APWH Ch. 8-11 Ethan x Lucas

Reign of Terror

(1793-94) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty"

Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) the first US national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written

Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) the first national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written

Taiping Uprising

(1850-1864); rejected Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism; Accepted a unique form of Christianity; led by Hong Xiuquan "long lost younger brother of Jesus"; called for abolition of private property, radical redistribution of land, the equality of men and women: the end of foot binding, prostitution, and opium smoking; the organization of society into sexually segregated military camps of men and women; Hong Rengan developed plans for transforming China into an industrial nation, complete with railroads, health insurance for all, newspapers, and widespread public education; established capital in Nanjing in 1853; crushed in 1864 due to inability to properly unify.

Second Industrial Revolution

(1871-1914) Involved development of chemical, electrical, oil, and steel industries. Mass production of consumer goods also developed at this time through the mechanization of the manufacture of food and clothing. It saw the popularization of cinema and radio. Provided widespread employment and increased production.

Chinese Exclusion Act

(1882) Denied any additional Chinese laborers to enter the country while allowing students and merchants to immigrate.

How was the Haitian Revolution partly inspired by revolutions on both sides of the Atlantic: the American and the French revolutions?

-Liberty Equality and Brotherhood ideas -Gaining Independence from Countries across Atlantic -Casting off colonial governments -Getting rid of an absolute ruler -Government using the people's will -Universal Citizenship

Why did many people move to industrial cities during the Industrial Revolution? How did builders deal with the high demand for housing as people flooded into cities during the nineteenth century?

-Removal of Common land -Need for money -Can't grow food for yourself as easily -Working in factories -Poor lived in Ghettos -Wealthy had separate neighborhoods -Terraced rows of houses -Houses built dangerously and quickly -Overcrowded and unsanitary

What actions did the colonized natives take to mitigate the encroachment of the Europeans?

-Revolts -Refusal of taxes -Taiping rebellion -Resisted from the outset -Siam and Ethiopia were successful

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

-The scientific revolution brought about new mechanical inventions -The availability of investment capital and the rise of the middle class provided an economic base -Geographic and social conditions in England favored industrialization: ---The cotton textile industry was well established ---Britain was a colonial and maritime power and was able to easily ship products; rivers provided the necessary waterpower to run machinery ---England had abundant reserves of coal and iron ---The necessary labor force was in place following the enclosure movement that forced thousands of people from rural land to cities ---Investment capital supplied by a burgeoning middle class provided money to purchase equipment for the emergent factories

Why was England the first to industrialize?

-natural resources (rivers, raw materials) -labor (many unemployed people) -markets (all around the world) -entrepreneurs (has money and wants to start business) -stable government (safe to do business) -Proximity to water -increased agricultural productivity -urbanization -access to foreign resources -private property/ownership

When was the North American Revolution?

1775-1787

Declaration of Independence

1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain and asserting ideas of natural rights

When was the French Revolution?

1789-1815

When was the Haitian Revolution?

1791-1804

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

When were the Latin American Revolutions?

1808-1825

Karl Marx

1818-1883. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society.

Boxer Rebellion

1899 rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended by British troops.

When did women gain the right to vote in the U.S.?

1920. Elsewhere occurred after WWI except for New Zealand & Finland who were the first.

How did European colonial policies contradict their own values at home & Enlightenment ideas?

19th century Britain & France was becoming more democratic, but their colonies were dictatorships. Empire, was at odds with European notions of national independence & ranked racial classifications went against Christian & Enlightenment ideas of human equality. Europeans were also reluctant to encourage within their colonies, modernization, which was sweeping their own societies. Much contradiction of what Europeans embraced at home & practices in colonies.

Laboring classes

70% of Britain's 19th century population that worked in mines, ports, factories, construction sites, workshops, & farms. They suffered the most from the Industrial Revolution.

Transnational Corporation

A company that conducts research, operates factories, and sells products in many countries, not just where its headquarters or shareholders are located.

Jamaica Letter

A document written in Jamaica by South American revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar where he famously expanded his views on the independence movement in Venezuela and the way the government should operate.

What eroded working class radicalism?

A growing sense of nationalism that bound workers in particular countries to their middle class employers & compatriots. This offset some of the economic & social antagonism between them.

British East India Company

A joint stock company that controlled most of India during the period of imperialism. This company controlled the political, social, and economic life in India for more than 200 years.

Self-Strengthening Movement

A late nineteenth century movement, after the country had been subjected to imperialism, in which the Chinese modernized their army and encouraged Western investment in factories and railways

Guillotine

A machine for beheading people, used as a means of execution during the French Revolution.

steam engine

A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen built the first crude but workable one in 1712. James Watt vastly improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. It was then applied to machinery.

Haitian Revolution

A major influece of the Latin American revolutions because of its successfulness; the only successful slave revolt in history; it is led by Toussaint L'Ouverture.

Berlin Conference

A meeting from 1884-1885 at which representatives of European nations agreed on rules for the colonization of Africa

What insurrection happened in Mexico?

A peasant insurrection, the Hidalgo-Morelos rebellion, driven by want for land & high food prices, alarmed creole landowners. Alliance between clergy & creole elite crushed the rebellion & later brought Mexico to a more socially controlled independence in 1821.

Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid growth in the use of machines in manufacturing and production that began in the mid-1700s

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

Conservatism

A political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes.

Deism

A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.

What activity was provocative & threatening to authoritarian governments in Latin America?

A small segment of the lower class of urban workers who labored created unions engaging in strikes. Governments acted harshly to crush & repress unions & strikes.

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country

Socialism

A system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production.

Classical Liberalism

A term given to the philosophy of John Locke and other 17th and 18th century advocates of the protection of individual rights and liberties by limiting government power.

Indentured Servitude

A worker bound by a voluntary agreement to work for a specified period of years often in return for free passage to an overseas destination. Before 1800 most were Europeans; after 1800 most indentured laborers were Asians.

What generated a middle class culture of consumption?

Advertising agencies, Sears Roebuck's & Montgomery Ward's mail order catalogs, & urban department stores.

Why would the abolition of slavery in the Atlantic world be considered one of the greatest political and social achievements of the nineteenth century?

African americans finally treated as humans Let african to grow after decades of being behind in development and industrialization "Traditional slavery" ended but that didn't mean that illegal slavery didn't continue as well as indentured servitude

Cash crop farming in the southern Gold Coast of Africa. A British controlled territory in West Africa:

African farmers took initiative to develop export agriculture. They planted cacao in huge quantities & became world leading supplier of cocoa. By the early 20th century it brought prosperity to local farmers. But a labor shortage fostered employment of former slaves as dependent & exploited workers. Labor shortage brought a huge influx of migrants from dry parts of West Africa making ethnic & class tensions.

United Fruit Company

An American transnational business trading in bananas that became the most important foreign economic concern in Guatemala during the 20th century; attempted land reform aimed at United Fruit caused U.S. intervention in Guatemalan politics leading to ouster of reform government in 1954

Social Contract

An agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed

Unions

An association of workers, formed to bargain for better working conditions and higher wages.

What kind of empire did China become?

An informal empire in which it was dominated by Western powers but retained its own govt. & a measure of independence. China was now just another weak & dependent nation among many others.

What happened in the second half of the 19th century in Europe?

An intermediate social group that weren't laborers but weren't wealthy developed. Workers bettered their standard of living within capitalism. Wages rose from pressure of unions, cheap imported food improved working class diets, infant mortality fell, & shops catering to working class families multiplied. Sanitary reform cleaned up cities & capitalist societies demonstrated capacity to reform, contrary to Marx's expectations.

Congo Free State:

Area in Central Africa governed by King Leopold II. Private companies operating under state authority forced villagers to collect rubber with a reign of terror & abuse in 1890s. Outraged were publicized in Europe & the Belgian govt. was forced to take control of Congo & end Leopold's private control of the colony & reign of terror.

How did the aristocratic class decline from the Industrial Revolution?

Aristocrats had to make way for business men, manufacturers, & bankers as urban wealth became more important than landowning.

What did the abolitionist movement in Britain do?

