Archaeology Exam #2

UNESCO VS. OTHER ANTIQUITIES LAWS

"Let's say a tourist legally buys an incantation bowl, which is probably from the modern state of Iraq, in the Israeli licensed market. If the bowl was in the licensed dealer's collection prior to 1978 (the date of the Israeli law) and is a part of their inventory, the tourist purchases the bowl, gets an export license issued by the IAA, and can take it home legally. Even though Iraq has had antiquities law since 1936 (and maybe the bowl was stolen/exported illegally, unless the Iraqis have proof (e.g. a museum registry number on the bottom), then it's still legal. Complicating this: Israel is not a state party to 1970 UNESCO, so it's irrelevant. National laws always trump 1970 UNESCO because it's not really an enforceable law, more like an agreement between state parties."

TRANSGENDER ARCHAEOLOGY

"The goal of a transgender archaeology is not to re-populate the ancient past with modern trans men and trans women- that would be a blatant distortion of the archaeological record...What we can do is replace the narrow, reductive gaze of previous researchers with a more supple, subtler appreciation of cultural variation" (Weismantel 2013:321). UNGENDERING ARCHAEOLOGY "What seems to be most salient at Çatalhöyük was not a specifically gendered person with discrete sexual markers, but an unsexed human form." - Lynn Meskell "Instead of one biological male, one biological female, and their biological offspring, the people buried together at Çatalhöyük are genetically unrelated individuals of various ages and sexes...If these clusters of people represent families, their families were big, variable, and chosen: not small, heteronormative, and biological." (Weismantel 2013: 324) "'Ungendering' our interpretations doesn't mean claiming that gender didn't exist in the ancient past. Ungendering means conceptual uncoupling: pulling apart biology and culture, and de-linking aspects of gender and society that seem inseparable today." (Weismantel 2013: 324). Maya Young Maize God "This androgynous god lets us question one of the most unquestioned and most damaging assertions of modern gender/sex ideology, namely, that the idea of two sexes originates in nature itself, and expresses the will of God." (Weismantel 2013: 327) RETHINKING GENDER Man Woman Powerful Powerless Feminine Masculine Alive Dead Beautiful Fearsome Whole Divisible Human Non-Human Mother Killer

Environmental Injustice

- Across the globe, colonial practices have made colonized communities more vulnerable to climate change. - For example: flexible, local housing materials vs. imported, expensive concrete - To adapt to an age of intense climate change, non-colonial and Indigenous practices and lifeways are important sources of knowledge and inspiration.

Bioarchaeology

- In Europe, bioarchaeology encompasses the study of plant, animal, and human remains. - In the US, bioarchaeology references the specific study of human remains. - age, sex, stature, ancestry, health, cause of death, genetic relationships, evolutionary development.

Herd Profiles

- Killing Juveniles (Young Animals) = raised for meat - Killing Old Adults = raised for secondary products (milk, wool, dairy) - More Males are killed off meaning (few males = raised for breeding)

Indian Boarding Schools

- One of the most disastrous educational policies of this country was the forced removal of Native children to Indian Boarding Schools. - During the 19th and 20th centuries, hundreds of thousands of Native children were "reprogrammed" in government and religious-run schools. Denied the right to express themselves culturally, they were unable to practice their own religions or wear traditional clothing. Most insidious was the assault on Native languages. - Often children were beaten or had their mouths washed out with soap for speaking anything but English.

Sex vs. Gender

- Sex is a biological determination of male, female, or intersex based on anatomy. - Gender is a matter of individual subjectivity and cultural construction. Examples include man, woman, and transgender; masculine, feminine, and gender non- conforming. - Bioarchaeologists determine the biological sex of human remains.

Seasonality

- Some mammals produce annual rings of cementum around the gum line that are proxies for alternating seasons of want and plenty. - With this dental information, zooarchaeologists can reconstruct the season of death for animals. (Graphs)

Isotopic Analysis of Diet

- The ratios of 15Nitrogen and 13Carbon can be derived from tooth enamel and bone collagen to determine plant, marine, and animal dietary patterns.

Sourcing

- analyzing the constituent materials of artifacts to determine the origin of the resources used to make it - Ceramic Petrography Microscopic analysis of the clay and temper (inclusions) in ceramic vessels to determine their point of origin. - Trace Element Analysis Various methods for detecting the elements present in artifacts in only very small quantities. Isotopic Analysis - Chemical analysis to identify lead isotope signatures in metal artifacts. Ancient Greek Coins - Each polis (i.e. city-state) struck its own unique coin.

Sexing Skeletal Remains

- based on sexual dimorphism -differences of size and shape between the sexes - male bones generally bigger, longer, more robust - narrower pelvis, larger skull - female bones generally slighter and more gracile - wider pelvis, shorter rib cage and sternum The pelvis is the best skeletal element for sexing. - males have narrower pelvis - females have wider pelvis estimate of biological age - tooth eruption and wear patterns -Baby teeth central incisor (6-9 months) lateral incisor (7-11 months) canine (16-20 months) first molar (10-16 months) second molar (20-26 months) - Permanent 'adult' teeth central incisor (6-8 years) lateral incisor (7-9 years) canine (9-12 years) first premolar (10-12 years) second premolar (11-13 years) first molar (6-7 years) second molar (11-13 years) third molar (17-25 years) - A new ridge of tooth enamel forms approximately every 7 days. - bone fusion - bone micro-structure - size and number of osteons in bone - osteon - the chief structural unit of compact (cortical) bone - more and smaller osteons appear in bone with age

ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY

- the reconstruction of human use of plants, animals, and landscapes, and how past societies interacted with the environment sea and ice cores ancient shorelines submerged landscapes geoarchaeology - study of earth formation processes geomorphology - emphasis on the study of soils and sediments archaeobotany - study of ancient plant remains zooarchaeology - study of ancient animal remains diachronic - phenomena as they change over time • analogy: video or flip book synchronic - phenomena from a single point in time • analogy: photograph proxy data - indirect measures of climate and environment - Spike in the acid concentrations in a Greenland ice core, attributed to the 79 CE eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

SIR FLINDERS PETRIE - TYPOLOGICAL SERIATION

1880-90s Petrie excavated at Diospolis Parva • Predynastic (before 3100 BCE) cemetery • graves contained numerous ceramic vessels • decided to "sequence" the pots by style • developed a typological seriation sequence Petrie's Sequence Dating Strips Notice that this seriation technique requires paying attention to associated artifacts. seriation - chronological ordering of a group of artifacts or assemblages

