weapon is gone. Ike and Congress declared the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957. It promised U.S. help to the Middle East if threatened by communism.

What was FDR's policy with regard to Latin America?

The U.S. would no longer use military strength in Latin America. In 1934, the last of the U.S. Marines left Haiti. America lessened her influence in Cuba and Panama as well. Mexico, however, seized American oil properties. This was a test to see if the Good Neighbor policy was the "Push-over Policy." Oil companies wanted armed intervention. FDR held back and came to a settlement in 1941 (though U.S. oil companies did suffer losses). All told, the Good Neighbor policy was very successful in improving America's image to Latin America.

How did the war impact the economy?

The United States entered WWII still in the Depression. The U.S. came out of WWII very prosperous (the only nation to do so). GNP (Gross National Product) had doubled. Corporate profits doubled too. Disposable income (money left to spend) also doubled. Inflation would suit and rise as well. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the production for WWII that ended the Great Depression. The war's cost was assessed at $330 billion (ten times WWI). To help pay for the war, four times more people were required to pay income taxes. Most of the payments, however, were on credit. This meant the national debt shot up from $49 to $259 billion.

What happened after LBJ won on his own?

The War on Poverty was stepped up. The Office of Economic Opportunity had its budget doubled to $2 billion. Another billion was to be spent on Appalachia, a region of America that had been little touched by modern prosperity. At LBJ's pushing two new cabinet offices were created: the Dept. of Transportation (DOT) and the Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). America's first black cabinet member, Robert C. Weaver, was named to head HUD. Johnson's Great Society sought to improve the Big Four areas: Education - Money was given to students and not schools to thus get around the separation of church and state issue. Project Head Start was preschool for kids who otherwise couldn't afford it. Medical care - Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor were passed in 1965. These programs would become staple rights in America's minds; they'd also become a major cause of national debt. Immigration reform - The Immigration and Nationality Act got rid of the old quota system around since 1921. The law doubled the number of immigrants allowed in (to 290,000), allowed family members in, and for the first time limited the number of Western Hemisphere immigrants (to 120,000). Immigration was changing from Europe to Latin American and Asia. Voting rights - LBJ wanted to get more African Americans voting

How did the U.S. attack communism at home?

The attorney general named 90 possibly-communist organizations. They were not allowed to defend themselves. The Loyalty Review Board was started to investigate the loyalties of some 3 million federal employees. About 3,000 either resigned or were fired. Many states made "loyalty" a priority. Teachers, especially, were often made to take "loyalty oaths." The obvious problems were the rights to free speech, press, and thought being hampered. Still, at this time, those rights were muffled. 11 communists were tried in New York in 1949 under the Smith Act. It was a peacetime anti-sedition act (the first since 1798). The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) set out to investigate "subversion". Richard Nixon made a name for himself as a red hunter by pursuing Alger Hiss. He was convicted of perjury and served five years. Sen. Joseph McCarthy wanted to show himself a red hunter too. He threw around wild accusations with little or no basis to them. Some people started to think the red hunting business was going too far—turning from concern to hysteria. Pres. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill. It was to allow the president to arrest and hold suspicious persons during an "internal security emergency." Congress passed the bill over Truman's veto. Since the U.S.S.R. had built the atomic bomb quicker than was expected, many Americans suspected spies within the U.S. had sold nuclear secrets.

What happened as a result of that?

The economy held its ground through the late 40's. By 1950, the economy began to skyrocket. America pushed toward, and reached, a new age of prosperity. By 1960, America's national income nearly doubled, then nearly doubled again by 1970. By 1973, Americans made up 6% of the world's population and held 40% of the money. The middle class was the big winner during these years. The class doubled in size and they expanded their ambitions: two cars in the garage, and a pool out back, and whatever else can be thrown in. Women benefited from the good times as well. Many women found jobs in new offices and shops. Women were 25% of the workforce at war's end, about 50% five years later.

What happened to the economy during Carter's term?

The economy was tanking. Inflation was rising by 13% in 1979 (4% is normal). The cost of importing oil was skyrocketing. Carter proposed energy conservation laws, but they weren't well received. Interest rates were very high as well. This meant borrowing money (to buy a home for example) was too expensive.

What happens in the election of 1956? What about Eisenhower's second term?