As Britain forbade the sale of slaves in 1834, other nations followed from growing international pressure. British vessels patrolled the Atlantic & freed slaves from illegal ships. Latin American countries then abolished slavery by 1850s. The Russian tsar freed many serfs in 1861 but not from public pressure.

What does the text mean when it says that the Western nations, Japan, and Russia "carved out spheres of influence within China"?

As China's sovereignty eroded, other nations established their own power to do things in China. These nations granted themselves special privileges that previously weren't available to them. China lost more and more and its power as it continuously lost military defeats.

What was the Chinese Opium War?

As Commissioner Lin Zexu led the campaign against opium use as a drug, the British were offended by the seizure of their property in opium & sent a large naval exposition to China to end the restrictive conditions in their trade. Treaty of Nanjing ended the war in 1842 & restricted Chinese sovereignty opening up 5 ports to European traders.

How were Ottoman reforms?

Began with Sultan Selim III who sought to reorganize/update the army drawing on European techniques & advisors. Selim was overthrown & killed as there was hostility of the ulama & the Janissaries who saw this as conflict with Islam. Later, more far reaching reforms, Tanzimat, sought to provide economic, social, & legal foundations for new recentralized state. New factories, telegraphs, steamships, railroads, postal system, modern mining operations, reclamation/resettlement of agricultural land, Western style law codes & courts, & new schools began process of modernization & westernization.

Indian Rebellion, 1857-1858, crushed in 1858.

Behind this incident were many groups of people with a series of grievances generated by British colonial presence: local rulers who lost power, landlords deprived of estates, peasants overtaxed & exploited by moneylenders/landlords, unemployed weavers displaced by machine made textiles, & religious leaders outraged by missionary preaching. A mutiny among Indian troops in Bengal triggered the rebellion. Soon much of India was aflame.

Unification of Germany

Bismarck used his policy of "blood and iron" to unite the German states under Prussian rule by appealing to German nationalism and fighting against a common enemy in the Franco-Prussian War

What were other unequal treaties & how was China losing power?

Britain won a second Opium War that was accompanied by vandalizing of Summer Palace. Still more ports were opened to foreign traders. Now these traders could travel freely, buy land in China, preach Christianity, & patrol some of China's rivers. Chinese forbidden to use "barbarian" to refer to the British in official documents. In later military defeats, China lost Vietnam, Korea, & Taiwan. Western nations plus Japan & Russia made influence for themselves in China, granting themselves privileges to make military bases, extract raw resources, & build railroads.

How did cash crop production give an advantage to local farmers in Burma?

British authorities in Burma acted to encourage rice production among small farmers by ending earlier prohibition on rice exports, providing irrigation & transportation, & laws that facilitated private ownership of small farms. Local small farmers could now own their own land, build substantial houses, & but imported goods. Standards of living improved sharply in late 19th century & huge increase of rice production fed millions in parts of Asia & elsewhere.

What were effects of feminist movements?

By 1900, upper/middle class women could go to universities & literacy rates grew. In the U.S. women could manage their own property & wages separate from their husbands. Divorce laws were liberalized in some places. Professions like medicine opened up. In Britain, Florence Nightingale pro nursing attracted thousands. Social work became a female dominated profession in U.S.

How was change initiated in Russia?

By the state in its continuing efforts to catch up with the more powerful innovative states of Europe. State directed change continued with freeing of serfs in 1861. Thoughtful Russians thought serfdom seemed incompatible with modern civilization & held back development.

What were the natural resources the European countries received from African and Asian colonies?"

Cash crops (Rice, Rubber, etc) Copper and other conductors for industrialization Cheap labor gold/silver and other precious metals and minerals to contribute to the European/ world economy

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire (714)

What did changes do to the shogunate? How were merchants & samurai?

Changed undermined the shogunate's efforts to stabilize Japan. Merchants were the lowest class but prospered in the new commercial environment supporting a vibrant urban culture & sometimes lending money to daimyos. Samurai were of higher class but were often indebted to merchants. Some samurai renounced samurai status & went down the path of profitable commerce.

What caused massive Chinese peasant rebellions in 19th century?

China couldn't support its growing population & there was growing pressure on land, smaller farms of peasants, unemployment, impoverishment, misery, & starvation. The state couldn't effectively perform its functions: tax collections, flood control, social welfare, & public security. State lost power to province officials & local gentry. European military pressure & economic penetration disrupted international trade routes, created unemployment, & raised peasant taxes.

How might the succession of rebellions described in the text represent an expected political result according to the mandate of Heaven?

Chinese emperor losing power — delegitimization Emperor's pack of control—> local (corrupt) officials gained power—> peasants abused + economic hardships —> Taiping Uprising As monarchies lost religious power, disaster ensued (ie rebellion, poverty, disease, etc) Transition of power was tumultuous period globally Enlightenment ideas—> religious legitimacy decreased among gov —> monarch authority lowered

Where did Chinese immigrate? How were immigration restrictions?

Chinese migrants moved north to Manchuria. God rushes in Australia & California attracted hundreds of thousands Chinese who were subject to sharp discrimination. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, & the U.S. all enacted measures to restrict or end Chinese immigration in the late 19th century.

How was urbanization in Latin America?

Cities lost old cobblestones, white plastered walls, & red tiled roofs. They became modern metropolises with streetcars, telephones, & movies. Educated elites like the English drank tea & discussed European literature, philosophy, & fashion.

fossil fuels

Coal, oil, natural gas, and other fuels that are ancient remains of plants and animals.

In what ways is the forced labor described here similar to earlier versions of coerced labor?

Coerced labor is similar to forced labor in how both forms of labor consisted of someone of higher power requiring their subject (who is usually lower on the social scale) to do manual work that will end in profit for the higher power. Labor was always unpaid, but the amount worked and the situation varied depending on type of labor.

How did a small Western Educated class arise?

Colonial governments & private missionary organizations had interest in promoting European education. A small Western-educated class arose from this process. Europeans increasingly depended on the Western-educated class at the expense of more traditional elites.

Agustin de Iturbide

Conservative Creole officer in Mexican army who signed agreement with insurgent forces of independence; combined forces entered Mexico City in 1821; later proclaimed emperor of Mexico until its collapse in 1824.

Economic Imperialism

Control of a country's economy by the businesses of another nation or private businesses

What else besides social change undermined the Tokugawa regime?

Corruption was widespread. The shogunate's confidence & effectiveness was eroded as they didn't successfully deal with a sever famine in the 1830s. A mounting wave of local peasant uprisings & urban riots expressed the people's grievances.

What caused the Latin American Revolutions?

Creoles(native born elites) were offended by the Spanish monarchy's efforts to exercise greater power over its colonies & subject then to heavier taxes & tariffs. Creole intellectuals became familiar with Enlightenment ideas & led to scattered uncoordinated protests.

How were industrial factories & poor laborers?

Desperate people looked for employment in industrial factories. Long hours, low wages, & child labor weren't new to the poor, but the monotony of the work dictated by the factory whistle & need of machines imposed highly unwelcome conditions of labor. Rules & fines enforced work discipline.

Women in the Enlightenment

Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, intellectuals such as Rousseau offered new arguments for the exclusion of women from political life, which did not go unchallenged. Individuals who challenged Rousseau's position on women were Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Marquis de Condorcet

What did cash crop production do to French ruled Vietnam environmentally?

Destroyed mangrove forests & swamplands along with fish & shellfish that supplemented local diets. New dikes & irrigation channels inhibited depositing of silt & thus depleted soils in deltas of major river systems. This kind of agriculture generates large amounts of methane gas contributing to global warming.

Describe the environmental destruction caused by increased agriculture in various parts of the world in this period.

Destruction of forests and swampland, and the animals live there. Harmed ecosystems and led to starvation Irrigation helped deplete soil of nutrients Large amounts of methane gas - Global warming

What generated vast streams of migration in the 19th & early 20th centuries?

Driven by need for money, loss of land, or by orders of colonial authorities, millions of colonial subjects across Asia, Africa, & Oceania sought employment in European owned plantations, mines, construction projects, & homes. Internal migration in Africa occurred as Africans migrated to farms/plantations controlled by Europeans because they had lost their own land.

Instead of Industrial Revolution, what was developed in Latin America?