3D PHOTOGRAMMETRY

3D Photogrammetry - extracting 3D information from photographs. • The process involves taking overlapping photographs of an object, structure, or space, and converting them into 2D or 3D digital models.

calendrical time

4th millennium BCE (4000 - 3001 BCE) - Sumerians create a 12 month calendar 45 BCE - Julius Caesar institutes a 365 day calendar with a leap year 1582 CE - Pope Gregory XIII introduces the Gregorian calendar

CHIEFDOMS - RANKED SOCIETIES

5,000 - 20,000 people, permanently settled • lineages (descent groups) of stratified status • chief from senior lineage governs all • status based on kin relationship to the chief • surplus production, given to the chief • sustains chief's retainers • redistributed to subjects • local specialization in craft production • chiefdom is center of power • permanent ritual or ceremonial center • elite graves and grave goods for chief and his kin STUDY OF RANK FROM BURIALS Burials as indices for social rank • Are burials patterned by sex or age? • Is there a pattern to grave goods that indicates status? STUDY OF COLLECTIVE ACTION PROJECTS - MONUMENTS How much labor was required to build the monument(s)? • How are the monuments distributed across the landscape? • Who is associated with the monument(s)?

WORLD'S OLDEST TATTOOS

61 tattoos, often a series or grouping of lines • Carbon-14 dated to 3370 - 3100 BCE Ötzi's tattoos are ca. 1300 years older than those on the Chinchorro mummy • For the time being, Ötzi has the world's oldest tattoos The oldest naturally mummified Chinchorro individual dates to ca. 7000 BCE. The Chinchorro Culture of Peru and Chile practiced natural and deliberate mummification thousands of years before the Egyptians. • Preceramic coastal fishing society • ca. 7000 - 1100 BCE • Preserved in the extremely arid Atacama Desert "The oldest tattoo that we have found was from the Chinchorro culture and was a thin pencil mustache tattooed on the upper lip of a male adult probably about 6000 BP." - Marvin Allison (1996: 126) Chinchorro mummy Mo-1 T28 C22 with mustache tattoo CALIBRATION ERROR! The original C-14 dating result was: 3830 ± 100 BP = ca. 3830 years before present. The date was published, however, as: 3830 ± 100 BC = ca. 5780 years before present. The real date of the Chinchorro mummy's tattoo is thus: 1880 ± 100 BCE

Greek Eye Cups

6th - 4th c. BCE, Greece • symposium wine-drinking vessel • humorous exterior and interior decoration

Footprints

AND a layer of volcanic ash with three sets of bipedal hominin footprints was found in Laetoli. • Animals, birds, insects and hominins, all escaping a volcanic eruption. • The volcanic ash dates to 3.75 - 3.6 mya. • Raised arch, rounded heel, pronounced ball of foot, forward- pointing big toe. White Sands Recent discovery of human and animal footprints in the gypsum soil of the White Sands National Park (dune formations). These footprints date to 23,000 years ago. Prior to this discovery, the earliest archaeological evidence for human in North America dated to 13,500 to 16,000 years ago. Many tracks appear to be those of teenagers and children, perhaps sent out by adults on "fetch and carry" tasks. - Animal tracks include mammoth, sloth, dire wolf and camel. Beds of ancient ditch grass seeds were used to date the footprints.

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS

Analysis of Use • design related to associated use of the vessel • considerations: containment, temperature control, disposal • study of shape and size of the vessel and its parts • identification of residues and/or use- related damage organic residue on interior of sherd

STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS

Analysis of non-utilitarian aspects of vessel design • decoration, but also shape and size • intentional, symbolic variations and unintentional production variations

SERIATION

BATTLESHIP CURVE The frequency of an artifact style starts low, peaks with popularity, and then declines as new styles become popular. Battleship Curve NEW ENGLAND TOMBSTONES Over time, the death's head tombstone was gradually replaced by the cherub design, which as eventually replaced by the urn and willow decoration. Remember: The percentage of tombstones from each decade should equal 100%. YOU seriate material culture all the time!

CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIETIES

Band: small group of <100 individuals who are related to each other through family and marriage ties Tribe: settled farmers or pastoralist herders, numbering from a few hundred to a few thousand; identity based on common ancestor; loosely organized with no central control Chiefdom: over several thousand individuals, with differences of rank and status embedded in lineage of ruling chiefs; subordinates give chief tribute, which gets redistributed State: populations reach much greater numbers, with centralized control that overrides kinship ties; differences of rank and wealth are fostered and maintained

ARCHAEOLOGY & CLIMATE CHANGE - THE CASE OF NORSE GREENLAND

Between ca. 1000 CE and 1500 CE, Norse people from Iceland settled the southern tip of Greenland. This new Norse society consisted of a Western Settlement and an Eastern Settlement. Did cooler temperatures precipitate the collapse of Norse society on Greenland? The Norse were inflexible, unwilling to utilize marine resources in favor of their cultural preference for farming and livestocking. • The Norse of Greenland died suddenly and violently. • (269) "...the last inhabitants of the Western Settlement farms starved and froze to death in the spring." • (272) "...at the end, [the Eastern Settlement] was like an overcrowded lifeboat...Starving people would have poured into [the Eastern Settlement], and the outnumbered chiefs and church officials could no longer prevent them from slaughtering the last cattle and sheep." (273) "We are increasingly seeing a similar phenomenon on a global scale today, as illegal immigrants from poor countries pour into the overcrowded lifeboats represented by rich countries, and as our border controls prove no more able to stop that influx than were the Eastern Settlement's chiefs..." EVIDENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FLEXIBILITY • The Norse built adjustable canals around their home farms and connected them to water reservoirs at higher elevations. The Norse replaced metal with easier to obtain, local bone and horn. Arrows made from reindeer antler, axe blades made from whale bone, etc. Fish remains have always been present at sites, just in small quantities. • Isotopic analyses on human bones from Norse graveyards confirm that the Norse of Greenland ate fish, and in fact their marine diet increased over time. • There is a Nordic tradition of emulsifying fish scraps and feeding it to livestock, which could explain the lack of marine remains at Nordic sites in Greenland. EVIDENCE OF GRADUAL ABANDONMENT Buildings are abandoned, not destroyed. • No sign of fire, no bodies left in the ruins. • Few artifacts left behind, suggesting the Norse packed up whatever they could carry when they left. Didn't leave in a hurry. • Those artifacts that are found appear to be deliberately discarded objects. Rising sea levels now reach or even submerge some Norse sites in Greenland. A MORE JUDICIOUS ACCOUNT • Through farming and pastoral practices, the Norse instigated significant soil erosion. • Through no fault of their own, they confronted rising sea levels that threatened shoreline settlement. • At a certain point, despite instituting innovative environmental and cultural strategies, they chose to leave Greenland for elsewhere.