The election of 1956 was a repeat of '52: Eisenhower vs. Adlai Stevenson. The Democrats attacked Ike's health and said he was a part-time president—doing more golfing than governing. Times were good and Ike was popular, he won big again, 457 to 73. The labor unions had been getting ugly with things like gangsterism, fraud, bullying. The AFL-CIO (combined at this point) had to boot out the Teamsters because of their leader James Hoffa's rough tactics. Ike got the Landrum-Griffin Act passed (1959) to watch labor unions' bookkeeping and other sleazy monkey-business. On Oct. 4, 1957, Americans were stunned to read that the Russians had placed the first satellite in orbit, the 184 pound Sputnik I. Rocket fever started. Ike set up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and channeled money. By 1960, several U.S. satellites were up and ICBMs were tested. Schools also changed. After Sputnik, emphasis was taken from the humanities (art, drama, dance, etc.) and placed on the sciences and math.

What happens in the feminist cause at this time?

The feminist movement of the 60s gained some steam entering the 70s. Congress passed "Title IX" (1972) which prohibited sex discrimination in any federally-funded educational program. This was best seen in the rise of girls' sports to equal boys'. The Supreme Court heard cases regarding women. Reed v. Reed and Frontiero v. Richardson, dealt with sex discrimination in laws and jobs. The Roe v. Wade (1973) case legalized abortion. The proposed "Equal Rights Amendment" (ERA) passed Congress in 1972. ERA sought to legislate equality by stating equal rights can't be denied due to gender. Next, 38 states needed to ratify ERA for passage as a Constitutional Amendment. 28 states ratified it quickly. Feminists were energized. At this point, opposition stalled ERA. Essentially, the opposition felt ERA would undercut and deteriorate the family. The leader against ERA was Phyliss Schlafly. She traveled the country advocating "STOP ERA" and advocating traditional roles for women. ERA was failed in 1982, 3 states short of the needed 38.

What happens to American military capability after the war?

The military reorganized in 1947 with the National Security Act. The old War Department was replaced with the Department of Defense; the Sec. of War replaced with the Sec. of Defense. Civilian secretaries would also head the army, navy, and air force. The military heads of each branch were to meet in the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The National Security Council (NSC) was formed by the National Security Act. The council was to advise the president on security matters. The act also formed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather foreign intelligence. The military draft was brought back. Young men 19 to 25 might be drafted by the Selective Service System. The old allies organized in 1948. The U.S. joined up with Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg united to start the North Atlantic Treaty Org. (NATO). It was an alliance where attacking one meant attacking them all. The U.S. joined despite an unwritten national policy and tradition of avoiding "entangling alliances." NATO would later grow. Greece and Turkey joined up in 1952, West Germany in 1955. NATO had 15 nations by then.

What is the state of the economy post-WWII?

The post-WWII economy was a booming economy. 25% of all homes in 1960 were less than a decade old. 83% of the new homes were in the suburbs. The field of electronics hit a milestone with the invention of the transistor. Computers and electronics could now become small (the first computers, "UNIVAC" and "ENIAC", were room-size). This gave rise to high-tech companies like IBM. The "information age" was beginning. In the Cold War atmosphere led Pres. Eisenhower to build up the Strategic Air Command. Aerospace industries thrived, like the Boeing Company which built the first passenger jet airliner, the 707. A social milestone was hit in 1956 when "white-collar" workers outnumbered "blue-collar" workers. That is to say there were more tie-wearing professionals than workers who get their hands dirty.

What happens in the civil rights cause at this time?

The race issue wouldn't go away. In Milliken v. Bradley, the Supreme Court ruled that, while integrating schools, officials could not force students across district lines. The practicality of this was that integration took a hit. If students went to their nearest school, the schools would stay largely segregated. The "white flight" to the suburbs sped up. What was left behind to deal with the tensions of integration were the less-advantaged classes of society. In the Bakke case (1978), the Supreme Court dealt with reverse discrimination. Bakke had sued saying he'd been turned down grad school due to policies that favored minorities. He won. The Court said admission preference could not be based on race. Paradoxically, the court also said race can be used in the overall admission policies to help balance out the student body's demographics. Thurgood Marshall was the only black justice. He voted against Bakke and said the decision might undo years of civil rights progress.

How does the war progress?