Economic growth financed by capital from abroad & dependent on European & North American prosperity & decisions. Power & influence was exercised by foreign investors.

Marxism

Emerged as the most famous socialist belief system during the 19th century. Saw all of history as the story of class struggle, and advocated for the overthrow of the upper class by the working class to eliminate private property.

What did the National Assembly (the 3rd Estate of commoners) do?

Ended legal privileges, eliminated feudalism in France, abolished slavery (briefly), Church lands were sold, & priests were put under government authority. They basically restricted elites.

John Stuart Mill

English philosopher and economist remembered for his interpretations of empiricism and utilitarianism (1806-1873)

How was slavery viewed in 1780-1890?

Enlightenment thinkers became critical of slavery & the violation of rights. Quakers & Protestants said slavery was repugnant to their religion. Slavery was viewed as not essential for economic progress. The Great Jamaica Revolt prompted Britain to abolish slavery. The British public came to believe that slavery was mortally wrong, economically inefficient, & politically unwise.

Who avoided colonization to which their neighbors succumbed to?

Ethiopia & Siam(Thailand).

What was nationalism facilitated by?

Europe's modern transformation as older identities & loyalties eroded. The Atlantic Revolutions changed this way of thinking as people desired independence from outside rule. People had pride in their country & felt themselves to be citizens of a nation bonded by culture, common experience, & blood during Napoleon's conquests.

How did imperialists join gender ideology?

European colonizers defined conquered races as soft & feminine. By linking the inferiority of women with people of color, imperialists joined gender ideology in support of colonial rule. Although, European men viewed their own women as bearers of civilization amid the darkness of inferior people.

How did race ideas influence European global expansion?

European expansion was seen as inevitable as it was natural outgrowth of a superior civilization. The civilizing mission made it that superior races had a duty to civilize inferior races.

How did Industrialization change the way Europeans perceived themselves & others?

Europeans developed a secular arrogance that fused or replaces notions of religious superiority. The flourishing elements, new technology, & ideas of their own society became the criteria by which Europeans judged themselves & the rest of the world. Opinions of other cultures dropped such as the Chinese. They justified conquest of people with less modernized societies living more with nature, distant from the high society of Europe.

How were Asian & African subjects, even those with an education, treated by Europeans?

Europeans generally declined to treat their Asian & African subjects, even those with a Western education, as equal patters in the enterprise of renewal. The frequent denigration of Asian & African cultures as primitive, backward, uncivilized, or savage rankled particular lay among the well educated. Educated classes in colonial societies everywhere found European rule more of an obstacle to their country's development than a means of achieving it.

What was significant about the Haitian revolution?

First slave revolution and first black lead independent nation in the Western Hemisphere

Congress of Vienna

Following Napoleon's exile, this meeting of European rulers in Austria established a system by which the balance of power would be maintained, liberal revolutions would be repressed, as would imperial expansion, and the creation of new countries in Europe.

What did the Russian Revolution of 1905 cause?

Forced tsarist regime to make substantial reforms: constitution, legalized trade unions & political parties, & National Assembly Duma. The limited political reforms failed to take working class radicalism. In 1914 40% of the workforce went on strike. Revolutionary groups spread their message among workers & peasants. These groups provided a language where workers could express grievances, linked workers from different factories, & furnishes leaders who acted with revolutionary moment arrived.

What were new forms of energy used in the Industrial Revolution?

Fossil fuels: coal, oil, & natural gas. Also guano which was a good fertalizer.

How were former slaves' lives transformed by the end of slavery?

Freedmen everywhere sought autonomy for their land & independent peasant agriculture was possible for some where unoccupied land was available in parts of the Caribbean like Jamaica. In the U.S. highly dependent labor emerged such as sharecropping to replace slavery & provide low paid indebted workers to planters.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

French Revolution document that outlined what the National Assembly considered to be the natural rights of all people and the rights that they possessed as citizens

How were trade unions?

Growing numbers of factory workers joined these associations in efforts to achieve better wages & working conditions. They were fearful to the upper classes from their strikes, which were attempts at nationwide organization, & threat of violence.

What are the important factors that contributed to nineteenth-century imperialism?

Growth of mass nationalism ➞ competitive relations with other countries Colonies and conquered lands ➞ symbols of status International power politics, emotional satisfaction of being categorized as being a rich, powerful, ambitious nation ➞ economic and social Ability to achieve goals because of industrialization and advanced technology Able to conquer choke points and control flow of trade

What made imperialism so broadly popular in Europe especially in last quarter of 19th century?

Growth of mass nationalism. The unification of Italy & Germany intensified European competition & this rivalry spilled into the struggle for colonies or economic concessions. Colonies & their spheres of influence became symbols of "great power" status for a nation & gaining anything to do with colonies(even w/ little economic value) was urgent.

What changes in legal status occurred in Ottoman communities?

Have non-Muslims equal rights under the law. More Christians were appointed to high office. More secular legislation & schools drawing off European models competed with Islamic institutions.

What did Edward Blyden ague?

He accepted that the world's races were different but argued that each had its own distinctive contribution to make to world civilization. He said that the uniqueness of African culture lay in its communal, cooperative, & egalitarian societies which sharply contrasted with Europe's individualistic, competitive, & class ridden societies. He praised the differences between African & European cultures.

What did Karl Marx believe?

He believed that industrial capitalism was unstable. He wanted a classless society that would end the conflict between the rich & poor. He thought that a revolutionary upheaval would give rise to a new society.

What did King Louis XVI do to raise taxes against people opposing the privileged classes?

He called the ancient representative body, the Estates General, in to action. The 3 estates consisted of the clergy, nobility, & the commoners. The 3rd Estate organized themselves into the National Assembly & claimed themselves the sole authority to make laws.

What did Napoleon Bonaparte do?

He tamed the revolution & it's radical elements & preserved its moderate elements such as civil equality, equality of rights, secular law code, religious freedom & promotion by merit. He suppressed the revolution's democratic elements with military dictatorship. He created the continent's largest empire since the Romans.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

He was Toussaint L'ouverture's general, and took up the fight for the freedom of slaves in Saint Domingue on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean sea. In 1804, he declared the slave colony an independent country, the first black country to free itself from European control, and named the country Haiti.

What were continuities and changes in the lives of people who lived in places that supplied Europe raw materials?

How were the Atlantic revolutions connected to one another? Economy controlled by Europeans Euros sought specific regional resources Abuse common (ie Belgian Congo) Westernization as defense mechanism Ottoman Empire altered gov, Japan industrialized, etc. Peasant unrest became more common Poverty increased

What happened as the 20th century dawned in Britain?

Immense inequalities still separated the classes. A wave of strikes from 1910-1913 testified the intensity of class conflict. Some socialists & feminists were becoming radical. The world's first industrial society remained dissatisfied & conflicted.

Russian revolutionary upheavals:

In 1898 the illegal Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was created. It was involved in workers' education, union organizing, & revolutionary action. In 1905, Russia erupted into spontaneous insurrection. Workers went on strike & created their own representative councils called soviets. Peasant uprisings, student demonstrations, revolts, & military mutinies contributed to he upheaval. Political parties came into the open.

Why do you think that indentured servitude gained popularity after the end of slavery?

Indentured servitude gained popularity after slavery's abolition because it was a way for people who required manual labor in order to profit to continue to receive it almost for free. Ultimately, it was the closest legal practice to slave labor.

What was the core of Japan's defensive modernization?

Industrialism. The govt. established enterprises which they sold to private investors. They also created a modern infrastructure by building railroads, postal service, & making national currency & banking system. Japan developed labor intensive industrialization relying on country's abundant workforce & less on labor replacing machinery. Japan became major exporter of textiles. Japan launched its own industrial revolution without massive foreign debt of investment.

How were countries governed in the Eastern Hemisphere under European control?

Informal control through economic penetration but not wholesale takeover. This was cheaper & less likely to provoke wars. But sometimes rivalry made outright colonial rule the only way & Europeans were more than willing to do this. Europeans took advantage of moments of weakness in local societies to strengthen their control like during droughts or famines.

How were the Atlantic revolutions connected to one another?