Evidence For Bipedalism

Bipedal specializations are found in Australopithecus fossils from 4.2- 3.9 million years ago. Bipedal specializations are found in Australopithecus fossils from 4.2-3.9 million years ago. - Laetoli, Tanzania - Australopithecus afarensis skeletal remains - Skeleton 60% complete Female dated to 3.7 - 3.0 mya

Northwestern University

Campus sized doubled, with an increase of 85 acres of land created by artificial landfill. ANNENBERG HALL anthropogenesis - human impact on the environment

Historical Time

Christian - birth of Christ (1 CE) Islamic - Mohammed's flight (622 CE) Judaic - creation of the world (3761 BCE) Saka Hindu - King of South India defeated the Saka king of Malwa (78 CE)

WHAT IS THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHALLENGE?

Develop theories and methods that allow us to say something about humans in the past based solely on their (oftentimes poorly preserved) material remains • Can't talk to people about their actions • Can't observe people in action • Have to use objects as proxies for human practices

POSITIONS IN THE FIELD (DK if important)

Director - permits • funding • team selection and organization • project research design • field season logistics • public outreach • publication strategies Area Supervisors oversee excavation in the trenches • keep daily journals and records • make in-the-field decisions about excavation strategy Square Supervisors assist with the supervision and recording of excavation in the trenches • perform the more delicate and technical archaeological work Local Community Excavators receive wages for their work • acclimated to local conditions • extensive knowledge of soils, plant, and animal remains • supervised by trained archaeologists Specialists Specialists regularly go on site to consult and assist with special projects. Ceramicists - study ceramic artifacts Zooarchaeologists - study animal remains Archaeobotanists - study plant remains Bioarchaeologists - study human remains Lithics Specialists - study worked stone artifacts Conservators - restore and preserve artifacts Photographers - take high-quality photos of field work and artifacts Illustrators - produce high-quality drawings of artifacts for publication Epigraphers - study ancient inscriptions Registrars - document and catalog archaeological finds Staff Driver - provides transportation to and from the site Chef - prepares all the meals FUNDING MODEL

Hereditary Bone Defects

Enamel hypoplasia - thinning of the enamel that results in pitting or grooving in the teeth

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDING

Everything excavated needs to be labeled with context information. locus sheets - standardized data sheets for each context excavated locus - a discrete excavated unit or archaeological context (plural: loci); e.g. a distinct soil deposit, a distinct feature, like an oven, or a distinct deposit of artifacts daily journal - the archaeologists' observations and interpretations in the field drawing a top plan (plan view) drawing a stratigraphic profile (a section)

Sea & Ice Cores

Forams provide proxy (indirect) data on sea levels and temperatures. • Changes in different species over time • Changes in one species over time This "foram" (Globotruncana falsostuarti) lived about 75 million years ago. This little guy, no wider than a human hair (!) lived in 28°C (82°F) seawater. during colder periods, forams absorb more 18O during warmer periods, forams absorb more 16O

HANDEDNESS

Gargas Cave, France Upper Paleolithic Period ca. 25,000 BCE 90% of modern humans are right handed 136 of the 158 stencils are of left hands (86%)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Goal: Detect individual sites for mapping, recording and archaeological excavation • Surface survey - collection information from the ground, like artifacts and architectural remains, to identify sites • Remote sensing survey - non-surface survey to collection information that identifies sites • Sub-surface surveys - collection site information below the surface • e.g. shovel test pits and ground penetrating radar • Aerial and satellite surveys - collection site information from remote imaging and scanning • e.g. drone and laser technologies FIELD WALKING Field walking: done by walking in transects, straight strips of land Field walking: find scatters of building remains and artifacts, with the naked eye VEHICULAR RECONNAISSANCE Vehicular reconnaissance: finding conspicuous sites on the landscape by vehicle GRID SURVEY Grid survey: grid drawn over the survey area, and then several units are selected (randomly or systematically) for intensive ground survey ADDITIONAL SURVEY CONCEPTS Site - any discrete, bounded location where humans lived, worked, or carried out a task Off-site - places with a low density of artifacts or features • one of the real challenges of archaeological survey -where do sites end? Landscapes - spaces that contain the material imprints of human groups • emphasis on land use, as opposed to occupation Visibility - How well can you see artifacts and architectural features on the ground? Obtrusiveness - How much did humans impact this survey area in the past? Accessibility - How easy is it to reach the survey area and study it? SAMPING METHODS 100% coverage - extremely rare in archaeological survey, especially for large sites or regional surveys Total of 8 sights: • 1 historic wagon trail • 3 archaic burial sites • 1 Palaeoindian quarry • 1 historic homestead • 2 archaic settlements NON-PROBABILISTIC JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING, NON-PROBABILISTIC SAMPLING conducting survey based on archaeologist's judgement of where to search • strengths - concentrates on most likely areas of human activity • higher probability of finding sites and finding them more fully • usually less expensive and time consuming • weaknesses - introduces bias in sampling • some sites/activity areas could be missed entirely • extrapolating predictions for the survey area at large is not possible Non-probabilistic sampling - areas excavated are those already known (e.g. readily visible) to the archaeologist Eg. Total of 2 sights: • 1 historic wagon trail • 1 historic homestead

HARRIS MATRIX

Harris Matrix - a way of illustrating the sequence of deposits in a stratigraphic profile; developed by Edward Harris in 1973 (processual archaeology) Pits 3 and 5 were cut at the same time into Layer (or Stratum) 6. • Then, Pits 3 and 5 were filled at the same time with Deposits 2 and 4. • Lastly, Layer 1 covered the whole area.

Malnutrition

Harris lines - growth arrest lines in bones that indicate malnutrition

ENVIRONMENTAL INJUSTICE (DOUGLASS & COOPER 2019)

Histories of colonialism and imperialism matter. Timeline of significant periods of change in interlinked human-environment dynamics Across the globe, colonial practices have made colonized communities more vulnerable to climate change.

Cognitive Archaeology

How do archaeologists make inferences about what people thought in the past, including worldviews, beliefs, intellectual frameworks, and values? Cognitive Archaeology - archaeology that focuses on ideology; also referred to as "archaeology of the mind" Cognitive Archaeology is part of the theoretical commitments of Post-Processual Archaeology. New Archaeology/Processualism - dismissive of cognitive archaeology • studies of cognition to do not lend themselves easily to scientific, hypothesis-based testing Lewis Binford: it is the actions of people that matter most, not their thoughts - actions can be empirically investigated - Cognitive Archaeology develops explicit theoretical and methodological procedures for analyzing human thought in the past. cognitive map - mental representation(s) of the world • our interpretative framework for being in the world • processing the past, present, and future world view - shared, communal mind set • communities who live together, share the same culture, and speak the same language often share the same world view **These assumptions of a shared, communal mind set will be challenged by feminist and queer archaeologies.**

Domestication

In general: Animals get smaller, plants get larger.