The war in Vietnam was dragging on in an ugly manner, and the U.S. was criticized internationally. in the U.S., protests against the Vietnam War increased. Students held "teach-ins", burnt draft cards and fled to Canada to avoid being drafted. America was being split into "doves" against the war and "hawks" who supported the war. The CIA investigated people at home, a no-no. In Cointelpro, the FBI investigated "dove" leaders at home. This seemed more like a totalitarian state, but LBJ had it done anyway. There was opposition in the government too, led by Sen. William Fulbright, head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held televised hearings where people spoke against the war. January 1968 was the break point of the war. At that time, North Vietnam launched a massive "Tet Offensive" against southern cities. The U.S. stopped the attack, but it showed the enemy was not all-but-done and that there were years of fighting left

Why does this post-war economic boom happen?

The war's massive production jump-started the entire economy. Post-war military projects kept the "military-industrial complex" in business. There were tons of jobs in military-related areas, such as aerospace, plastics, electronics, and "R and D" (research and development). Energy was cheap and plentiful. High car sales reflected the cheap gas. A strong infrastructure of power lines, gas lines helped feed homes and businesses. Worker production increased. More Americans went to and stayed in school. Increased education meant increased standard of living.

What is the Warren Court? What are the famous cases it tried? What about the Berger Court?

Under Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Supreme Court had made a noticeable shift to the left (liberal side) and was activist. Several cases showed the trend... Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) - Struck down a state law banning contraceptive use as a "right of privacy." A series of cases gave rights to defendants in criminal cases. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - Said all defendants were entitled to a lawyer. The Escobedo and Miranda cases (1966) - Said arrested individuals must be told their rights. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) - A public figure could only sue for libel if "malice" on the writer's part could be proven. This opened wide the door for jabs at politicians and movies stars. Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp (1963) - Removed prayer and the Bible from schools, arguing the First Amendment separates church and state. Reynolds v. Sims (1964) - Forbade creative district lines that made some people's votes weigh more than others. This type of gerrymandering had been used by southern whites to keep power. Nixon sought to change the Court's liberal trend by appointing otherwise-minded justices. Warren E. Burger was quickly nominated, accepted, and became chief justice. The Burger Court was reluctant to undo what the Warren Court had done. Evidence of how the court was not conservative came with the Roe v. Wade decision (1973) which legalized abortion.

What is happening in Vietnam? What is the build up to war?

Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel. The South was led by Ngo Din Diem and back by the U.S. The shaky government wasn't a democracy in the American sense, but it wasn't communist. The North was led by Ho Chi Minh and was communist. They threatened to overrun the South. To defend from the North, Kennedy sent "military advisers" (U.S. troops) to South Vietnam. They were supposedly there to instruct on how to fight, but not fight themselves. Kennedy, "in the final analysis", said it was "their war." By the time of his death, JFK had sent about 15,000 "advisers." It was now becoming difficult to just leave without looking bad. In August 1964, there was the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. There, two U.S. warships had been attacked by the North Vietnamese. In response, the Tonkin Gulf Resolution was passed by Congress essentially giving the president a blank check for return action. Johnson ordered "Operation Rolling Thunder"—full-out bombing on North Vietnam. LBJ used the Tonkin Gulf Resolution to follow a policy of "escalation." In 1965, he sent some 400,000 soldiers to Vietnam. This is usually marked as the starting-point for the Vietnam War.

How are black voting rights and black rights as a whole fought for?

Voting among African Americans in the south was rare (only 5% in Mississippi) as whites used tricks to prevent black votes. The Voting Rights Act (1965) sought to end the racial discrimination that accompanied voting. It banned literacy tests and it sent registrars to the polls to watch out for dirty dealings. The Twenty-fourth Amendment forbade poll taxes where you had to pay to vote. The Civil Rights Movement also marched on. In the "Freedom Summer" (1964), African Americans and whites joined hands and sang "We Shall Overcome" to protest racism. Martin Luther King, Jr. set up a voter registration drive in Selma, Alabama. The plan was to march from Selma to the capital of Montgomery.

What actions did the government take to stimulate the economy?

War factories and government facilities were sold to businesses at rock bottom prices. The Employment Act (1946) got the government to "promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power." The Council of Economic Advisors were to give the president solid data to make solid decisions. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944) was better known at the GI Bill of Rights. It sent 8 million former soldiers to vocational schools and colleges.

What happened in the election of 1940?