Inspired by Enlightenment ideas Ideas of liberty and equality central Sought end of monarchy Inspired by one-another (ie. American and French) Unrest with lower classes Wanted to expel foreign powers

What did the Russian socialist party do?

Inspired by Marx's teachings they seized power & launched the first socialist society.

How does the program of the Young Ottomans reflect this engagement with the culture of modernity?

Inspired by the enlightenment Pro-European parliamentary system as opposed to unchecked autocrats Pro-industrialization Liberal social views (gender, etc) Much more flexible religion (but not secular, that was the Young Turks) Embrace of science

What was the significance of the Industrial Revolution?

Invoked widespread social change: Working-class suffered (poor living conditions, disease, etc.) Spurred drastic urbanization Commoners forced to move to the city in order to make money Europe became the most technologically superior Local trades died out as mass production triumphed New ideal Logue's emerged as class struggles deepened: Nationalism —> downfall of empties (ie Ottoman) Socialism —> new economic and social systems in parts of Europe Capitalism —> shaped western economy in places like US Increased US significance in global affairs

Women rights in Japan?

Issues about marriage, family planning, & education were raised as Japan began modernizing process after 1868, the state soon forbid women from jointing political parties or attending meetings.

What did the American Revolution cause? How was authority?

It accelerated the established democratic tendencies of the colonial societies. Political authority remained in the hands of elites who led the revolution, although property requirements for voting were lowered & more commoners were elected to state legislatures. Political participation was widened.

What did Turkish conception of Ottoman identity do?

It antagonized non-Turkic people & helped stimulate Arab & other nationalisms in response. A secular nationality was becoming the most important public loyalty with Islam relegated to private life. Nationalist sentiments contributed to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire after WWI.

What contributed to the United State's industrialism?

It began in the textile factories of New England. The rise of large business enterprises such as the U.S. Steel Corporation. Self made American industrialists were admired as models of what daring hard work could achieve. To produce for a mass market, the U.S. pioneered techniques of mass production using interchangeable parts, the assembly line, & scientific management.

What did the French Revolution do for gender roles?

It didn't create a new society but raised the question of female political authority(because French women had were active in revolutionary events. Women had fought in the revolution.) Women made political demands & made women's clubs. In 1793, France banned women clubs & saw women unfit to do work outside of the family.

What was the idea of a tribe?

It was a European notion that facilitated colonial administration & reflected European's belief in African primitiveness. It was British attempts to rule then as a single people. Migrants to the city found it helpful to categorize theme selves & others in large ethnic terms. They organized a variety of ethnic/tribal associations to provide mutual assistance while in cities to send money back home. Migrant worker far from home concerned about protecting their rights to land to their wives & families found a sense of security in being part of a recognized tribe.

How was Japanese imperialism compared to European?

It's colonial practices now matched or exceeded the brutality of European practices. China & much of the Southeast Asia suffered under Japanese imperial aggression.

What was the Meiji Restoration & what caused it?

Japan agreed to a series of unequal treaties with various Western powers which eroded support for the shogunate & triggered a civil war & takeover by young samurai. The Meiji Restoration; the country's new rulers claimed they were restoring to power a young emperor, Meiji, 15. Their goal was to save Japan from foreign domination by thorough transformation of Japanese society drawing on all that the modern West had. Japan got a govt. committed to a decisive break w/ the past without mass violence/destruction.

What were Japanese transformations?

Japan defensively modernized. Samurai relinquished their role & as Confucian social order dismantled, all Japanese became legally equal commoners. Limits on travel & trade fell. There was widespread fascination w/ everything Western: it's scientific tech, political & constitutional arrangements, & it's legal & educational systems was sought. After enthusiasm for everything Western receded, Japan combined foreign & Japanese elements in distinctive ways. The Constitution of 1889 introduced a parliament, political parties, & democratic ideals

Other 19th century imperialism?

Japan's takeover of Taiwan & Korea was similar to European actions. Russian penetration of Central Asia borough additional millions under European control. The U.S. took over the Philippines from Spain after the Spanish American War of 1898.

What accompanied growing Latin American commerce?

Large scale investment by Europe & also the U.S. in Latin American commerce.

What role did Latin America play in global industrialization?

Largely unsuccessful compared to other civilizations as they didn't result in significant new change. Had a surplus of native exports: Silver, copper, tin, beef, rubber, bananas, guano, cacao, coffee and sugar. These sources of wealth led to foreign investment.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the British and French.

In what ways was nationalism promoted by political and cultural leaders?

Leaders appealed to ideas of the nation Made sure people were receptive of the ideas Use of central languages Install national loyalties

What were three natural rights stated by John Locke?

Life, liberty, property

How did the Ottoman Empire decline in the 19th century?

Lost considerable territory to Russians, British, Austrians, & French. Other parts of he empire achieved independence from nationalism & support by Britain & Russia. Central Ottoman state weakened b/c they couldn't raise necessary revenue as provincial authorities gained power. Janissaries became conservative, lost military edge. Competition from European cheap manufactured goods hit hard; led to urban riots on foreign imports. Series of agreements, capitulations, granted Western exemptions from Ottoman law/tax. Like Chinese unequal treaties, they facilitated European penetration of Ottoman economy. This eroded Ottoman sovereignty. Ottomans became indebt to foreign loans & led to foreign control of revenue generating system.

Nationalism

Loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality

What did the events in Haiti do to Latin America?

Made a deep caution & social conservatism in elites leading their countries to independence.

How were the conditions of the lower class in Latin America?

Majority lived in rural areas & suffered most & benefited least from export boom. Many farmers were pushed off their land as the govt. attacked communal landowning & peasant indebtness to wealthy landowners. Many became dependent laborers or peons in the haciendas with wages too meager to support a family. Thus women & children were now required to join the men as field laborers.

What was a problem with cash crops?

Many colonies became to specialize in 1 or 2 cash crops creating unhealthy dependence when the sole market prices dropped. African & Asian farmers were increasingly subject to uncertain rhythms of the international market as well as weather & climate.

Why did some people cooperate with colonial authorities?

Many men found employment & status in European forces. Higher ups & elites were able to retain much of their earlier status & privileges while gaining wealth by exercising authority. This was because the shortage of European administrators & difficulty of communicating across cultural boundaries made it necessary for colonial rulers to heavily rely on a range of local intermediaries.

How did Christianity spread among Africa & Oceania?

Many missionaries went to Africa & Christianity was associated with modern education. Thousands of African teachers, catechists, & pastors brought the faith to communities everywhere. In Oceania, local authorities sought to strengthen their position by associating with Christian missionaries, regarded as linked to influence of European/American power. In these island societies, mission Christianity provided social cohesion with its schools, clinics, & political counsels.

What were Marx's economic theories?

Marx believed that capitalism had fundamental contradictions built within its core that branched from the conflict of employers and employees. He theorised that this would not be sustainable and it would inevitably fall like the systems before it had, leading to socialism, which was the next stage of humanities economic development.

How was women's work in the colonial economy different from men's work?

Men began farming cash-crops for trade, forcing women to take on the subsistence farming. As men move in large numbers to work for Europeans, women become heads of the house Men control wholesale and import-export trade while women dominate smaller-scale trade/marketingWomen of impoverished families become virtually independent heads of the house in husbands´ absence

How was the gender hierarchy of labor in factories?

Men were in supervisory & more skilled positions while women occupied less skilled & jobs that had less opportunity for advancement. Girls & unmarried women were favored as employees in textile mills as they were more willing to accept lower wages.

Father Hidalgo

Mexican priest who established independence movement among American Indians and mestizos in 1810; despite early victories, was captured and executed

Young Turks:

Military & civilian elites who opposed the despotism made when Young Ottomans' reforms were suspended by Abd al-Hamid II under pressure of war with Russia. Young Turks avoided reference to Islam, advocated a militantly secular public life, & were committed to thorough modernization among European lines. They exercised real power from a military coup in 1908. They pushed for radical secularization of schools, courts, law codes, & permitted elections & competing parties. They opened modern schools for women & allowed women to wear Western clothing.

End of Serfdom

Most important reform of Russian Czar Alexander II; 1861-1865

What were Bantustans?

Most notably in South Africa, native reserved areas that became greatly overcrowded: soil fertility declined, hillsides were cleared, forests shrank, & erosion scarred the land. This ecological degradation was among the environmental consequences of African wage labor on European farms & estates.