Ancient shorelines

Indiana Dunes along Lake Michigan Diachronic (i.e. long term) development of the Indiana Dunes shoreline Aerial and satellite imagery can help detect submerged, shallow-water sites. Pre-Hispanic Queen Conch Shell Middens, Venezuela • the location of shell middens can be an accurate identifier of earlier coastlines Coral reefs grow to sea level height, sometimes creating horizontal shoreline sequences DOGGERLAND • Mesolithic landscape between the English Channel and Norwegian Coast • submerged under water between 18,000 - 5000 BCE • discovered and reconstructed using seismic data

The Variety of Human Remains

Inhumation: the burial of human remains Cremation: the burning of human remains Primary Burial: first deposition of human remains - eg. Chinchorro mummy from Atacama desert of northern Chile, ca. 5000 BCE, & jar burial from Azerbaijan, date unspecified Secondary Burial: re-deposition of human remains -eg. Nawamis tombs, Sinai Desert, Egypt, ca. 4th millennium BCE - ossuary: a container or room into which bones are placed - eg. Roman period stone ossuary from Israel

potassium-argon dating

K-Ar Dating • used by geologists to date volcanic rocks • one of the most important dating techniques for early human sites in Africa • sites within the Rift Valley, formed by volcanic activity • can supply dates for samples older than 100,000 years based on the radioactive decay of Potassium (K)40 relative to the inert gas Argon(Ar)40 in volcanic rocks • the formation of the rock through volcanic activity = 0 date • half-life - 1.3 billion years

LOCUS/LOCI

Locus - a discrete excavated unit or archaeological context (plural = loci) What counts as a locus is up to the archaeologist. Examples: • Change in soil color • Change in artifact deposits • Pit • Hearth • Floor Loci are used by archaeologists in the field for recording, as well as in Harris Matrices. Every bucket of dirt excavated needs to be assigned a context, often expressed as a locus.

Egyptian Chronology

Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian, wrote Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt) in the 3rd c. BCE during the time of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. • He recorded the reign of Egyptian pharaohs, in order by dynasty. • The papyrus text (written in Greek) is not complete, but it provides a baseline for establishing an absolute chronology. Turin Royal Canon - Egyptian papyrus from the reign of Ramesses II (New Kingdom, 13th c.) • found in Luxor by an Italian traveler in 1820 • originally a tax roll, but a list of rulers of Egypt was written on the back • fragmented, but nearly complete list of kings up to the 19th Dynasty • corresponds approximately to the dates of dynasties by Manetho dynastic lists cross-checked with Egyptians' astrological observations • Egyptian dates reliable from 1500 BC, ±20 years • after 3100 BC, ± 200 years

Mayan Calendar

Mayan Sacred Round • small wheel of 1-13 numbers • large wheel of 20 named days • integrated with 18 month solar year MAYAN APOCALPYSE? End of the World (?) • December 23, 2012 • end of the 4th world, beginning of the 5th Stela C from Quirigua Inscription of the date for the "Last Creation" December 23, 2012

mDNA Analysis

Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) - genetic material passed on only by females • Altered over generations only by mutations

aDNA (ANCIENT DNA) ANALYSIS

NEANDERTHAL GENOME PROJECT - produced the first whole genome sequence in the Neanderthal genome e.g Sequenced aDNA from Neanderthal bones recovered in Vindija Cave, Croatia. NEANDERTHAL GENOME PROJECT - Neanderthal DNA is 99.7% identical to present-day human DNA Petrous bone, which protects the inner ear, is a great source of aDNA. • Hard, dense bone in the skull • Preserves aDNA even in warmer climates

Moche Sex Pots

Northern coast of Peru • Ca. 150 - 800 CE • Found in elite contexts, especially graves • Emphasize sexual acts, sex organs, and the movement of fluids between bodies

Disability & Disease

Osteoporosis: Vertebral Body Changes - compression facture, trabecular architecture is classic leprosy- an infectious disease that causes severe, disfiguring skin sores and nerve damage in the arms, legs, and skin areas around the body - evidence of leprosy in foot bones: joint damage and narrowing of the toe bones

Puzzle Jugs

Popular in Northern Europe from Medieval period to 1800s • Inscription challenges the drinker to drink without spilling • But the neck is perforated • The solution is to suck from the spout, which runs a tube through the handle of the jug

REMOTE SENSING & ARIEL SURVEY

REMOTE SENSING remote sensing - survey methods using technologies that detect surface and subsurface archaeological remains from a distance • aerial reconnaissance • ground-penetrating reconnaissance ARIEL SURVEY Drone photography is now the most common form of aerial survey in archaeology Satellite Imagery Global Xplorer° - public, crowd-sourced satellite reconnaissance LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Uses a pulsed laser beam to create 3D digital models of the landscape and its features. Aerial photography can not penetrate vegetation. • LiDAR can go wherever light can go. • LiDAR sends out pulses that reflect multiple points, and captures data on points that hit the ground. Able to detect features under vegetation. Extremely useful in forested regions. LiDAR is also utilized in treeless environments. • Able to detect and emphasize ancient features on the landscape. SUB-SURFACE SURVEY - ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY electrical resistivity - measures variations in the resistance of the ground to an electrical current MAGNETOMETERY magnetometry - measures variations in magnetic fields under the ground surface GROUND PENETRATING RADAR ground penetrating radar - detects subsurface features reflected off of radar waves

KING RICHARD III CASE STUDY

Richard III was king of England from 1483 until his death in 1485. • Died in the Battle of Bosworth, defeated by Henry Tudor. • Buried in Leicester at the Grey Friars church. • In 2012, archaeologists were enlisted by the Richard III Society to excavate the Grey Friars compound and search for his grave. No coffin • No shroud • Hastily dug grave • Hands possibly bound at the wrist SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR TRAUMA 1. Back of the Skull - a halberd tip may have caused the 10cm penetrating injury 2. Killing Blow - A sword was most likely used to deliver blow to the back of his head 3. Face - Three major facial injuries were caused by a dagger - possibly after his helmet was removed ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF DIET - The ratios of 15Nitrogen and 13Carbon can be derived from tooth enamel and bone collagen to determine plant, marine, and animal dietary patterns. Isotope Analysis - Richard III had a protein-rich diet that included 25% seafood. He first lived in eastern England, moved to western England, and returned to eastern England. GUT ANALYSES Soil samples were taken from the gut area of the burial to look for seeds, pollen,phytoliths or parasites that would provide information on Richard's diet. - A roundworm egg from a soil sample taken near Richard's tailbone Richard had intestinal roundworms. mDNA MATCH TO LIVING RELATIVES - Richard had no living direct descendants. • Mitochondrial DNA passed down by the mother can be traced among descendants in the female line. • Two known female line living relatives have been identified and tested: Wendy Duldig and Michael Isben. Facial Reconstruction All of the surviving portraits of Richard III were painted after his death... Reburial Richard III was reburied in Leicester Cathedral on March 26, 2015. One of the funeral attendees and speakers was British actor Benedict Cumberbatch. He a second cousin of Richard III, 16 times removed.