Wendell L. Willkie came out of nowhere to capture the Republican nomination. Franklin Roosevelt set aside the two-term tradition, and was nominated for a third term. Willkie's main point of attack was the two-term tradition which was around since George Washington. FDR's camp came back with, "Better a third term a third-rater" and Lincoln's old adage to not change horses midstream was still strong. FDR also promised to not send "boys" to "any foreign war" (which haunted him). FDR won big again, 449 to 82.

What was the "baby boom"?

When the soldiers returned from war, the baby boom began. The birthrate peaked in 1957. It then slowed and started a "birth dearth." The baby boom generation has had a huge impact on America. While they grew up, entire industries rode their wave. For example in clothing, Levi's jeans went from work pants to standard teenage wear; burger joints boomed; music changed (rock 'n' roll). Prior, children and adolescents were expected to dress and act like small adults. By the 50's, youth dressed and acted their own way and did their own thing.

What was the London Conference? What was it's significance?

With the goal of coming up with an international fix to the Great Depression, the London Conference was set up in 1933. FDR initially planned to send Sec. of State Cordell Hull but changed his mind. America's non-participation in the conference solidified U.S. isolationist policies. In war and in the economy, the U.S. would go at it alone.

What is migration like during the WWII?

As during the Depression, the war forced people to move around the country. FDR had long been determined to help the economically-hurting South. He funneled money southward in defense contracts. This would plant the seeds of the "Sunbelt's" boom after the war. African-Americans moved out of the South in large numbers, usually heading Northern cities, but also to the West. All the moving around mixed people who weren't accustomed to it, and there were some clashes. For example, some white sailors attacked some Mexican and Mexican-Americans in L.A. in 1943. Also, 25 blacks and 9 whites were killed in a Detroit race riot.

What happened in the election of 1952?

For the 1952 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson the down-home Illinois governor. The Republicans opted against Robert A. Taft, an isolationist, and went with war hero Dwight D. Eisenhower. Richard Nixon was Eisenhower's running mate for V.P. Ike won big, 442 to 89 in the electoral.

What was Eisenhower's domestic policy?

Ike had promised "dynamic conservatism"—be liberal with people, be conservative with money. ke started "Operation Wetback" to round up and return illegal Mexican immigrants. He encouraged private companies instead of government ones. The government bought up grain at the clip of $2 million per day in hopes of keeping prices up. Ike did keep much of the New Deal. Social Security, unemployment benefits stayed on. Ike even one-upped FDR with his Interstate Highway Act.

What happens in November 1963, in Dallas?

In November of 1963 JFK made a campaign trip down South (his weakest area). Kennedy was shot and killed in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald. Oswald was shot and killed on TV a couple of days later by Jack Ruby. Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president on Air Force One heading back to Washington. America was stunned. Her young, charismatic and idealistic president was gone.

What happened at the Yalta Conference?

The Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) had met at the Yalta Conference in Feb. 1945 (there last meeting). That meeting shaped the Cold War to come. It was highlighted by distrust between the U.S./Britain and the Soviet Union. Promises were made... Russia promised to enter the war against Japan. In return, Russia would get land—1/2 of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, railroads in Manchuria, and Port Arthur on the Pacific. This promise was kept. However, by the time Russia entered, the U.S. had all but won. It appeared Russia entered to just look good and accept the spoils of victory. Russia pledged free elections for Poland and a representative government; also elections in Bulgaria and Romania. These promises were flatly broken. The Soviets set up puppet communist governments. FDR was roundly criticized for doing poorly at the Yalta Conference. This set the table for the cold war

How did the U.S. leave Vietnam?

12 days before the 1972 election, Henry Kissinger announced that "peace is at hand" and an agreement would be announced in a few days. Nixon won in a huge way, 520 to 17. The agreement Kissinger had spoken of didn't come just yet. Nixon ramped up the bombings in attempt to drive the North back to the bargaining table, it worked, and on January 23, 1973 a cease-fire was reached. Nixon declared "peace with honor", but it was hollow. The U.S. would withdraw, but the North kept 145,000 soldiers and 30% of the South occupied. America's goal in Vietnam was to contain communism. America left in 1973, generally having done that. In 1975, however, North Vietnam overran and took over South Vietnam. It was embarrassing that the last Americans were evacuated from the rooftop of the American embassy by helicopter. Technically, America didn't lose the war. America left when it was a tie, then the U.S.-supported South Vietnam lost. But, in reality and in perception, America lost.

What were the Pentagon Papers?

A secret government study leaked to and published by the New York Times in June 1971 (revealing that American leaders had often misled Congress and the American people as they escalated the Vietnam War)

What was white flight?

After the war, whites abandoned the inner-cities and moved out to the grass and trees of the suburbs. Cheap home loans offered by the FHA and the Veteran's Administration made buying a home more sensible than renting an apartment in town. 25% of Americans lived in the suburbs by 1960. This so-called "white flight" left blacks in the inner-cities, and left the cities poor. Symbolic of this movement would be the growth of shopping centers and Wal-Marts and the the "closed" signs on downtown shops. Blacks often had a hard time getting loans, even from government agencies, due to the "risk" involved. Thus, whites were able to move to the suburbs, blacks were not.

What was going on in Iran?

Along with oil, the Middle East gave Carter more headaches in 1979 when the shah of Iran was ousted by Islamic fundamentalists. The shah had been put into power with help from the CIA and was seen as a symbol of the West and the U.S. The new Muslim government took over the oil fields. Oil production went down and OPEC raised oil prices farther. At the same time, militant Muslim radicals in Iran stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took everyone hostage. The militants demanded that the U.S. hand over the shah who'd fled earlier. Worse, what would the U.S. do about the 52 Americans being held hostage? The Iran hostage situation was still going—it would be the undoing of Carter. The U.S. tried economic sanctions, they failed. A secret rescue mission was planned and tried. It literally went down in flames in a sandstorm. Carter was unable to resolve the Iran hostage situation.

What happened to the economy in the 70's?

America had enjoyed a long economic boom in the 1950s and 60s. The 1970s would see that boom end. No year's productivity during the 70s would equal any year in the 50s or 60s. There were several reasons for the slow-down. Women and teens increasingly entered the workforce. Generally speaking, they were less skilled, often had temporary jobs. Machinery was getting old and run down by this time. The major cause was the upward spiral of inflation. Vietnam War spending helped cause inflation, but it was caused mostly from increased oil prices. What's more, the boom-years had put more money in people's hands. Anytime this is the case, prices go up.

What was the Arab Oil Embargo?

Arab nations were not pleased at America's support of Israel so in October of 1973, Arab nations placed an embargo on oil. Long lines formed at gas stations and prices of gas skyrocketed in the U.S. The "energy crisis" changed things in America. The Alaska pipeline was approved to flow oil southward. A 55 MPH speed limit was set to conserve fuel. Americans also moved to smaller cars, like the VW Bug. There were calls for more use of coal and nuclear power. The embargo was lifted after 5 months. But, the message was clear: America was addicted to oil and the Middle East had nearly all of the cards in their hands. Using OPEC to exert their will, the Arab nations nearly quadrupled the price of oil by the end of the 70s.

What happens in the Korean War?

As Germany had been split, so too had Korea. North Korea had a communist government thanks to Russia, South Korea was democratic thanks to the U.S. North and South Korea were split at the 38th parallel. Things were okay until June 25, 1950 when the North suddenly invaded the South. The South was overrun except for the southernmost city of Pusan. America's Truman Doctrine policy of containment was being challenged. It was time to put-up or shut-up. Pres. Truman took action and used Korea as an opportunity to build up the U.S. military. The National Security Council had recommended in 1950 document called NSC-68 that America's defense spending be quadrupled. Truman put NSC-68 into action. NSC-68 was symbolic in that (1) it showed the fear of communism and (2) it showed the seemingly limitless production possibilities of the U.S. to even order such a massive build-up. There were three phases of the war... First, was the North's invasion of the South in 1950. Secondly, MacArthur's troops set up at Pusan then did a bold "end-around" and hit behind enemy lines at Inchon. Surprised, the North Koreans were quickly driven northward. They went nearly all the way to the Yalu River, the China border. MacArthur thought the war nearly over. Crossing the 38th parallel into the North raised the stakes. Third, some 200,000 Chinese "volunteers" helped push back southward to the original line at the 38th parallel. MacArthur called for a blockade and bombing of China. Washington didn't want to take the war that big. MacArthur pressed the issue and went public with it. Pres. Truman fired MacArthur. Truman was criticized for removing the popular general, but he felt he had no choice. The American military is ultimately run by civilians, not the military. The war bogged down there for two more years, and that's where it ended in 1953.

What is the Lend-Lease Bill?

Britain needed money. FDR wanted to help, but also didn't want another WWI-like debt mess. FDR's solution would be to simply loan weapons and ships to the British. They can use them, them return them. The Lend-Lease Bill passed and the U.S. would become the "arsenal of democracy." By 1945, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and material to the Allies.

What was Carter's domestic policy like? What about his foreign policy?

Carter got a new Dept. of Energy established. He also got a tax cut through. Carter's crowning foreign policy achievement was a Middle East peace settlement. Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli president Menachem Begin met Carter at Camp David in 1978. They shook hands and agreed that Israel would withdraw from lands gained in the Six-Day War (1967) and Israel's borders would be respected. Full diplomatic relations with China were reestablished. Another agreement planned to turn over the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000 (and did). Another high-note for Carter came with the SALT II agreements. He met with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and agreed to limit nuclear weapons. The high-note was short lived—the Senate was very reluctant to ratify the agreement.

What did the USA do with regard to the Philippines? What about the Soviet Union?

Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) that said the Philippines would become independent after 12 years (in 1946). FDR formally recognized the Soviet Union in 1933.

What passes through congress at this time?

Congress was regretting the blank check (Tonkin Gulf Resolution). The Senate repealed the Resolution (this was symbolic only). The Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) was passed. It lowered the voting age to 18. The reasoning was that 18 and 19 year olds should be allowed to vote for the politicians sending them off to war.

What was Nixon's domestic policy?

Contrary to what one might guess from a conservative, Nixon made the Great Society programs grow. For example: Money for Medicare, Medicaid, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) increased. The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) was created to help the old, blind, and disabled. Social Security would be automatically increased with inflation. In his controversial "Philadelphia Plan", trade-unions were required to set "goals and timetables" for hiring blacks. The policy was extended to all federal contracts. It forced businesses to hire a quota of minorities. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was formed in 1970 along with the Occupational Health and Safety Admin. (OSHA) to set safety standards in workplaces. The Clean Air Act (1970) and the Endangered Species Act (1973) were passed. Symbolically, "Earth Day" began. Back to the economy, Nixon tried to halt inflation by imposing a 90-day wage and price freeze in 1971. He surprisingly took the U.S. off the gold standard and devalued the dollar. This ended the "Bretton Woods" system of currency stabilization set after WWII.

What happens in the election of 1968?

Damaged by the Vietnam War, LBJ did not run for reelection. In the Democratic primary Eugene McCarthy was the voice of the doves. He was supported by peace-loving college students. He scored a high 42% of the New Hampshire primary vote. Robert Kennedy entered the race, also as a dove. He brought the Kennedy name and charisma. With LBJ out of the race, V.P. Hubert H. Humphrey seemed the next logical choice. It was now McCarthy, Kennedy, and Humphrey for the Democrats. Just as it seemed Robert Kennedy would become the Democratic nominee, he was shot and killed. Humphrey would be nominated. Richard Nixon would run as the Republican. He was a "hawk" and spoke of getting law-and-order in the cities at home. Another candidate, George C. Wallace, ran for the American Independent party. He ran almost exclusively on a pro-segregation ticket saying "Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!" Nixon would win the election, 301 to Humphrey's 191. Wallace got 46 southern electoral votes.

What happened in the election of 1944?

Despite the ongoing war in 1944, an election year came again. The Republican party nominated Thomas E. Dewey. He was known as a liberal and attacker of corruption. The Democrats nominated FDR for a fourth term. There was no other viable choice for the party. The real question was who'd be the vice-presidential candidate. The nomination was made for Harry S Truman who was largely without enemies. FDR won the election in a big way, again. The electoral vote was 432 to 99. The main reason that he won was that the war was moving along well at this point.

What does congress do to enforce neutrality?

Determined to not get into a war, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935, 36, and 37. They said that when the president declared a foreign war existed, certain restrictions would start. The restrictions were: (1) Americans could not sail on a belligerent (nation-at-war) ship, sell/haul munitions, or make loans to belligerents. These were clearly to avoid the same mistakes that had occurred at the outset of WWI. WWII, however, would have different circumstances. The U.S. declared absolute neutrality, no matter how hideous one side would be.

How was segregation upheld?

Down South, Jim Crow laws still segregated the races. Though able to vote on paper, only about 20% of southern blacks were actually registered to vote (only 5% in the Deep South states). On top of the Jim Crow laws, Southern whites used an array of social norms to keep blacks second class. There was intimidation, threats of job loss, beatings and lynchings. These crimes often were unpunished.