Abolitionist Movement

Movement to end slavery

What happened to the U.S. after the Haitian Revolution?

Napoleon's defeat in Haiti persuaded him to sell the French Louisiana Purchase to the United States.

What happened during the brief period of radical reconstruction in the southern U.S.? What happened after the end of serfdom in Russia?

Newly freed blacks got full political rights & some power followed by harsh segregation, denial of voting rights, lynching, & racism. At the end of serfdom in Russia, peasants remained impoverished & politically volatile because when peasants got considerable portions of nobles' land, they needed to pay for the land with redemption dues.

Seperate Spheres

Nineteenth-century idea in Western societies that men and women, especially of the middle class, should have different roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as breadwinners and participants in business and politics

Why didn't socialist ideas develop in the U.S.?

No major political party emerged to represent the interests of the working class. The union American Federation of Labor focused on skilled workers & excluded more radical unskilled laborers, & refused to align w/ any party limited political influence. Mass immigration caused very diverse labor force on top of sharp racial divide which undermined class solidarity of workers. Also economic growth made a higher standard of living for American workers than European. Land was cheaper & home ownership available, workers with property found socialism less attractive. White collar workers diluted impulses towards radicalism.

What was the most significant outcome of the export boom in Latin America? It lays in what did not happen.

Nowhere in Latin America did the export boom start a thorough Industrial Revolution. This is because the social structure relegated 90% of its population of impoverished low class. Economically powerful groups like landowners & cattlemen greatly benefited from exporting agricultural products & had little incentive to invest in manufacturing. Political leaders embraced European doctrine of free trade & Latin American manufacturing enterprises couldn't compete with cheap high quality foreign goods.

What did opium do to China?

Opium transportation was illegal and smuggling into China flouted Chinese law. Officials were corrupted for being bribed to turn a blind eye. The massive Chinese outflow of silver reversed China's ability to attract much of the world's silver supply. China had many million addicts.

What did the Haitian Revolution inspire?

Other slave rebellions & boosted the abolitionist movement.

How was the Chinese & Ottoman experience of imperialism different?

Ottoman had more vigorous defensive modernization then half hearted self strengthening in China b/c there was lack of Ottoman internal upheaval like the Taiping Uprising. Ottoman nationalist revolts on periphery occurred instead of peasant rebellion at the center like in China. The Middle East didn't have explosive population growth contributing to much of China's crisis. Lastly, Ottoman leadership was Turkic, similar to population, while China's Qing dynasty was regarded as foreigners.

What happened when missionaries sought to ban female circumcision among African converts?

Outrage ensued. Thousands abandoned mission schools & churches, but they didn't abandon Christianity or modern education. Hey Crete's a series of independent schools & churches where they could practice the new faith & pursue educational goals without missionary intrusion. Christianity in Africa soon adapted to local patterns in Africanization of Christianity where churches were under African control.

How were European urbanized cities in the industrial era?

Overcrowded, smoky, insufficient sanitation, periodic epidemics, polluted water supplies, endless rows of houses & warehouses, & few public services. There was not much personal contact between the rich & the poor in industrial cities.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Overthrew the French revolutionary government (The Directory) in 1799 and became emperor of France in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

What were social results of the Japanese modernization/industrialization process?

Peasants slid into poverty as they were taxed heavily to pay for Japan's modernization program. There was sometimes violent protests as the countryside witnessed infanticide, the sale of daughters, & starvation. Females were badly needed for textile industry were working conditions were bad.

As Japan's modern transformation registered internationally, what happened?

Persuaded Western powers to revise the unequal treaties in Japan's favor. Japan was now recognized as an equal player in the Great Powers of the world. Japan launches its own empire building enterprise & gained control of Taiwan, Korea, & a territorial foothold in Manchuria. Japan became an imperialist power & was now an economic, political, & military competition in Asia to Europeans & Americans.

Scramble for Africa

Pitted European powers against each other as they divided up the continent among themselves. This occurred more deliberately & abruptly than in India or Indonesia. There was intense rivalries. There was hope that war among themselves would be avoided when European nations claimed land in Africa. It was difficult to subdue decentralized societies they couldn't negotiate w/ or decisively defeat as they had to conquer village by village.

What wage labor was available across Southeast Asia?

Plantations that grew sugarcane, rubber, teas, tobacco, & sisal. Hundreds of thousands of impoverished workers cans from great distances(India,China,Java) to these plantations where they were subject to strict control, houses in barracks, paid poorly, had common disease, & death rates were double that that of a whole colony. Mines were another spruce of wage labor for many Asians. Malaysian tun mines drew many millions of impoverished Chinese workers.

How were new countries in Latin America after independence?

Political life was turbulent & unstable. Conservatives favored centralized authority & sought to ally with the Catholic Church. Liberals attacked the Church in the name of Enlightenment values preferring federalism & modest social reforms. Conflicts between these two factions enabled military strongmen to achieve power. Constitutions replaces each other at bewildering speed as Bolivia had 10 & Peru had 8.

What were the environmental effects of industrialization?

Pollution of rivers, streams, and other bodies of water (including drinking water) Release of gas into the atmosphere ➞ start of global warming Exposure to smoke Mass extraction of nonrenewable raw materials ➞ altered landscapes

What political challenges to the abuses of capitalist industrialization arose in the U.S.?

Populists, small farmers, railed against banks industrialists, monopolies, the money system, & both major political parties. More successful were Progressives who pushed for specific reforms such as wages & hours legislation, better sanitation standards, antitrust laws, & greater governmental intervention in the economy.

What pushed 20% of Europe's population to migrate?

Poverty, rapid growing population, & displacement of peasant farming & artisan manufacturing. Also enormous demand for labor overseas, availability of land, & relatively cheap transportation of railroads & steamships.

How are migrations and European land confiscation linked?

Pressured to work in factories Migrate nearer to factories/urban area Migration for labor and money Wage labor Employment Labor migration Displacement

How were European 19th century colonial empires distinct?

Prominence of race distinguishing rulers as superior to the ruled as scientific racism occurred. Expressions of racial distinctions were very pronounced in places with a big European settler population. Racial system provided separate educational systems, residential areas, & public facilities. Centralized tax collecting bureaucracies, new communication & transportation, & integration of colonial economies into: a global network of exchange, public health/sanitation, & activities of missionaries touched the daily lives of many people more deeply then previous empires.

What happened when Europeans migrated to the United States?

Protestants from Britain & Germany were not welcoming to Catholics & Jews from Southern & Eastern Europe who arrived later. Newcomers were seen as inferior & un-American & blamed for crime, labor unrest, & socialist ideas. There was affordable land & many industrial jobs in the U.S.

What benefits did women gain from the colonial economy?

Provided a measure of opportunity for enterprising women in small scale trade & marketing. In parts of West Africa, women dominated this sector of the economy by selling foodstuffs, cloth, & inexpensive imported goods while men or foreign firms controlled the more profitable wholesale import export trade. Such opportunities gave women considerable economic autonomy. Women of impoverished rural families took advantages of new opportunities in mission schools, towns, & mines to flee restrictions of rural patriarchy.

What increased population in Latin America?

Public health measures brought down death rates. Safe drinking water, inoculations, sewers, & campaigns to eliminate mosquitos with yellow fever.

Gender roles in 19th century China?

Qiu Jin started a women's journal arguing that liberated women were essential for a strong Chinese nation, & become involved in revolutionary politics. Thus Chinese nationalism directed against Western imperialists, the foreign Qing, & China's traditional culture was born.

What changes occurred in the role of women in Meiji Japan?

Questions of women's equality and better rights were raised in Meiji Japan; many reformers, however, still viewed women in the context of mothers and wives and didn't push for equality. Women were exposed to education in the new government but it was segregated from male education. Women were barred from politics and rarely had a public role. However, female labor was needed in growing industries such as the textile industry.

What contributed to the social outcomes in Russia?

Radical class consciousness was development among factory workers b/c of harsh conditions & absence of legal outset for grievances. Conditions of life were similar to New York & Berlin. 13 hour working days were common while ruthless discipline & disrespect from supervisors created resentment. Grievances erupted in large scale strikes as there weren't legal unions or political parties.