SCIENTIFIC TIME & DATING CONVENTIONS

Scientific - BP: "Before Present" (1950 CE)

TOOLS OF THE TRADE

Shovel- For opening trenches, straightening the sides of the trench, or peeling back layers of soil. (Pointing) Trowel, Marshalltown, WHS - For small-scale dirt removal (e.g. excavating a pit or hearth). Hand Pick: For medium-scale dirt removal (e.g. pebble floors or mudbrick debris). Pick Axe: For large-scale dirt removal (e.g. digging through the 'plow zone'). Brushes: For delicate excavation (e.g. a fragile artifact) and constant cleaning. Dental Pick: For delicate work, especially skeletal remains. Plumb Bob: For accurate measurements. Line Level: For accurate measurements SIFTER/SIEVE/SCREEN: To retrieve microartifacts (e.g. lithic flakes, coins, beads, buttons etc.), soil is sifted (a.k.a. sieved or screened). SURVEY EQUIPMENT Dumpy Level - survey equipment used to measure the elevation of archaeological finds stadia rod Total Station - GIS survey equipment used to record horizontal and vertical location of archaeological finds Prism

WADSWORTH ET AL. 2021 - GPR & UNMARKED GRAVES

Since the end of May 2021, ground- penetrating radar has identified well over 1,000 human remains, mostly of children, at former sites of the residential schools, the last of which closed in 1996, where thousands of children were forcibly sent by the government to assimilate. At the request of the Chipewyan Prairie First Nation, ground- penetrating radar was conducted by archaeologists to detect unmarked graves at the Cowpar Lake Burial Ground in Alberta, Canada. • Indigenous stakeholders appreciate that GPR is a non-invasive survey technique. • Combined with community-driven research designs, GPR can be an effective method of Indigenous Archaeology. • Relying on Indigenous Knowledge and participation, archaeologists sought to delineate the extent of a gravesite for Indigenous residents who succumbed to the Spanish Flu of 1918-19. RESULTS • 12 graved-shaped features were confirmed. • Another 6 features are probable graves.

SURFACE TREATMENTS

Slip - mixture of clay and water applied to surface before firing Paint - pigment applied to the surface after firing Glaze - like a slip, but with more glass (silica) added for more gloss Ceramic surfaces that are vitrified or glazed (i.e. have a glassy appearance) are fired at temperatures exceeding 900°C, probably in an enclosed kiln.

SMUDGING & FEAST (NU Event)

Smudging is the practice of burning sage and/or other medicines for cleansing, purifying and healing purposes. Join us for a smudging ceremony led by a Northwestern community member. It is a chance to come together as a community to prepare for the days ahead and is a great start to Native American and Indigenous Heritage Month. Students, faculty and staff are all welcome to attend. Lunch will be served. Often, an abalone shell, representing water, will be the vessel for a smudge bowl. The unlit sage represents earth, the lit sage fire, and the smoke represents air. Eagle feathers are often used to move the smoke in the desired direction, carrying thoughts and prayers.

Ancient Baby Bottles

Start to appear around 5000 BCE in Central Europe • Bottles shown above (in green) from Germany, ca. 3000 years ago, held goat or cow milk • Found in children's graves • Bottle feeding associated with the rise of agriculture and domesticated animals • Shortened the weaning period • Improved infant mortality rates

clock time

The Egyptians were the first to divide a day into 24 hours, based on the sundial. - 13th century BCE Egyptian sundial The Babylonians developed the concept of the 60 minute hour and 60 second minute. - Babylonian Numerals

ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF DIET - zooarchaeologists

The ratios of 15Nitrogen and 13Carbon can be derived from tooth enamel and bone collagen to determine plant, marine, and animal dietary patterns. Bone collagen resides in the fibers that make up the outside layer of hard, compact bone. Seasonality Some mammals produce annual rings of cementum around the gum line that are proxies for alternating seasons of want and plenty. With this dental information, zooarchaeologists can reconstruct the season of death for animals.

thermoluminescence dating

Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating • used to date crystalline materials (i.e. minerals) buried in the ground that have been fired • e.g. pottery, baked clay, burnt stone, burnt soil • minerals trap radiocarbon energy from organisms decaying around them • TL accumulates in a sample when it is originally exposed to fire (0 date) • refiring the sample at 500 degrees Celsius releases the TL, which can be measured and dated Terracotta head from Jemaa, Nigeria dated to 1520 ± 260 BCE through TL

FEMINIST ARCHAEOLOGIES

Tiffany Fryer Teresa Raczek INTERSUBJECTIVITY "...a shared understanding between two or more people..." (page 8) "A feminist approach to intersubjectivity acknowledges the role of gender and power dynamics embedded in the co-constitution of selves as well as embodied knowledge of the material world." (page 13) Who you are and how you understand the world is being constantly refashioned by your relationships with others. • These relationships include community- building through heritage (making). THE INTERSECTIONS OF INDIGENOUS, FEMINIST & QUEER ARCHAEOLOGIES Multivocality is needed: the incorporation of perspectives, approaches and knowledge from communities that have been "othered" by archaeology, including indigenous communities. Intersubjectivity: Not just the presentation of multiple narratives, but also a recognition of when various viewpoints overlap, or don't. There will be times when narratives (of heritage, e.g.) conflict, and times when they coincide. Feminist intersubjectivity appreciates the dynamics of these moments, which are informed by the identities and experiences of the people involved in the production of these narratives. INTERSUBJECTIVE ARCHAEOLOGY How does an archaeologist practice intersubjective archaeology? • Get to know the people in the community you work in. Build trust. Whitney Battle-Baptiste argues that during excavation seasons, attending local church services and barbeques enhanced her connection to the community and the archaeological research. She writes, "this was all to just figure out what this place was and what it meant to the Black people who lived around the museum. Those conversations changed the way I saw the work I was doing on the site on a daily basis, but it also gave me the strength to continue when being at [Andrew Jackson's Tennessee planation] the Hermitage got difficult" (Battle-Baptiste 2011: 74) INTERSECTIONALITY Intersectionality "highlight[s] the myriad ways that some persons encounter amplified forms of oppression because they belong to multiply- oppressed groups..." (Fryer and Raczek 2019:14). Individual identities form from the cross-cutting of multiple subjectivities, including gender, race, and class, and each one of these axes of identity provoke experiences of prejudice and/or entitlement. Crenshaw's concept of intersectionality "challenges early feminist assumptions that middle class white women's experiences are universal. It centers instead on black women's experiences occupying the multiple and complex categories of race, gender, class, religion, and sexuality." (Fryer and Raczek 2019: 14). How does an archaeologist practice intersectional archaeology? Acknowledge that your understanding of the past is being informed by your identity. "I wish to highlight that my identity often urges me to ask different questions, see from different perspectives, and maintain an ongoing and honest dialogue with my colleagues and various stakeholders." (page 21) A QUEER RAMPAGE THROUGH PREHISTORY How does an archaeologist practice intersectional archaeology? • Ask ourselves who we see and don't see in the archaeological record, and why. "...a queer rampage driven by a determination to overturn this systematic repression of knowledge, which constitutes a structural violence perpetrated against people, past and present, who do not conform to contemporary norms of gender" (page 320). "My focus here is on a modern form of violence: the systematic erasure of lives and histories that are inconveniently queer. Viewed through transgender eyes, the modern history of archaeology looks a little like the history of medicine: where the body of evidence does not fall neatly into a gender binary, the academic doctors just lopped off what doesn't fit" (page 320). VIX, FRANCE ca. 480 BCE "princely grave" from 500 - 480 BCE • early La Tene period • Discovered in 1953 INTERPRETING GENDER • men and women shared many objects of adornment • what primarily distinguishes genders is quantity and placement of objects • women were able to occupy positions of high status in Iron Age Europe • need to accommodate a less androcentric view of the past MOVING BEYOND THE GENDER BINARY • Rather than insisting on determining this individual as man or woman, what if we opened up the possibility that they were transgender or gender non-conforming?

Dendrochronology

Tree-Ring Dating (Dendrochronology) provides dates as far back as last 8000 years • developed in 1930 by American astronomer A.E. Douglass • put into widespread use in the 1960s • independent method of dating • calibrates or corrects radiocarbon dating A.E. Douglass • relied on well-preserved wood from the American southwest to create dating record • used for SW Amerindian sites like Mesa Verde and Pueblo Benito most trees produce new ring of wood every year • variations in ring thickness based on: 1) age (older is narrower), and 2) climate (drier, darker, and colder is narrower) • trees of the same species in the same area produce comparable records • these records can be matched and spliced to create long sequences The accuracy and application of tree-ring dating is dependent on the species and the region where the wood cross-section is collected • Ireland - dates to 5300 BCE • Germany - dates to 8500 BCE • US - dates to 6700 BCE Limitations • not applicable in tropical regions, where trees don't produce annual rings • have to rely on species that have a master sequence • that species has to be used by people in the past • a sample of that species must preserve a cross-section of tree Dating Considerations • tree-ring date refers to when a tree was felled • timber might be reused, and thus older than context in which it is found • wood might be part of a restoration or repair, and thus younger than the context in which it is found

Uranium Series Dating

Uranium (Ur) Series Dating • based on the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium • relies on samples of travertine - a form of limestone created by water activity • e.g. speleothems - mineral deposits in caves formed from ground water • provides dates for samples between 500,000 - 50,000 years old • useful for sites without volcanic rocks • e.g. early human cave sites in Europe

Symbolism

What are symbols? And when do we use them? • anything that stands in for something else - images, words, objects What does it mean to say that symbols are "arbitrary"? • the symbolism does not come from anything intrinsic to the symbol • but arbitrary does not mean random - symbols arise from particular cultural contexts and traditions What is American about apple pie? • First recorded use of the expression in 1851. • Sweet apples are not endemic to North America (just the sour crab apple). • Nor is pie. (Came over with English settlers). INTERPRETING SYMBOLS How were symbols used in the past? - Establishment of Place - marking and delimiting territory -markers and monuments - Symbols of Measurement - quantifying the natural world - units of time, length, and weight - Instruments of Planning - ordering future actions - models, plans, maps How were symbols used in the past? Relations between Humans - symbolizing value, power, and rank among people • money, status items Symbols of organization, value, and power • objects that mediate human obedience and conformity Relations between Humans and the Other world - interacting with the supernatural • objects of religion and ritual Archaeology of religion and cult • material indications of patterned actions undertaken in response to religious beliefs Depictions of the World - representing the world through art • sculpture, painting Representations of the world • sculpture, painting, drawing, carving, decoration • Myth (treat like oral histories)

CHILDE'S URBAN REVOLUTION

What is Childe's theory for the origin of the city (and thus the state)? • Surplus agricultural production allows for the existence of "non-producers" that increase the complexity of society • increasing division of labor • increasing social stratification

EMERGENCE OF HUMAN COGNITION - EVIDENCE OF SYMBOLS

When did humans become self-conscious beings with the ability to use symbols? • Language is sure evidence of symbolic cognition. • Tool-making can be evidence of symbolic cognition. • Maybe language and tool- use are linked in the development of human cognition? (ARTISTIC) REPRESENTATION systematic studies of cave art • types, quantity, spatial distribution • thematic unity, range of figures, patterned layout * Earliest known cave art - emerges in sites in northern Spain and southern France around 30,000 BCE PORTABLE ART systematic studies of portable art • microscopic study of incised markings • intentional marks? made with different tools? different techniques? EARLIEST ART systematic studies of earliest art • intentional, non-utilitarian objects of representation • evidence for human modification? • resemblance of objects in the real world? BURIAL PRACTICES Earliest known evidence of intentional burial • Atapuerca, Spain - Sima de los Huesos Cave • 3000 human bones of Homo hiedelbergensis (archaic Homo sapiens), ca. 600,000 years old systematic studies of burial practices • study contexts and associated artifacts • burial areas distinct from occupational areas? • human bones mixed with other bones or artifacts? How were symbols used in the past? Establishment of Place - marking and delimiting territory • markers and monuments Symbols of Measurement - quantifying the natural world • units of time, length, and weight Instruments of Planning - ordering future actions • models, plans, maps ESTABLISHING PLACE Use of monuments, markers, and landscape features to mark territory • structure time • facilitate access to the otherworld • commemorate community history and memories • participate in bringing about new perceptions of humans' place in the world MEASUREMENT Cognitive quantification of the world • standard units of time, length, and weight PLANNING INSTRUMENTS Evidence of schemes for future action • models, maps, plans, molds

CHIEFDOMS & STATES - CENTRALIZED SOCIETIES

Where are the primary (highest-order) centers? • archives • palaces and temples • fortifications • mint for striking coins Ebla, Syria - early 3rd millennium kingdom Iron Age oppida (fortified town) of western Europe What was the function of the primary center? • administrative • religious • commercial Ur - center of Mesopotamian administration Harappa - center of Indus trade Luxor - center of Egyptian religion Palace of Ur-Nammu In the Ur III period, palaces were built close to temples. • Sign of the merger of kingly and priestly authority LUXOR, TEMPLE OF AMUN Ramses II Court - Symbolized the union of the air god Amun with the Egyptian king (Ramses II). How was control of the hinterland organized? • artifacts of administration • standardized weights and measures • road systems • royal material culture Inca road system, Egyptian scarabs, Assyrian "palace wares" What did social differentiation look like? • elite residences • great wealth • elite imagery • elite burials Ramses II Mortuary Temple, Abu Simbel Shu Huangdi's Mausoleum, China Minoan Palace at Knossos, Crete How was economic specialization organized? • agricultural intensification • plowing • irrigation • terracing draft animal plow, Egypt Inca terraces, Peru Sennacherib's Canal, Assyria How was economic specialization organized? • surplus system • taxes • storage • redistribution ration bowls, Mesopotamia Inca storehouses, Peru Cuneiform tax receipt, Mesopotamia How was economic specialization organized? • craft specialization • workshops • extraction sites (quarries, mines, etc.) • artifacts of production ancient Greek wine press, bead making materials, Harappa How did centralized societies interact? • Inter-society interactions • warfare • competition • emulation • diplomacy Roman copy of Greek statue

Average Age of Death

Why can't we rely on cemetery populations to calculate average age of death? - Can't presume everyone - regardless of age, sex, or status - was buried in there.

obsidian trace analysis

a sourcing technique • obsidian is natural glass formed from the cooling of volcanic lava • the compositional make-up of obsidian sources is quite homogenous for each source, making it ideal for trace element analysis • pottery, on the other hand, made sometimes of multiple clays and tempers, can be harder to source through trace analysis

Archaeometallurgy

archaeometallurgy - the study of ancient metal artifacts and their manufacture LOST-WAX TECHNIQUE

radiocarbon dating

based on radioactive decay of C14 in organic materials • developed in 1949 by Willard Libby • absorption of C14 ends at death of organism • half life - 5730 years for 50% of C14 to decay samples most often collected - charcoal, wood, seeds, other plant remains, human bone, animal bone • original method - counts the beta particles released by C14 atoms • minimum sample size - 10 grams wood, 100 grams bone • Accelerator Mass Spectometry (AMS) - counts the atoms of C14 directly • minimum sample size - 5 grams of organic material • now able to sample pollen grains • now able to sample precious items without destroying them RADIOCARBON DATING - CALIBRATION rates of decay are not constant • levels of atmospheric C14 have changed over time • tree-ring records help correct for the last 12,600 years • Bayesian Analysis includes the relative age of several samplings and their groups, by stratigraphy • improves the precision of dating • can get within ± 10 years BP - years "before present" (i.e. 1950 CE) Cal BP - calibrated years before present Cal BC - calibrated years "before Christ" (i.e. 1 CE) Contamination Issues • before sampling - changes in the isotopic composition of the organic remains (e.g. waterlogging or mineralization) • during or after sampling - contact with other organic materials • human skin • paper, tissue paper, cardboard • modern tree roots, glue, other samples, mold • to avoid contamination • don't touch! • place in aluminum foil • seal in plastic bag • keep away from sunlight

Relative Dating

determining chronological sequences without the use of fixed dates: stratigraphy, seriation ordering artifacts, deposits, and events into sequences: earlier before later arranging artifacts in a typological sequence: stylistic change

Stature - Height & Weight

estimated from individual long bones footprints and handprints can also be used e.g Homo floresiensis hobbit-like early human Pacific Islands, as late as 19 kya, height: 3'6" early dwarf remains 10th millennium BCE, Calabria, Italy age: ca. 17, height: 3'7" - 3'11"

cross-dating

extension of chronological linkages using datable artifacts and associations - Roman coin, Hittite foundation deposit, Greek "eye cup"

DEEP-SEA & ICE CORES

foraminifera - microscopic sea organisms ice cores from the poles provide chronological information for the last 3,000 years laminated records of ice sheet formation that can be correlated with glacial periods

BANDS - MOBILE GATHERER-HUNTER GROUPS

gatherer-hunters • typical of human societies before 10,000 BCE (Pleistocene) • generally fewer than 100 people • seasonal mobility • base camps • kill and butchery sites • specialized work sites (e.g. tool-making) • reliance on wild resources • lack of formal leaders • no marked social differences or disparities STUDY OF BANDS open sites - regional survey of off-site activities • annual human range - whole territory covered by a group in a year • base camps, transitory camps, hunting blinds, butchery and kill sites, storage caches What are the strategies of mobility? • survey for spare artifact scatters • artifact distributions reflect territory and movement patterns

SOCIAL EVOLUTION

linear classification of societies based on technology savagery • hunting and gathering of wild foods barbarism • hunting and gathering, supplemented by some domesticated plants and animals civilization • permanent settlements reliant on surplus production agriculture cities Social "progress" is marked by linear stages of development

Pollen dating

pollen spores

Ceramic Analysis

pottery - ceramic vessels and their remains sherds - fragments of ceramic vessels ceramics - materials made of fired clay • e.g. vessels, bricks, tiles, tablets, figurines Fired pottery first appears around 14000 BCE in Japan. Wheelmade pottery first appears around 3400 BCE in Mesopotamia.

FIRING THE VESSELS

reduction -restricted access to oxygen - Core of the sherd is dark gray or black. oxidation - well fired, access to oxygen - Core of the sherd is relatively uniform color.