What did the industrial revolution in Russia focus on?

Railroads & heavy industry. It was fueled by substantial amount of foreign investment. Russia had major industries in coal, textiles, & oil.

What were some similarities between China and the Ottoman Empire?

Rapid shift in power Less power Became "semi-colonies" that were part of the "informal empire" Could not create industrial economies or strong military power Nationist concepts Rejection of culture

Maji Maji Rebellion:

Rebellion in German East Africa from 1904-1905. Colonial authorities forced the cultivation of cotton which seriously interfered with production of local food crops. The massive rebellion persuaded the Germans to end the forced growing of cotton

Young Ottomans:

Reformers of lower-level officials, military officers, & writers, many who had a modern western education, who sought major changes in the Ottoman political system. Hey favored a European-style parliamentary & constitutional regime. They argued that Muslim societies needed to embrace Western technical & scientific knowledge & reject its materialism.

Maroon Societies

Runaway slaves in the Caribbean and Latin America who established their own communities to resist slavery and colonial authorities

What changed within Japan during the Tokugawa shogunate?

Samurai, in absense of wars to fight, evolved into a salaried bureaucratic class, but they remained devoted to daimyos. Peasants using fertilizers & agricultural innovations grew lots of rice & engaged in rural manufacturing enterprises. Despite prohibitions, peasants moved to cities becoming artisans & merchants accustomed to luxury. Japan became the most urbanized country & a literate population produced from Confucianism.

What new kind of racism did Europeans view the culture & achievements of Asian & African people in?

Scientific racism as they used science to support racial prejudices. They said whites' skulls were larger and thus more advanced. Race determined intelligence, moral development, & destiny. A hierarchy of races was formed. Lower races were called "child races". People with less modernized culture were called "big children".

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations a precursor to modern Capitalism.

Tanzimat Reforms

Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; established Western-style universities, state postal system, railways, extensive legal reforms; resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876

How were the working/social conditions in the U.S.? Response?

Serious social divisions separated the classes. Factory workers worked long hours. In Manhattan where immigrants disembarked, many lived in crowded building. Conditions generated much labor protest, formation of unions, strikes, & violence. When Eastern railroads announced 10% wage cut for workers, strikers disrupted rail services, smashed equipment, & rioted. <-Military came.

What did the gold & diamond mines of South Africa cause?

Set into motion a huge pattern of labor migration encompassing all of Africa south of Congo. Skilled & highly paid work was reserved for whites while African worked as unskilled laborers at a fraction of the wages paid to whites. They lived in prison-like barracks often surrounded by barbed wire.

What were the similarities and differences in working and living conditions in Russia, the United States, and Europe?

Sharp class divide Factory workers generated much frustration over working conditions and formed strikes, unions (only in America), etc Long hours, bad conditions, harsh supervisors Cramped housing, crowded cities People in America were more able to afford housing

What caused the French Revolution?

Sharp conflicts within French society as commoners were upset about the privileges of the aristocracy that they were excluded from & rising of food prices. Peasants were subject to hated dues from the state, church, & landlords. Nobility resisted taxes and the taxes were then imposed upon the commoners. Enlightenment ideas helped stimulate the revolution.

What was imported & exported in & out of Latin America?

Silver, copper that the electrical industry required, tin for cans, nitrates & guano used as fertilizer, rubber needed for tires, sisal used for twine, bananas, beef, cacao, coffee, & sugar was exported out of Latin America. Imports were textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, & luxury goods of Europe & the U.S.

Venezuelan Revolution

Simon Bolivar started liberation movement in 1810. Failed to capture capital, civil war broke out. Bolivar was exiled but returned, and liberated as well as became the president of Venezuela in 1821. 1822 Bolivar joined De San Martin to liberate Ecuador -- De San Martin fled to Spain as he wanted to establish a monarchy, Bolivar drove the rest of the Spanish out and created republics.

What were the economic reasons for ending slavery and serfdom?

Slavery wasn't essential for economic growth Most prosperous regions were based on free labor Growing belief slavery was economically inefficent Political and economic pressures for abolitionist nations, mainly Britain.

How was feminism's opposition?

Some academic & medical experts argued that strains of education & life outside the home would cause serious reproductive damage & depopulate the nation. Feminists were viewed as selfish & willing to sacrifice the family or even nation to achieve their individual goals.

How were women viewed by reformers in Japan?

Some argued that oppression of women was obstacle to country's modernization & family reform was essential to gaining respect of the West. However most male reformers understood women in the context of family life. A small feminist movement arose in the 1880s demanding a more public role for women. Some sought for right to vote although only s fraction of even men could.

Women's rights in Islamic world & China?

Some modernists came to believe that education & higher status for women strengthened the nation in its struggles for development & independence & deserved support.

How did Latin America try to be more like Europe?

Sought to attract more Europeans. They thought progress & modernity were derived from Europe. They increased their white population by recruiting impoverished Europeans.

Chinese self strengthening:

Sought to reinvigorate China while borrowing from the West. Made overhauled exam system. Support for landlord & repair of dikes & irrigation helped restore rural social & economic order. New industries like industrial factories remained dependent on foreigners for machinery, mats, & expertise. Self strengthening was inhibited by conservative leaders fearing that urban, industrial, or commercial development would erode power of landlord class. The failure of self strengthening was confirmed when the anti foreign Boxer Uprising erupted, led by militia organizations.

Jose de San Martin

South American general and statesman, born in Argentina: leader in winning independence for Argentina, Peru, and Chile; protector of Peru

Why did it take so much longer for Spanish American colonies to gain independence than it did for the North American colonies?

Spanish American colonies were incredibly profitable for the colonizers and were inhabited by people deemed a lower state of humanity through social darwinist lens. In addition, they were factionalised into a complex racial and class division which divided them further. All these divisions hurt the ability for unity and revolt against european control.

What did printing & the publishing industry do?

Standardized a variety of dialects into a smaller number of European languages which allowed the public to think of themselves as members of a common linguistic group/nation. This encouraged political & cultural leaders to articulate an appealing idea of their nation & ensure people will support the ideas.

Examine the internal and external factors that led to the decline of the Qing dynasty and the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century and their eventual collapse in the twentieth century.

State inability to keep up with rapidly growing population Unable to control tax, have public security, flood control, etc.Christian rebellion in China, rejected confucianism, daoism, and buddhism Disregard for traditional Chinese structures Called for abolition of private property and redistribution of land Lost to a western backed Qing empire ➞ weak central state and more power in provincial officials Taiping Uprising (plus other peasant rebellions) ➞ led to an even weaker central power Loss in Opium Wars against strong European power (Britain) ➞ unequal treaties Became a European-based informal empire ➞ showed that China was no longer a superpower and had become reduced to a weak nation

state-sponsored industrialization

State-Sponsored industrialization is the government or Country sponsoring industrialization instead of a someone outside the country example: Meiji reforms of Japan - railroads and factories in Tsarist Russia - China's self-strengthening movement

Why did stateless societies in Africa cause such a problem for the state-based empires of Europe?

Stateless societies in Africa caused major issues for the state-based empires of Europe because they created many differing factions and internal conflicts within imperial states set up by European powers in Africa. This inevitably creates instability within these large states and led to the eventual downfall of the imperialized lands as they were exceptionally difficult to force rule over.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution.

What did Tanzimat era reforms do for women?

Stimulated modest educational openings for women mostly in Istanbul; training program for midwives, girls' secondary school, & teacher training college for women. The reform class in the Tanzimat era favored Greer opportunities for women as means of strengthening the state.

Scramble for Africa

Sudden wave of conquests in Africa by European powers in the 1880s and 1890s. Britain obtained most of eastern Africa, France most of northwestern Africa. Other countries (Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain) acquired lesser amounts.

Cultivation system:

System of forced labor used in the Netherlands East Indies in the nineteenth century; peasants were required to cultivate at least 20 percent of their land in cash crops sold at low and fixed prices to govt. contractors, who then earned enormous profits from further sale of the crops. Many peasants became indebted to moneylenders when they couldn't meet those obligations. These demands & lobar excluding from food production caused a wave of famines mid 1800s.

How were colonizations of Australia & New Zealand?

Taken over by the British & was accompanied by large scale European settlement & diseases than reduced native numbers by 75%. These settler colonies became neo-European societies in the Pacific. Native Australians & Maori barely made up much of the population.

What enabled the rise of large business enterprises in the U.S.?

Tax breaks, huge grants of public land to railroad companies, laws enabling easy formation of corporations, & a sense of regulation of industry.

How did Latin America become increasingly connected to the global economy?

Technology of the steamship which reduced sailing time from Britain to Argentina, & the underwater telegraph that instantly brought he latest news of Europe to Latin America. The rapid growth of Latin American exports to industrializing countries occurred because countries now needed to food products, raw materials, & markets of the new Latin American nations.

What was the Terror & what followed?

Terror(1793-1794) led by Maximilien Robespierre & his Committee of Public Safety. He executed thousands of people enemies of the revolutions Robespierre was then executed & accused of leading France to a dictatorship. France tried to create a whole new society from scratch & the country became a republic.

Why did it take longer for Europeans to build their empires in Asia than in other areas, like the Americas?

The Asian powers had already established empires that were harder to subdue than the small Native American tribes of the Americas. Also in Asia, there wasn't a devastating disease that helped spur European conquest like in the Americas.

What was viewed as "the truth" before the enlightenment?

The Bible

How was the European conquest of India?

The British East India Company led the colonial takeover of South Asia. The fragmentation of the Mughal Empire facilitated European penetration. Similar to Dutch acquisition of Indonesia. But neither conquest has a clear plan. In India, it evolved slowly as local authorities & European traders made alliances with local states.

What did the American Revolution grow out of?

The British government tightened its control over the colonies to extract more revenue from them as Britain was drained into national debt from its global struggle with France, authorities imposed new taxes & tariffs on the colonies acting like a genuine imperial power. Colonists were angry because this challenged their economic interests, traditions of local autonomy, & identity of true Englishmen. They wanted popular sovereignty, natural rights, & consent of the governed.

What was Qianlong's policy?

The Chinese emperor sharply rejected British requests for a less restricted trading relationship. He said that China possesses all & doesn't need manufactures from barbarians. His policy continued pattern of previous centuries where Chinese authorities strictly controlled & limited activities of European missionaries & merchants.

What caused the Haitian Revolution? What did each class want?

The French Revolution set violence into motion. Enormous inequalities & exploitation set violence into affect. To grand blancs revolution offered greater autonomy & less economic restrictions on trade. They didn't like that the petit blancs wanted equality for all whites. Both groups opposed that the free blacks wanted equal treatment of all free people. The revolution offered slaves a personal freedom that challenged the slave labor system. During this confusion & brutality power gravitated towards the slaves led by Toussaint Louverture who defeated Napoleon's attempt to reestablish French control.

What caused the French Revolution to become much more radical than the American Revolution?

The French Revolution was far more radical than the American Revolution because it sought to wholly change society while the American Revolution wanted to maintain and preserve the older form of society. As a result, this caused the French Revolution to be far more violent (17,000+ dead at the guillotine) as it took much more effort and force to achieve the goals of a much further-encompassing revolution.

What inhibited the growth of a movement for independence in Latin America?

The Spanish colonies had been governed in a more authoritarian fashion than the British colonies & were sharply divided by class. Whites(the creoles who were upset with the govt.) were also outnumbered by Native Americans, Africans, & mixed.

How are the Young Turks an example of growing nationalism in the Ottoman Empire?

The Young Turks were an example of growing nationalism in the Ottoman Empire because they were a group who increasingly thought of the Ottoman Empire as a Turkish national state while advocating newer and more modern ideas.

Social Darwinism?

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion as it was seen as weeding out weaker people allowing the stronger to flourish. Suggested that European dominance inevitably led to destruction of backward people or unfit races.

Social Darwinism

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.

How were the British colonies in North America in the 16 & 17 centuries before the revolution?

The colonies enjoyed local autonomy as Britain was involved in its own internal conflicts. There was a degree of self governance in North America and colonial Englishmen saw this as their true identity.

What connection does the text make between the terms of trade with the British and the lack of economic development in China?

The connection that the text makes between the terms of trade with the British and lack of economic development in China is that Britain used China as an undeveloped market that allowed for trade to be one-sided to benefit Britain with China at the receiving end of a bad trade deal.

What contributed to the U.S. being the world's leading industrial power by 1914?

The country's huge size, ready availability of natural resources, expanding domestic market, & relative political stability. Capital investment financed its remarkable growth. 1/3 of investment came from Europe.

What do you think distinguished the lower middle class from the upper middle class and the laboring class?

The distinguishing factor between the lower middle class from the upper middle class and laboring class was simply a difference of wealth and job status. Although the upper middle class worked the same jobs as accountant, shopkeepers, managers, etc., they had more money and status than the lower middle class, who in turn had more money than the labouring class as well as status.

What caused the North American & French revolutions?

The expenses from costly wars between European imperial states (Britain, France, & Spain) prompted the British to levy additional taxes on the North American colonies & the French monarchy to seek new revenue from its landowners. These actions caused the North American & French revolutions.

Who opposed the feminist movements? Why/How?

The feminist movements where beneficial for women but they caused many people to push back equally on their ideas. Academic and medical scholars argued that women's education caused reproductive harm, in turn making feminists seem to be selfish. Some saw suffragists movements as a "foreign body". The Japanese state cracked down on feminism by forbidding women from joining political parties or attending any political meetings.

First Estate

The first class of French society made up of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church.

How was the end of slavery in the Islamic world?

The freeing of slaves wasn't required, it was strongly recommended as a mark of piety. The Islamic world didn't generate any popular antislavery movements. Slavery was gradually outlawed in the 20th century under the pressure of international opinion.

How did the Enlightenment cause the Atlantic revolutions?

The ideas that human political & social arrangements could be improved animated the revolutions as old ways of thinking like the divine right of kings, state control of trade, aristocratic privilege, and authority of church were no longer welcomed. New ideas of liberty, equality, trade, governance, religion, & human rationality came to be. Popular sovereignty was a core notion.

What was made after the Haitian Revolution?

The lowest class(slaves) became equal & free. French colonial rule was thrown off & the 2nd independent republic in the Americas was formed. Haiti was the 1st non-European state to emerge from Western colonialism. Destructiveness of the revolution contributed to Haiti's unstable politics & poverty. The French forced an independence debt onto Haiti which was a financial burden.

How did industrialization affect the middle class?

The middle class benefited as businessmen, doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, journalists, & scientists were required in an industrial society. Some upper middle class men rose to aristocracy. A middle class society arose with its own values & outlooks.

Women in Russia?

The most radical feminist activists operated with socialist or anarchist circles, targeting the oppressive tsarist regime.

British Raj

The name given to the period and territory of direct British colonial rule in South Asia between 1858 and 1947--from the time of the attempted Indian Revolt (Sepoy Mutany) to the Independence of India.

Meiji Restoration

The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism.

What did the end of slavery cause in the Caribbean sugar plantations?

The reluctance of former slaves to continue working in plantation agriculture caused a labor shortage & then a global migration. This caused a reemergence of indentured servitude. Indentured servants from India & China were imported into the Caribbean, Peru, South Africa, Hawaii, & Malaya.

Sepoy Rebellion

The revolt of Indian soldiers in 1857 against certain practices that violated religious customs; also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. In the aftermath of the rebellion, Britain made India a colony under the British crown.

French Revolution

The revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799.

How do the provisions of the treaties at the end of the two Opium Wars reflect social and cultural issues as well as politics?

The treaties at the end of the Opium Wars show how civilizations that didn't industrialize were left weak and unprotected against new technologies and armies

Why was the independent movement in Latin America shadowed by fear?

The violence of the French & Haitian Revolutions was a lesson to elites that political change could easily get out of hand & cause danger for themselves.

Laissez-faire economics

Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

What was a difference between the Latin American situation & the North American?

There was an impossibility of uniting Spanish colonies which were so much larger than the British. Distance & geographic obstacles between colonies was greater than in North America, which gave rise to distinct & deeply rooted regional identities. Simón Bolívar said that Latin America was ungovernable.