Obsidian Hydration

relative dating technique • a freshly fractured face of obsidian will absorb water from the surrounding environment, creating an observable hydration layer • the varying thickness of the layers creates a chronological record

STATES

ruler with sole authority • social stratification into different classes • agriculturalists • craft specialists • priests and officials • palaces, temples, and administrative buildings • territory from which tribute (i.e. tax) is collected • urbanization - cities • settlement hierarchy • capital cities • regional centers, towns • local villages

GEOARCHAEOLOGY - SOILS & SEDIMENTS

soil micromorphology - use of microscopic techniques to study the nature and organization of the components of soils • sediment source • soil formation process • human modification sediment - rock deposits lacking biological organisms soil - layers of earth's surface above sediment that contain biological organisms

PROBABILISTIC statistical sampling

statistical sampling • strengths - removes bias • Better sense of the variety of sites in the survey area • can make predictions about the survey area at large with more confidence • weaknesses - representative sample may miss important features or artifacts • usually more expensive and time-consuming • simple random • stratified random • systematic Simple random sampling - sampling units are selected on a completely random basis; each part of the study area has equal chance of being selected for investigation Stratified random sampling - survey area is divided into zones (usually environmental) and a predetermined proportion of each zone is sampled (not necessarily equally) Stratified random sampling - survey area is divided into zones (usually environmental) and a predetermined proportion of each zone is sampled (not necessarily equally)

STRATIGRAPHY

stratigraphy - the study of layers and their sequence at an archaeological site Law of superposition - Underlying layers are older (deposited first) than layers above

STRATIGRAPHY

stratigraphy - the study of layers and their sequence at an archaeological site • reconstruct the depositional history of the site or trench • distinguish the chronology of the deposits • discern the formation processes that made the deposits Archaeologists draw the stratigraphy in a trench, known as a profile, to help discern culturally meaningful changes in the soil. Stratigraphic profile - drawing, photo, or digitization of the stratigraphy within a site, square, or test pit

Geomorphology

study of the form and development of the landscape - analysis of the composition and texture of sediments (gravel to clay) - particle size (pebbles to silt) - degree of consolidation (loose to cemented) method - create "thin sections" of the soil to observe its microscopic components testing the plasticity of soil Munsell Soil Color Chart - standardized color profiles to describe the soil grain size charts and sieves

TERMINUS QUEM DATING

terminus post quem (TPQ) - "the date after which" artifacts were deposited deposits above the Medieval floor must be from the Medieval period or later

absolute dating

the determination of age with reference to a specific time scale Standard methods • calendars and historical chronologies • tree-ring dating • radiocarbon dating Paleolithic (>10,000 ya) methods • potassium-argon dating • uranium-series dating • thermoluminescence

Archaeobotany

the study of human interactions with plants in the past METHODS macrobotany - the study of seed remains • What plants entered the site for use? anthracology - the study of charred wood • What wood resources did people use? palynology - the study of fossil pollen palynology - the study of fossil pollen • What land use practices did people engage in? - Links changes in grass and tree species to human activity. phytolith analysis - the study of the silica skeletons of plant cells - microscopic detection of the plants people used - preparing soil samples for chemical wash to isolate phytoliths for analysis MICROANALYSIS sickle gloss from reaping plants (phytolith and starch residues) starch and phytolith residues on grinding stones starch grains and phytoliths on the surface and in the plaque of human and animal teeth

EXCAVATION STRATEGIES

total excavation - excavation of 100% of a site - method reserved for salvage excavation of sites under imminent threat - CRM (cultural resource management), salvage archaeology (rescue archaeology) vertical excavation - employed to establish stratigraphic (chronological) sequences and site boundaries (everything below is vertical excavation) step trench - excavation method used on very deep sites, such as Near East tell sites, where excavation proceeds downwards in a series of steps that expose stratigraphic layers test pit - an excavation unit used to sample or probe a site before large-scale excavation also called a sondage coring - method using an augur to collect stratigraphic soil samples for immediate information on archaeological deposits horizontal excavation - excavation method used to expose wide areas of a site grid system of standardized, square trenches • squares are separated by balks that provide stratigraphic profiles Wheeler-Box Grid - retain intact balks of earth between the squares of the grid

TRIBES - SEGEMENTARY SOCIETIES

tribe - group that shares common ethnic identity and self-awareness segmentary society - relatively small and autonomous group that regulates its own affairs segmentary societies can come together to become larger tribal unit over 100 to a few 1000 members • reliance on domesticated plants and animals • settled farmers and nomadic pastoralists • ties of kinship • where there are leaders, they lack centralized control • no one settlement dominates any of the others in a region Study of communities • Are settlements dispersed, isolated, clustered? STUDY OF SEGMENTARY SOCIETY INTERACTION - FEASTING Communal Feasting • public consumption of food and drink • way for segmentary societies to organize and reward communal efforts • commensal politics - feasts create ties (often of obligation) between people

TYPOLOGIES

type - a class of artifacts defined by a consistent set of attributes What are some attributes that all blue jeans share? Late Helladic III Mycenaean vessels typology - the systematic organization of artifacts into types on the basis of shared attributes The act (or science) of sorting artifacts by type. TYPOLOGICAL SEQUENCES To create a typological sequence, archaeologists compare and order different artifact types. • This sequencing relies on observations of changes in artifact style. style - attributes of shape and decoration that are distinctive to a particular time and place IMPORTANT ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT STYLE • stylistic change is gradual • artifacts that look the same were produced around the same time • different kinds of artifacts will change at different speeds • different elements of artifacts will change as different speeds

Geoarchaeology

uses the methods and concepts of the earth sciences to examine processes of earth formation, and soil and sediment patterns - reconstruct the environment of the local area - terrain, permanent or periodic availability of water, groundwater conditions, flooding, erosion, etc. - apply to regional context GLACIERS moraine deposits - contain foreign rocks carried in by the ice from glaciers fossil ice wedges - soil features caused when the ground freezes and contracts, opening up fissures in the permafrost that fill with wedges of ice • proof of past cooling of climate and of the depth of permafrost VARVES glacial varves - layers of sediment deposited annually in lakes around the edges of glaciers • thick layers - warm years with increased ice melt • thin layers - cold years with decreased ice melt RIVERS meander - moving water in a river erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river has less energy and deposits silt • layering and make-up of alluvial deposits reflect river discharge and course dynamics

Facial Reconstruction

using biometrics to manually recreate face CT and 3D scanning to digitally recreate face

Zooarchaeology

zooarchaeology - study of animal remains • information on human-animal relationships • information on past environments METHODS butchery analysis not just where the butchery occurred, but what kinds of butchery meat consumption analysis What cuts of meat were preferred by the community? sexing - analysis of bones for signs of sexual dimorphism sexual dimorphism - anatomical differences between males and females aging - suture closers, bone fusion, tooth wear and eruption