How was the French Revolution violent?

There were initial efforts to establish a constitutional monarchy & promote harmony among classes but it gave way to radical measures as there was fear the revolution might be overturned by internal & foreign resistance. Urban crowds organized uprisings, peasants attacked their lords' residences & burned documents recording their payments/dues. Also the Terror was the most violent phase.

When Christianity made modest inroads in India, what did intellectuals & reformers do?

They defined their religion's varied beliefs as a more distinct & unified religion known as Hinduism. There was an effort to provide a religion equivalent to Christianity for India. This new notion of Hinduism provided the cultural foundation for the ideas of India as a new nation, but it also contributed to a clearer sense of Muslims as a distinct community in India.

What happened in 19th century India that Western-educated men did?

They organized a variety of reform societies seeking a renewed Indian culture free of caste restrictions & errors that entered Indian life. Centered on improving status for women: campaigned against sati, ban of remarriage of widows, female infanticide, & child marriages while advocating for women's education & property rights

How was European imperialism shaped by the Industrial Revolution?

They was new need for raw materials & agricultural products of different countries. Imperialism promised to solve class conflicts of an industrializing society & avoid revolution as new markets could be created for the products of restless workers. Europe needed to sell its products abroad because there were more goods than Europeans could buy. Steamships made for easier travel overseas making acquisition of colonies easier.

19th century European colonizers classifying people:

They were extraordinary for counting & classifying their subjects. They controlled a vast amount of information, sought to organize it, & used it to manage the complex societies they governed. In India, the British found an idealized description of the caste system in texts & Brahmin ideology. The British invented or appropriated a Brahmin version of traditional India that they favored & sought to preserve.

What were values & outlooks of middle class culture? What characterizes their culture?

They were liberals, favoring constitutional government, private property, free trade, & social reform. Thrift hard work, moral respectability, & cleanliness characterized middle class culture.

factory system

This new system gradually replaced localized cottage industry. Workers were paid by the hour instead of for what they produce. On one hand it decreased the need for skilled labor, but in other ways it increased the amount of specialization due to labor being concentrated in factories.

American Revolution

This political revolution began with the Declaration of Independence in 1776 where American colonists sought to balance the power between government and the people and protect the rights of citizens in a democracy.

What drew Europeans & Americans into the Pacific Oceania during the 18th century?

Through exploration & scientific curiosity, missionary impulse, economic interests in sperm whale oil, coconut oil, guano, nitrates, phosphates, & sandalwood. In second half of 19th century entanglements morphed into competitive annexations as Europeans, the U.S., & Australia claimed control of the islands of Oceania.

How did governments instill national loyalties in their citizens?

Through schools, public rituals, mass media, & military & images.

Did imperialism provide anything positive to natives? Explain your answer.

To native elites, imperialism was very profitable and they managed to live relatively comfortable lives within the new structure. To native peoples, it had the side effect of globalising the society, allowing for technology and ideas to be passed from place to place with greater efficiency. None of this negates that the positives could have been achieved without imperialism and the negatives would not have been present.

Haitian Revolution

Toussaint l'Ouverture led this uprising, which in 1790 resulted in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule on this Caribbean island. This revolution set up the first black government in the Western Hemisphere and the world's second democratic republic (after the US). The US was reluctant to give full support to this republic led by former slaves.

What lead people to truth during the enlightenment?

Understanding of the world and natural laws

How were social changes in Latin America?

Upper class landowners gained, as exports flourished & their property values soared. Middle class dwellers grew in numbers & prosperity, as their skills proved valuable in a modernizing society. Most of the population was lower class & impoverished.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Urbanization, child labor, emerging middle class, spread of disease in living conditions

Mexican Revolution:

Vast inequalities led to nationwide revolt(1910-1920). Middle class reformers joined with workers & peasants to overthrow the dictatorship of Díaz. The army leaders of the rebellion, Villa & Zapata, were unable to seize state power as they focused on local/regional issues & had factionalism. The revolution transformed the country as workers got new rights & a new constitution. The revolution didn't have wide international impact.

Simon Bolivar

Venezuelan statesman who led the revolt of South American colonies against Spanish rule

Zulu Wars

War fought in 1879 between the British and the African Zulu tribes. The Zulu attempted to resist British and Boer expansion.

Opium Wars

Wars between Britain and the Qing Empire (mind 1800s), caused by the Qing government's refusal to let Britain import Opium. China lost and Britain and most other European powers were able to develop a strong trade presence throughout China against their wishes.

How were women in the Latin American Revolutions?

Wealthy women gave money & provided safe havens for revolutionary meetings. Peasant women served as cooks & carriers of supplies. Women couldn't join the revolution so some disguised themselves as men. But women continued to be wholly excluded from political life & remained under firm legal control of men in their families.

United States western expansion

Westward expansion overwhelmed Native American populations & involved the country in an imperialist war with Mexico. The U.S. sought territory for white settlement & practices a policy of removing & sometimes almost extermination Indian peoples. Reformers sought to civilize Indians on reservations where they were confined.

What gender roles arose during the Industrial Revolution?

Women in middle class were cast as homemakers, wives, & mothers in charge of making a haven & refuge for their men away from public life. An ideology of domesticity defined household activities(homemaking, child rearing, & charitable endeavors) & refined activities(embroidery, music, & drawing) the proper sphere for women while public life outside the home & paid employment for men

Describe women's lives in precolonial Africa.

Women were responsible for farm work, child care, and food preparation. Some were involved in trading.

What changes in middle-class gender roles and family dynamics happened during the Industrial Revolution?

Women withdrew from the workforce and did not work for profit anymore. The proper activities for women were defined as homemaking and refined activities while paid employment & public life was meant for men.

How were African women's lives changed by colonial economies? As labor migration occurred what happened to women?

Women's lives increasingly diverged from men's. In colonies with cash crop agriculture, men withdrew from substance production in favor of lucrative export crops. In southern Ghana, women assumed total responsibility for domestic food production while men dominated cacao farming. Men acted to control the most profitable aspects of cash crop agriculture & by doing so increased the substance workload of women. As men migrated to cities for wage labor, women had to supply food to men in cities to compensate for low urban wages. Women took over traditionally male tasks. Men & women increasingly lived in different world barely seeing each other.

What was the difference between the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks?

Young Ottomans supported Tanzimat reforms which tried to modernize the empire with growing secularity, equality among non-muslims and women, and constitutional government. Acting sultan approved reforms. Young Turks thought themselves as neo-europeans who wanted completely secular society and complete Europeanization. Took power in military coup.

Maximilien Robespierre

Young provincial lawyer who led the most radical phases of the French Revolution; his execution ended the Reign of Terror.

internal combustion engine

a heat engine in which the fuel burns inside the engine

Taiping Rebellion

a mid-19th century rebellion against the Qing Dynasty in China, led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus. The most destructive civil war in China before the twentieth century.

Monroe Doctrine

an American foreign policy opposing interference in the Western hemisphere from outside powers

Capitalism

an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

Third Estate (France)

commoners

New Zealand Wars

confrontations between the Maori and British troops over disputed land, Maori tribes lost

Declaration of Sentiments

declared that all "people are created equal"; used the Declaration of Independence to argue for women's rights

What are "push" and "pull" factors in migration?

environmental problems lead people to migrate and find work elsewhere (Irish Potatoe famine, etc) Prospect of better work (industry) Escape persecution (Liberia, etc) Settler colonies attract those who want cheap land Industrialization and other economic shifts create and destroy many jobs

Mexican War for Independence

led by Miguel de Hidalgo and others republic established in 1823 after gaining freedom from Spain

What was going on in Europe from 1770 until 1800?" PERSI.

nationalist thinking leads to rivalries Social revolutions (feminism, etc) Rise of socialism due to industrialization The French Revolution Loss of colonies Pollution from industrialization Urbanization French Revolution and the beginnings of decolonization lead to a revival of Enlightenment thinking

Second Estate (France)

nobility

Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing)

peace treaty signed by China and Great Britain, ending the Opium War but also greatly restricting Chinese control over their own trade with western countries

Natural Rights

the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property

Suffrage

the right to vote

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation