ART 103 TEST 3

12-23 and 12-24. Five-Story Pagoda, Horyu-ji and cross-section

who made this: established by Empress Suiko and Prince Shotoku when: Asuka period, 7th century (founded in 607, rebuilt after a fire in 670) where: Nara, Japan medium: wooden temple structure size: 110 feet high

14-20. Rock Garden, Ryoan-Ji

who made this: part of a Zen Temple complex when: Muromachi period, ca. 1480 where: Ryoan-ji Temple, Kyoto, Japan medium: dry garden size: approx. 79 x 29 feet

15-14. The Flowers of Beauty in the Floating World: Motoura and Yaezakura of the Minami Yamasakiya

who made this: Suzuki Harunobu when: 1769 where: Edo (Tokyo), Japan medium: polychrome woodblock print on paper size: approx. 12 x 8 inches

15-19. Kosode with Net Pattern, Chrysanthemums and Chinese Characters

who made this: artisans working during the Edo period when: Edo period, 1668/1704 where: Edo (Tokyo), Japan medium: tie-dyeing, stenciled imitation tie-dyeing, and silk and metallic thread embroidery on silk satin size: 5 feet 2 3/8 inches x 4 feet 7 inches

14-17. Daruma

who made this: attributed to Sesshu Toyo when: Muromachi period, 15th century where: Japan medium: hanging scroll, ink on paper size: approx. 31 x 13 inches

12-18. Haniwa Figure of Falconer

who made this: Kofun culture when: Kofun period, 6th century where: Japan medium: terra-cotta size: approx. 30 inches

12-5. Vessel

who made this: Middle Jomon period when: ca. 2500-1500 bce where: Japan medium: low-fired clay size: height 16.5 inches

What does the Womb World Mandala symbolize? And what does the Diamond World Mandala symbolize?

- Womb World Mandala It is associated with the material world, the physical world (Asian Art, 309) I find this easy to remember because Vairochana is in the center of a large red lotus blossom, as if in the center of a womb. In my mind, the red connects with flesh and blood and grounds this mandala in the physical realm, where we exist. Similarly, the womb is symbolically resonant with the concept of the earth, our physical home. It is familiar in the most literal sense. image: Womb World Mandala of The Ryokai Mandala (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. (public domain) Diamond World Mandala - Diamond World Mandala It is associated with the spiritual world. (Asian Art, 309) I find that this is easy to associate with the concept of the diamond: this image is more prismatic, like the facets of a gem, in its geometry. It also incorporates much more of the color white in the composition, giving it a translucent, diamond-like association in my mind. The diamond, in its durability and crystalline clarity, resonates with the idea of the abstract spiritual realm.

What is a Daruma doll, and how does it relate to the subject of this painting?

A Daruma doll (above left) is a playful representation of Daruma, with his wide-open eyes and his wild eyebrows and whiskers. The doll is meant to represent Daruma's resilience, as it is a form that you can push over, but it will right itself again. A Daruma doll is used for making a wish or setting a goal. When you do this you color in one of Daruma's eyes. Then, that eye stares at you until you meet your goal, then you color in the other eye. These Daruma dolls, with both eyes filled in, have completed their work, wishes and goals fulfilled, and they've been returned to this Daruma temple in Takasaki, Japan.

What is a mandorla?

A mandorla is a full-body halo with an almond-like shape (mandorla is the Italian word for almond). Each of the figures below is framed by a mandorla, indicating their holy status.

What did a robe like this communicate about its wearer?

A robe like this one conveyed the wealth and good taste of the wearer.

What is a roji and what role does it play in the tea ceremony?

A roji is a tea garden. These are gardens that surround a traditional teahouse. These gardens are designed to help the visitor to shift into a different frame of mind before entering the teahouse. They are immersive spaces that require the person to slow down. Read more about the typical elements of a roji in "Closer Look: The Tea Garden," on page 350, Asian Art. On the left is another roji. The stones that form the path require some attention, so you have to focus on the walking. On the right is a tsukubai, which is a wash basin. As we saw with the Shinto temple at Ise, here visitors also wash hands and mouth before entering. Below is the tsukubai at Ryoan-ji. Matcha is the powdered green tea whisked into a frothy drink in the tea ceremony.

What are the main elements of Zen practice?

A traditional Zen practice would involve regular sessions of meditation, a daily routine of manual labor, and periodic one-to-one engagement with a Zen master. The image on the left shows Hui-neng, an important historical figure, chopping bamboo at the moment of enlightenment. He had his spiritual breakthrough while doing mundane chores. Work was meant to be done with total focus. The image on the right shows a young monk, Eka, determined to convince Daruma to be his master. Daruma was not impressed until Eka returned with his severed arm as a demonstration of his seriousness! This painting is also by Sesshu.

The Taian Teahouse is partly inspired by what kind of architecture?

Above left is a diagram of the Taian Teahouse. It is one of the most famous, because it was designed by Sen No Rikyu, the tea master that defined the the traditional ceremony back in the 16th century. The image on the right is a teahouse in the Korakuen garden in Okayama. Rikyu was inspired by Zen buddhism, and the teahouse was designed to evoke simplicity. These structures, often small with thatched roofs, are a hybrid of the traditional japanese farmhouse and the thousands of hermits huts visible in the history of Asian landscape painting. Above you can see the traditional, rustic (rural) farmhouse with its thick thatched (わらぶきの) roof. On the right, we see a landscape by Sesshu with a lonely little house tucked into the rock outcropping by the edge of the water. These are the rugged, lovingly-worn models for the ideal teahouse. These exude wabi and sabi.

How was it made?

According to the Asian Art department at the Metropolitan Museum in New York, women wove the elm bark fiber cloth in the winter. The bark was peeled off of the trees earlier in the year, and they were softened (in liquid?) for a period of time before being used for thread. The woven elm (name of tree) bark robe was constructed first, usually made from four long woven strips of fabric: two shorter ones for the sleeves, and two for the two sides (right and left) of the main body of the robe. Once the robe was made, the edges of the garment were embellished with appliqué and embroidery. Appliqué refers to the pieces of different color fabric that are cut out in shapes and sewn onto the surface of the elm bark fiber cloth. In the detail above, there are appliquéd pieces in navy blue, light blue, and brown. These appliquéd designs are then layered with hand-stitched embroidery that produces contrasting linear details. Can you find the area detailed above on the image of the whole robe? In this robe, the body is made from elm bark fiber. Black (or very dark navy) cotton cloth is appliquéd (sewn on) to the surface in wide, linear designs. These dark appliquéd pieces are then embellished with thin white cotton embroidery, creating a dazzling visual effect. In the 19th century, as the Ainu came into closer contact with Japanese culture, they began to use woven or purchased cotton as the base fabric on their robes. In this robe, the base fabric is deep blue. The pink and red patterned fabric is sewn on around the hem of the robe. Red wool is sewn on at the edge of the sleeves. White cotton fabric is appliquéd to the surface forming the bold white patterning. These pieces of white fabric are embellished with hand embroidered lines in multiple colors (see above right). For this Ainu robe, the woman who made it used a Japanese kimono as the base and added Ainu-style appliqué and embroidery to customize it. Pretty dazzling!

How many haniwa are estimated to have stood on Emperor Nintoku's tomb?

According to your book, Emperor Nintoku's tomb was topped with around 20,000 haniwa!

In the context of early Buddhist thought, what is the symbolism of the number 5?

According to your book, the number five has cosmic significance, "comprising four cardinal points [north, south, east, west] and a zenith." (Asian Art, p. 291) With its five stories, the pagoda becomes an image of the Buddhist universe.

Who are all of the other figures in these images? and what is their relationship to the "supreme" figure?

According to your book, there are 1,875 figures in the two mandalas combined. (Asian Art, p.310) Each of the figures has a different specific identity, they are other Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and guardian deities. The priests and monks that have mastered the secretive codes of Mikkyo can recognize each individual. However, their specific identities are only the surface level. It is most important to recognize that they are all emanations of the cosmic Buddha. These mandalas are like prismatic mirror spaces where the universal Buddha's reflection multiplies outward in endless, radiating, geometric configurations. In Esoteric Buddhism, even the historical buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, is seen as an incarnation of Vairochana.

How does the Taian Teahouse represent the wabi aesthetic?

Again, wabi is associated with unembellished (not decorated) austerity (simple), your book describes it as "artfully humble" - this is echoed in these features (discussed on page 349 in your textook): walls are rough and made of earth blended with straw the posts that support the building are visible, and eccentricities in the wood are emphasized the windows are covered with paper asymmetrical balance is carefully orchestrated

What harsh reality is being masked by the grace and beauty of this image?

All of the beauty and glamour of these women and girls in ukiyo-e masks the brutality of their treatment within the "pleasure quarter." It certainly wasn't their pleasure that was of concern. As sex workers, they had value until they no longer conformed to the ideals of the industry. Your textbook explains that, "courtesans of the floating world, once their youthful beauty had faded, would often suffer grinding poverty, disease, and early death." (Asian Art, 365) For all of their incredible self-control and poise, Motoura and Yaezakura are people who had so little control over their own lives. They existed within complex layers of imprisonment, disguised under a veneer of luxury and ease.

What did an ukiyo-e print typically cost? Who typically bought them? How were they used?

An ukiyo-e print was inexpensive. A print is said to have cost about the same as a bowl of noodles. These images catered to the chonin class, the townspeople, as well as to tourists wanting a souvenir of a trip to the city. People would pin the prints to their walls or collect them in albums. (Asian Art, 365)

What does the word "haniwa" translate to in Japanese?

Haniwa: hani = clay wa = circle The earliest haniwa are simple cylinders, circles of clay, like these reproductions placed at an archaeological site:

14-38 and 14-39. Taian Teahouse interior view and overview

who made this: Sen no Rikyu when: Momoyama period, 1582 where: Myokian Temple, Kyoto prefecture, Japan medium: building size: approx. 9 x 9 feet

What is "chanoyu"? What is "wabicha"? What is "wabi" and how does it relate to the tea ceremony?

Chanoyu is the name of the Japanese tea ceremony. It translates to mean, "hot water for tea." Your book explains that, "chanoyu evolved from humble roots - the simple tea-drinking customs of Zen Buddhist monks." (Asian Art, 349) Wabicha is a term that fuses the words wabi and cha, which means tea. So it means wabi-style tea. This is the form of the ceremony that is associated with the famous tea master Sen No Rikyu (1521-1591). In wabicha there is an emphasis on simplicity. Here are the definitions of a few other important terms related to Japanese aesthetics (all definitions below are from Asian Art, 343): - wabi - "is associated with 'cultivated (educated) poverty,' which in artistic terms translates into an appreciation of simplicity, austerity (simplicity), and understatement." - sabi - "is linked to the beauty of silence and timeworn (old fashion) objects, a preference for the old over the new. It can also refer to enjoyment of the imperfect and weathered - for example, an irregularly shaped tea bowl or moss-covered rock." - shibui - "is interpreted as that which is bitter but refreshing, like Japanese green tea, and finds artistic expression in interesting accents, such as a touch of red in an otherwise monochromatic painting." additional insight into the terms wabi and sabi: "These two amorphous (unshaped) concepts are used to express a sense of rusticity (rural), melancholy, loneliness, naturalness, and age, so that a misshapen, worn peasant's (農民の) jar is considered more beautiful than a pristine (new, natural), carefully crafted dish. While the latter pleases the senses, the former stimulates the mind and emotions to contemplate the essence of reality."

What flower is depicted on this robe and what does it symbolize?

Chrysanthemum's are a symbol of longevity. Your book explains that there is a character known as Chrysanthemum Boy (pictured above), who discovers an elixir of immortality in the dew on chrysanthemum petals.

What is Harunobu's role in the history of polychrome woodblock printing?

During Harunobu's era, production of ukiyo-e shifted from black and white images to full color images that were made using multiple carved blocks. See TECHNIQUES: Woodblock Printing (Asian Art, 365)

Who were robes like this one made for?

During the Edo period, extravagantly labor-intensive robes like these kosodes were produced for newly wealthy merchants belonging to the chonin class of "townspeople."

How does the form of the pagoda represent Buddhist concepts?

Each story on the pagoda is smaller than the one below it. Its outline is like a pyramid, like a great mountain. Of course, we know that Mt. Meru is what the stupa symbolizes, and we can make the same association with a pagoda. Like the number five, Mt. Meru connotes a cosmic center. Additionally, the pagoda form is like a great arrow pointing UP! It literally lifts our gaze. This is sometimes associated with the lotus blossom that rises from its roots in the muddy base of the pond, through the murky water, to lift itself above the surface and blossoms in the clear air. This literally uplifting metaphor is echoed in the pagoda's form. Your textbook goes into an additional layer of symbolism: "[d]evout followers of Buddhism can circumambulate clockwise around the pagoda to absorb the sacred blessings of Buddha. Walking slowly, one is reminded of Buddha's Four Noble Truths and their dissemination north, south, east, and west, by four equidistant stairways leading to four entrances." (Asian Art, p. 292)

Hokusai

Hokusai is one of the most prominent artists associated with ukiyo-e. His most famous image, now known as The Great Wave, was part of a series titled Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. The image above is also part of that series. Hokusai is known for his playful compositions. He often creates startling juxtapositions (並列) between foreground and background. In the view above, the peak of a temple roof in Edo is echoed by Mount Fuji in the distance. It's tempting to think of the frequent reference to a holy mountain in the form of a temple. Hokusai toys with our perspective, playing with our sense of scale and distance. Tiny, comedic people scramble on top of the roof of the temple, and the clouds that fill the center of the image open to show rooftops below. A beautiful bird kite soars up from the houses and rises up above the distant mountain.

What is the historical significance of the wooden structures at Horyu-ji?

Horyu-ji is the oldest surviving temple in Japan, and some of the monastery's buildings are thought to be the oldest wooden structures in existence. (Asian Art, p. 290) This temple was heavily influenced by the Chinese and Korean temples of that time, and its makers were probably of Chinese or Korean descent. (遺族？) (Asian Art, 290) That makes these buildings valuable in understanding Chinese and Korean architecture from this period. Take a look at the Main Hall at the Nanchan Temple on page 166 in your book. That is the oldest surviving wooden building in China, and it was made more than 100 years after Horyu-ji. image: Horyu-ji (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., Frank Gualtieri (public domain)

What different professionals would have collaborated to produce an image such as this?

I remember when I first learned about Japanese woodblock prints and about famous artists like Hokusai and Hiroshige. I had the mistaken understanding that these artists made the prints themselves. It took a long time before it sunk in that artists like Hokusai, Utamaro and Harunobu were not printmakers. They were painters and they designed images for the print medium. Then, workshops of master carvers and printers transformed their designs into the woodblock medium. Your book explains that publishers, artists, carvers and printers were all involved in this collaborative process, they explain: "The publisher played an important role, commissioning artists to create designs and hiring carvers and printers to manufacture the images. Also responsible for sales, the publisher often suggested subjects to be illustrated. The names of both artist and publisher appear on the prints." (Asian Art, 365)

How would a guest enter the teahouse? What does this represent?

In these traditional teahouses, the visitors enter through a low crawlspace. Such openings are visible in the two photographs above. The idea was that each person left their weapons and their titles outside and entered into the ceremony with humility.

How is this shrine both old and new at the same time?

It is thought that the Main Shrine at Ise was initially built around the first century ce. That would make it around 2,000 years old. Yet the wood on every structure is remarkably fresh, have you noticed? Every 20 years, the key structures at the complex are reconstructed out of fresh cypress (hinoki) wood. Your book explains, "This elaborate rebuilding program, called Sengu, symbolizes renewal and continuity. Priests who participate believe they are revitalizing the soul of Japan and transmitting Japanese traditions to the next generation." This aerial photograph shows how the structures of the Main Shrine are rebuilt at Ise. The Main Shrine sits on a plot of land that is divided into two identical rectangular plots. On one of the plots, you have the shrine buildings. On the other plot, you typically have an empty space covered with white gravel, with a single small structure at the center. When the 20-year mark approaches, a process of ceremonial replication takes place. A family of artisans makes a copy of the standing temple and gradually, piece-by-piece, they build a new one in the plot next to it. In this photograph, we can see that the old structures are in the lower structure, and the new structures (their newness visible in the lightness of the wood) are in the upper rectangle. Once the replication process is complete, the sacred objects housed in Amaterasu's shrine will be moved to the new shrine structure, and then the older shrine will be dismantled and that space will be cleared. The shrine was last rebuilt in 2013, so if you want to attend some of the rebuilding ceremonies, head for Japan in 2032-33.

What is a kosode?

Kosode translates to mean "small sleeves." This was a typical outergarment for both men and women during the Edo period. (Asian Art, 360)

What is the relationship between Zen dry landscape gardens and Zen monochrome ink paintings, like those of Sesshu Toyo?

Landscape painting by Sesshu Ryoan-ji These two art forms are close echoes of one-another. I love how easily this photo and this painting flow together visually. Both the garden and the painting are distillations of the natural world. Both images are radically distorted for aesthetic effect. There is a notable reduction of color in both types of images. It makes sense to think of the dry Zen garden as an image, this wasn't a garden to inhabit physically, it was meant for visual contemplation. According to your textbook, some painters designed gardens based on their paintings. (Asian Art, 337)

12-2. Main Hall at Ise, Inner Shrine

who made this: Japanese artisans connected to the Imperial Family when: the shrine was established around 2,000 years ago, last rebuilt 2013 where: Mie prefecture, Japan medium: shrine - built of hinoki wood

What is Esoteric Buddhism, or Mikkyo?

Mikkyo translates to "secret teachings," hmmmm, does this ring a bell? Do you remember these? Yes, we learned about Esoteric Buddhism when we studied Tibetan art. In Tibet it takes the form of Vajrayana Buddhism. In Japan it is known as Mikkyo. They have the same roots. Here is how your textbook describes it: "Esoteric Buddhism is (Mikkyo - secret teachings) is, as its name suggests, a mysterious, complex form of Buddhism with roots that stretch back to ancient Indian and Chinese sources. Esoteric Buddhism emphasizes the mystical abilities of priests who conduct arcane rituals, perform mudras, recite mantras and meditate on mandalas (pictorial representations of the cosmos) to ensure the spiritual and material well-being of the laity." (Asian Art, p. 307) In the tradition of Esoteric Buddhism in Japan, we also see an emphasis on Vairochana, as well as a strong visible presence of frightening guardian deities, which we studied in the familiar Tibetan paintings we above.

What is the history of tea drinking in China and Japan?

Monks were key figures in the spread of tea throughout Asia. Tea's function as a stimulant was appreciated from early on. During the Tang Dynasty, tea drinking spread out from China into Korea and Japan. For monks who spent hours at a time sitting in meditation, tea was a helpful asset (far better, in my opinion, than getting whacked on the shoulders to wake-up)! Your book explains that by the 1500s, tea had popular with people from all sectors of Japanese society. (Asian Art, 349)

What are the general beliefs in Pureland Buddhism?

Pure Land Buddhism departs distinctly from the monastic ruggedness of the teachings of Shakyamuni (the historical Buddha). In Pure Land Buddhism, the focus is on Amida Buddha and his dwelling place known as the Western Paradise. We see a Tibetan version of this in this image below. Amida reigns over a land that is rich in sensory pleasures: trees filled with jewels and scented flowers, elaborate gardens and architecture, throngs of bodhisattvas drifting by in reverie, a variety of entertainment. The Western Paradise is an incredibly appealing place. The Pheonix Hall and the surrounding garden were meant to evoke Amida's Western Paradise. Your book explains that it "offered a simpler approach, sometimes described as the 'easy route' to salvation. The only prerequisite for salvation was faith in Amida Buddha (Skt. Amitabha), and the diligence to recite his name. Recitation of the mantra Namu Amida Butsu ("Praise to Amida Buddha") would lead to rebirth in Amida Buddha's Western Paradise, a peaceful realm featuring glittering palaces and ponds. From his Paradise, people could comfortably work toward enlightenment without the burden of earthly troubles." (Asian Art, 313)

What is a raigo, and how does it relate to this figure?

Raigo translates to mean "Welcoming Descent." Your book describes what this refers to: "Devotees believe that when a follower dies, Amida Buddha will descend from his Western Paradise to welcome the soul into Paradise." It was, they add, "a popular source of comfort." (Asian Art, 314) The sculptural program in the Pheonix Hall represents a raigo: Amida Buddha is surrounded by small sculptures of figures playing musical instruments, just like the raigo painting we see below on the left.

How was this figure made?

Separate blocks of wood are carved individually and then joined together. This diagram shows the specific blocks used to carve the Amida Buddha. It is carved from hinoki, Japanese cypress (the same wood used for the Shinto shrine at Ise), then it is painted with gold leaf and lacquer.

How would these images have been used?

Senju Kannon at To-ji The photograph on the left depicts the treasure hall at the To-ji temple, where these mandalas are located. Can you see them in the background behind the sculpture of the bodhisattva? These mandalas were often displayed this way, on either side of the main altar. Their primary use is as a teaching tool or as a focus for meditation (Asian Art, 308) In some cases they were laid flat to be used in specific rituals. Your book describes one, "the devotee throws a flower onto the mandala to determine which buddha or bodhisattva will become their personal deity and focus of devotion." (Asian Art, 309)

What was Sesshu's relationship to Zen Buddhism?

Sesshu grew up in a Zen monastery. He studied with another monk-artist, Shubun. Your book explains that Sesshu "was revered as both a monk and an artist..." Sesshu is part of a lineage of Japanese Zen monks who were also painters. For Zen artist-monks, painting was an extension of their monastic life. Monasteries like Shokoko-ji, where Sesshu lived, incorporated painting workshops to supply the demands for Zen paintings from the ruling military elite. (Asian Art, 335)

What typical aspects of Sesshu's style are visible in this painting? How does his style relate to Zen teachings?

Sesshu's depiction of Daruma has a confident, calligraphic quality that is fast and flowing. Your textbook explains, "As with enlightenment, which may suddenly strike after rigorous practice, Daruma's robe is painted in bold, sweeping strokes." (Asian Art, 337) In the details of Daruma's face, the painter slows down, rendering each hair and giving precise contours to the monk's furrowed brow, concentrated grimace, and lidless eyes. Sesshu was known for this balance in his works between spontaneity and crisp clarity.

What is Shinto?

Shinto is belief system that evolved out of the indigenous, shamanic world view of ancient Japan. Your book explains that Shinto "initially functioned without scriptures, dogmas, devotional images, famous teachers, or elaborate structures." (Asian Art, 277) Shinto developed a more elaborate structure in response to the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, which brought a complex system of scriptures, clergy, architecture, deities, and rituals. At the core of Shinto is reverence for nature. In Shinto, the natural world is full of spirits to be honored and appeased. Shinto also came to incorporate worship for the Imperial family, who are thought to be the heirs of the sun goddess.w

What does the name "Jomon" mean? Why is it given to this culture?

The term "jomon" translates to "cord markings". Thus, the culture is named after the way they added texture to some of their pots. In the above demonstrations, you can see how different types of texture patterns can be made in clay using different types of cord or string. If you look again at the textures on the Deep Vessel at the Met, you can see that there is a herringbone-tweed effect created on the body through repeating rows of cord impressions.

How is the maintenance of the garden linked to Zen spiritual practice?

That gravel doesn't rake itself! For as simple as it seems, this is a relatively high-maintenance garden. Zen texts are full of adages about doing the work needed to clear the mind. The mind is described as a mirror that needs constant polishing to reflect things as they are. Hui-neng, depicted above, was chopping bamboo when he experienced the sudden expansion of consciousness associated with enlightenment. As an enlightened being, Hui-neng commented that 'there is no mirror, there is no mind.' However, for most people, there is a mirror, there is a mind, and the focus is to polish it with full attention. So, in a Zen monastery, manual labor is an important part of spiritual practice: sweeping, raking, polishing, chopping, washing... Buddhist monks follow a vegetarian diet. When you're done viewing the temple grounds at Ryoan-ji, you can go to the monastery restaurant and have "shojin ryori," a vegetarian, tofu-based meal.

What kind of lifestyle did this group have?

The Jomon culture evolved over a long period of time, from around 14,000 - 300 bce. During that time, their dwellings (homes) fluctuated (changed) between fertile (productive) flatlands along coasts and rivers, to mountain zones, depending on the shifts in climate. In the early Jomon period, they were hunter gatherers and they had access to rich food resources. Around 5000 bce the Jomon culture shifted toward agriculture and their village settlements expanded. In this later period they lived in pit dwellings like the one pictured on the left, above. Clay and stone objects suggest that the Jomon culture practiced shamanism. Here's how your book defines shamanism: "a belief system focused on the shaman, a person believed to communicate with the spirit world (via an altered state) in order to heal the sick, practice divination, and control future events, among other tasks." (Asian Art, glossary, p. 385). Jomon burial sites have been found, in some cases burial pits were situated below stone circles, like the one shown above, in other cases remains were found buried in shell mounds. In the last stretch of the Jomon culture, there is evidence of innovations in fishing: they developed a toggle harpoon, as well as techniques for deep-sea fishing. (Department of Asian Art. "Jōmon Culture (ca. 10,500-ca. 300 B.C.). (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site." Metropolitan Museum of Art).

How did clothing like this relate to the efforts of the Tokugawa shogunate to maintain strict class divisions in Edo society?

The Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan during the Edo period, was a totalitarian regime that placed intense restrictions on day-to-day life in Japan. The most striking was the lack of interaction with the rest of the world: with rare exceptions, outsiders were not allowed in, and perhaps more striking, Japanese people were not permitted to leave. The Tokugawa maintained strict class hierarchies, yet they also ruled during a period when the lowest class, the chonin (merchants and townspeople), were experiencing economic and social mobility. As your book explains, "[i]n a surprising twist, by the end of the seventeenth century many urban merchants had outstripped the samurai in accumulated wealth, which contributed to their unofficial rise in status. Literacy spread throughout all sectors of society. A more educated population, coupled with an expanding national economy based on money, contributed to a rich cultural environment, ripe with patrons from all classes." (Asian Art, 356)

What are the materials visible in this garden?

The garden makes great use of texture. The photograph on the left shows the range of processed rock materials: different kinds of cut stone to make pavers and curbs, medium chunks of grey stone and small, pale gray gravel. Set into this carefully maintained bed of gravel are 15 rugged rocks, chosen for their specific character. They were arranged by masters of stone placement. The skill combined careful study of asymmetrical balance and intuitive (直感的な) feeling. Each rock is surrounded by a meticulous (caefull) crop of vivid moss (こけ). There is a plain wooden platform that extends from a large open hall. The garden is surrounded by a low wall with a rich, mottled surface that changes with the light. The trees beyond the wall become extensions of the enclosed garden space, their tops, changing with the season, become "borrowed scenery" to enrich and enliven the austere space of the dry garden. The monochromatic effect continues in the hall adjacent to the garden. The floor is covered in simple soft straw tatami mats. The movable screen walls are covered with rugged mountain landscapes, flowing clouds and dragons.

What was a typical pattern of haniwa placement on a tomb?

The haniwa were arranged on the keyhole-shaped burial mounds of the Kofun (old tomb) rulers. The ruler was buried in the center of the circular part of the mound. A house-shaped haniwa was typically placed over the ruler's body. Then, haniwa were arranged around the edges of the keyhole shape, often several rows deep. Your book adds, "[h]uman haniwa and those of creatures faced outward (outside), with their backs to the mound, to address the realm of the living."

What figure has the most important role in Esoteric Buddhism?

The most important deity in Esoteric Buddhism is Vairochana, the universal Buddha. We saw Vairochana first in the Tang dynasty cave temple at Longmen. We also saw Vairochana in the thangka in the collection of the Asian Art museum (see previous page), and we see him here, too, in Kathmandu, in his mysterious and omnipresent form on the harmika of the stupa. Vairochana is the largest figure in both of the Ryokai Mandalas we are studying:

Horyu-ji

The name Horyu-ji translates to mean "temple of the flourishing law." It was founded by Empress Suiko and her nephew, Prince Shotoku (who had been named her heir), and it functioned as a monastery and a Buddhist study center.

How does the pagoda compare with the stupa?

The pagoda is the form that the stupa takes in East Asia. The two structures look quite different, but they have the same function and significance in Buddhist practice. Both structures are reliquaries (they house sacred Buddhist relics). In each structure, these relics are buried, out of sight, and they sit at the base of a central pillar, an axis mundi, running vertically through the center. Both structures are layered with symbolism that is meant to inspire and guide pilgrims on their spiritual path. Both structures would be circumambulated. Finally, neither structure is meant to be entered. While there is an interior space in the pagoda, it is only accessible on the first floor, and the visitor is not invited into it. The stupa is more impenetrable, considering it is a solid earthen mound faced with stone. In a Japanese Buddhist temple, the pagoda is typically paired with a "golden hall," also known as a kondo. In Buddhist temples throughout Asia, the pagoda or stupa is typically complemented with a hall for religious gatherings. In India, these were referred to as chaitya halls, and there would be a stupa inside to circumambulate, and space to gather to hear sutras. The kondo serves the same function, but instead of having a stupa inside, a kondo typically houses a raised altar or platform where images of Buddhist deities are gathered. At Horyu-ji, this platform is in the center and there is room to circumambulate around it.

How might a pot like this have been used?

The vast majority of Jomon ceramics are utilitarian - made for everyday use. During the Middle Jomon period, pots like this one show more elaborate ornamentation. These details make these pots both more labor-intensive and more impractical. It's thought that these may have had a ritual function, perhaps being used for offerings. Your textbook points out that this pot is blackened toward the top. This is soot, which would have accumulated as the content of this pot was boiled.

Where is this located?

This gilded wooden sculpture of Amida Buddha sits prominently in the center of the largest, central structure in the Phoenix Hall at the temple of Byodo-in in the Kyoto prefecture. The Phoenix Hall faces a pond and garden, and the Amida Buddha sculpture, which sits inside the central hall, is visible from a distance. In this sequence of photos, we gradually move closer to the Amida Buddha that dominates the interior.

Is the layout of the pagoda and the kondo symmetrical or asymmetrical? How does that relate to the typical Chinese temple layout?

The pathway that starts in the bottom left corner leads straight to it. Can you see the pagoda? And the shorter, wider structure next to it (the kondo)? Can you see the long, low lecture hall at the back of the courtyard? Now, imagine that the path were to continue straight through the entrance gate (chumon) and into the courtyard. It would go straight from the gate, in between the pagoda and kondo and up the steps of the lecture hall at the back. There is a central axis in this set of sacred buildings, but it is a bit off-kilter. The lecture hall and the gate are off-center. But more interestingly, the axis goes in between the two most important buildings. There is an asymmetrical balance to the layout. If you draw a line down the center of this diagram, you'd see that the two halves are not the same. This is quite different from the traditional Chinese temple or palace layout, which would put all of the important structures on the central axis, one behind the other (think of the Forbidden City). This is worth noticing because, as your book comments, "asymmetry becomes a hallmark of Japanese art." (Asian Art, p. 291) This photograph is taken right outside the lower-left corner of the photograph below. As we enter an outer gate, we can see the chumon (inner gate) and the pagoda rising over the trees beyond. A visitor enters the chumon (gate) through the white curtains (above left), but make sure you enter with a pure heart or you'll have these fellas to answer to. If you look closely at the gate, they stand in niches on each side. For a closer view, see below, do they make you feel welcome?

What was the reaction to ukiyo-e among 19th-century European artists?

The powerful graphic quality and playful compositions of ukiyo-e artists like Hokusai had a clear impact on European art in the 19th century. Vincent van Gogh is the most well-known example of the powerful influence that Japanese prints had on European experiments with pictorial composition. Van Gogh sometimes made direct copies from the works of another important ukiyo-e artist, Utagawa Hiroshige. Mary Cassatt was an American painter living in Paris, and her work offers another response to the radical influence of ukiyo-e. As an upper-class woman in Paris in the 19th century, Cassatt was largely confined to painting in domestic spaces. It would have been shocking for her to walk the hills and paint landscapes like her male contemporaries in the Impressionist and Post-impressionist movements. Thus, Cassatt's works echo the domestic spaces visible in the 18th century works of Harunobu and Utamaro. Her compositions echo the flattened, patterned and tightly cropped prints of "the floating world."

How do ukiyo-e represent the growth of cities and the emergence of a popular culture in Japan?

The story of ukiyo-e resonates with the stories we tell of the emergence of modern art in Europe in the 19th century. These depictions of a day in the life of ordinary people (not rulers, or famous monks, or buddhas), but working people (prostitutes, attendants, actors), reflect the emergence of a middle class that was interested in its own narratives, its own dramas. As cities like Edo and Osaka grew, so did the merchant class, or chonin. This class used their spare money and spare time on the entertainments depicted in these "pictures of the floating world." A popular art, art to be consumed by the masses, was emerging. (Asian Art, 364)

What woodworking technique is used to build the shrine?

The structures are built using a mortise-and-tenon system of joints. All of the wooden parts are cut with mortises or tenons, and the wood is then pieced together, there aren't any nails or screws used. Can you imagine the careful preparation that goes into building this?

Who is this Shrine devoted to?

The sun goddess, Amaterasu These two paintings depict a famous story about Amaterasu, when she was lured out of a cave using a mirror. The mirror came to be an embodiment of the sun goddess, and it is housed in the center of the main shrine at Ise.

What does the term ukiyo mean? What does it refer to? What could one find there?

The word ukiyo comes from Buddhism and it translates to mean "floating world". It refers to the ephemerality of life. In Japan, the pleasure district of the capital city came to be known as ukiyo, a floating world of passing pleasures and entertaining indulgences. In Edo's pleasure district one would find the following (Asian Art, 364): - licensed brothels - bathhouses - restaurants - bars - sumo wrestling rings - theaters There's an interesting complexity to naming your pleasure quarter after a Buddhist concept about life's brevity. Instead of traditional religious response to that which might be, 'life is brief, so invest in your spiritual life,' the pleasure quarters operate to a different tune: 'life is brief, so dive in! indulge your desires, revel in your senses, have fun...' These are the complexities that people juggle in day-to-day life. Above, one beautiful girl is paddling Daruma around in a boat, entertaining Daruma, who contemplates his own visage in the shifting water. On the right, a pretty woman assesses the details of her coiffure, a rigorous achievement, a sculpture(!) that conveys beauty and style. There are a lot of mirrors in these pictures of the floating world. A polished mirror is a Zen metaphor for a clear mind that reflects things as they are, and it is also a symbol of vanity representing an individual's interest in their (very temporary) appearance. Here is what a curator at the Metropolitan Museum writes about the image of Daruma above: "Ukiyo-e artists often parodied revered figures, particularly Daruma, as a means of exposing the hypocrisy of society. During the Edo period, the word daruma became a slang expression for a courtesan, and darumaya meant a brothel. Many prints portrayed Daruma with courtesans or courtesans as Daruma." (Metropolitan Museum of Art, online caption for Daruma in a Boat with an Attendant (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., Suzuki Harunobu). Your textbook offers this passage, written during the Edo period, to convey the mixture of hedonism and helplessness invoked in the idea of the floating world: Living only for the moment, turning our full attention to the pleasures of the moon, the snow, the cherry blossoms and the maple leaves; singing songs, drinking wine, diverting ourselves in just floating, floating; caring not a whit for the pauperism staring us in the face, refusing to be disheartened, like a gourd floating along with the river current: this is what we call the floating world. -Asai Ryoi, 17th c. (Asian Art, 364)

What is the historical significance of the Ryokai Mandala?

These are among the oldest surviving mandala paintings in Japan (Asian Art, 308)

What symbolism is associated with the patterns?

These beautiful patterns have forms that are protective, like a thorny, sharp-edged armor. According to your book, these patterns "honor the gods and protect the wearer against evil spirits." (Asian Art, 370)

How were these kinds of vessels made?

These vessels are made using a coiling technique (see brief youtube demo below). These are not made using a potter's wheel; these are hand-built pots. Long cylinders of clay are rolled out and the sides of the pot are built up by layering one cylinder on top of the next. Gradually, the cylinders of clay are smoothed out to form a smooth surface. On Jomon pots, various types of ornament were added. On some pots, thinner ropes of clay were attached to the outside of the wet pot. Cord-marking patterns were also utilized, as we've seen. Jomon pots are some of the oldest ceramic vessels known. The one in your book on page 279 is dated to 12,000 bce. The ornament on these vessels suggest the textures and woven structures of basketry. Thus, these ancient clay vessels often point to equally ancient (if not older) artforms, basketry and weaving. These fiber-based objects just don't survive very well in the archaeological record.

Who made this ceremonial robe?

This ceremonial robe was made by the Ainu people. They are one of Japan's indigenous cultures, and they live on the Northern island of Hokkaido. Ceremonial robes like these were made by Ainu craftswomen. Like many indigenous cultures around the globe, the Ainu were subjected to exploitation and discrimination. Your textbook explains: "Waves of Japanese settlers from the south who encroached on Ainu land, followed by discriminatory government policies in the 19th and 20th centuries, eroded Ainu communities and customs. Despite the Ainu's continuing struggles as a marginalized group within Japanese society, however, their culture is undergoing a dynamic resurgence." (Asian Art, 370)

What are some of the techniques used to ornament this robe?

This detail below is from a different garment, but it shows some of the ornamentation used on the kosode on the left. Some parts of the silk are tie-dyed, other areas are like the flowers below, they are stenciled to look like they were tie-dyed. The artisans who made this embellish the surface with embroidered flowers and Chinese characters that are painted on in gold leaf.

Where is this rock garden located? Who was it for?

This dry garden is located at a Zen temple called Ryoan-ji. The garden was designed as a focus of meditation for the monks. It is an extension of their meditation hall. Here is what your textbook says about it: "Viewers meditate on the tranquil (calm) scene from perimeter (outside) viewpoints. The concept that a rock equals a mountain and raked gravel (small rock) equals flowing water teases the mind like a Zen riddle (quwations), prodding the individual to comprehend the garden intuitively, possibly sparking new insights." (Asian Art, 338)

13-21. Amida Buddha

who made this: Jocho when: Heian period, ca. 1053 where: Phoenix Hall, Byodo-in, Japan medium: gold leaf and lacquer on wood size: 9 feet 8 inches

Who is the figure in this image, and why is he important? What are some of the stories told about him, attesting to the intensity of his meditation practice?

This image is of Daruma. Daruma is the Japanese name for the Indian monk, Bodhidharma, who brought Zen to China in the 6th century. The two images above, both by Sesshu, refer to well-known stories about this influential monk. The image on the left shows Daruma meditating in a cave, gazing at the rock wall. Legend says he did this for nine years, eventually losing the use of his legs, and boring a hole into the rock wall with the intensity of his gaze. In the image on the right, we can see Daruma's noticeable lack of eyelids. He is said to have cut off his eyelids so that he would not be able to interrupt his meditation with sleep. Suffice it to say that Daruma (Bodhidharma) was known for his intensity.

Where were haniwa found?

This is an aerial photograph of Emperor Nintoku's tomb. Haniwa were placed on top of tomb mounds like this one.

Who are the figures depicted in this image?

This print falls into standard categories of ukiyo-e: it represents a "high-ranking" courtesan and a girl training as her apprentice. These two figures were associated with a specific brothel, and this is a print that celebrates Motoura's beauty and sophistication. Courtesans, like Motoura, were prostitutes. The green obi, wrapped around her waist and tied in the front was a sign of her line of work. Her young companion will go into the same line of work, most likely having been "sold into prostitution by her family." (Asian Art, 365)

Landscape emerges in the 19th century as a popular subject for ukiyo-e, what were the subjects that were more typical in earlier ukiyo-e prints?

This question was addressed in our discussion of Harunobu's print of the courtesan, Motoura, and her apprentice, Yaezakura. Prior to the 19th century, ukiyo-e focused on images of women, often courtesans, Kabuki scenes and actors, and erotic imagery. (Asian Art, 365) Landscapes become popular as part of an emerging interest in travel among the popular classes. Series of prints, like the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, became popular souvenirs for people traveling to see the famous sights of Japan. I like this pair of images. It seems like the Harunobu print, from 1765, with a girl gazing at a swirling wave painted on a screen, foreshadows the one by Hokusai about 65 years later. Of course, landscape had long been the subject of the paintings made on screens and scrolls for the upper classes. But a shift had occurred in the 19th century, when landscape had new entertainment value for the masses.

How do this pair of images represent an Esoteric Buddhist ideal?

Together, the Diamond World and Womb World mandalas represent the union of matter and spirit. Here is what your textbook explains: "Esoteric Buddhist doctrine stresses the unity of the Buddhist cosmos, and for a person to achieve enlightenment in this life, matter and spirit must be united. Therefore, the two panels comprising the Ryokai Mandala are visual evocations of the Esoteric Buddhist ideal." (Asian Art, 310)

What is a tokonoma?

Tokonoma is the term for the alcove in a teahouse. These photos show the interiors of two different teahouses. The tokonoma is a recessed area, a niche, where something is displayed for aesthetic contemplation. There could be a piece of calligraphy, like we see in the tokonoma in the Taian teahouse (above left). Sometimes there would be a hanging scroll with an ink painting. Or, there may be a flower arrangement (above right).

What are ukiyo-e?

Ukiyo-e are "pictures of the floating world." These are images depicting contemporary urban life, in particular that of the pleasure district. Your textbook explains that there were three main subjects of ukiyo-e: "beautiful women--especially the courtesans (licensed prostitutes) of the pleasure quarters--the Kabuki theater (scenes from plays and portraits of popular actors), and erotica (shunga)." (Asian Art, 365) There were also popular novels that were set in this same world of intrigue and glamour.

Where is this figure in these images?

Vairochana is the largest figure in each of these paintings forming the Ryokai Mandala. Look for these details (pictured above) in the full paintings shown below. In the Womb World Mandala he is in the center of the image. In the Diamond World Mandala, he is in the center of the upper third of the image.

What is a kami? What is an iwakura?

We discussed this briefly at the beginning of the module in relation to My Neighbor Totoro. A kami is a spirit or supernatural being, millions of them populate the natural world. The place where a kami dwells is known as an iwakura. At Ise, the beautiful woods along the Izusu river are an iwakura, and the kami that resides there, is Amaterasu. The Wedded Rocks (above) form a shrine that commemorates Izanagi and Izanami, whose union created all of the other spirits (kami)

What are the prominent theories about the meaning of haniwa?

What was the significance of these objects? They must have been highly valued to be made in such great quantities. They probably had some practical function in preventing the erosion of the top of the burial mound. But their spiritual significance is not precisely known. The fact that they stood on the mound and faced the living differentiates them from some of the other tomb goods discussed in your book. These have their backs to the dead and they look across the moat at "the world of the living." (Asian Art, 287)

What is the process of approaching and worshipping at this shrine?

When visitors arrive at the Ise shrine complex, the first thing they do is enter through the torii, or gateway. Torii, like this one, are a common sight throughout Japan, and they mark the entrance onto sacred ground. Once you enter the torii, you walk across the Uji Bridge. This bridge spans the Izusu river and crossing this water is understood as a process of cleansing and purification, helping to prepare the visitor to enter sanctified space. On the other side of the river, visitors enact another more literal form of purification. They come to this water basin where they use the ladles to scoop water into their hands. They rinse their hands and their mouths before they enter the shrine. The Ise shrine complex has numerous buildings within it. But the forest itself is an important part of the site. According to the myth, Amaterasu chose this forest because it was secluded and beautiful. The pathway to the main shrine is a serene walk through the old forest. Eventually, the visitor arrives at the main shrine, the most sacred place in the complex. The image in the textbook (above right) is a view from within the fences that surround the main shrine. But most members of the public would never have access to that view. Instead, visitors worship Amaterasu from outside the shrine enclosure.

How was a garden like this used?

Whether you are a monk or a tourist (or both!), the dry garden at Ryoan-ji is meant to be looked at. It is entered only with your eyes, your awareness, and your imagination (oh, and with your cell phone camera).

What are the characteristics of the landscapes that Hokusai designed?

While Hokusai designed many different styles of landscapes during his long life, images like The Great Wave, and this image, known as Red Fuji, convey a striking aspect of his style. The art historian, Sherman Lee, referred to them as "universal landscapes." Some of Hokusai's images have a powerful, graphic impact; they are distilled into a simplified, high-impact image. Images like this one seem surprisingly modern, they seem more like products of the 20th century than products of the early 19th.

How was a polychrome woodblock print made (see TECHNIQUES: Woodblock Printing, p. 364)?

Woman and Child Have you ever made a woodblock print, or a linoleum print? Maybe you've made a stamp out of a half of a potato? If you have experience with one of those processes, you might look at a print like this one and wonder how it could possibly be made out of carved wooden blocks. It is a meticulous, painstaking process involving numerous steps. Master carvers would produce a set of blocks, one for each color (it's a fun game to try to figure out how many blocks were used in a single print). Please review TECHNIQUES: Woodblock Prints on page 364 in your book. Here are the steps listed there, note - that this describes a single-color print: - the design is transferred to a thin piece of paper - the paper is pasted, face down, to the wood block - the block is carved so that only the lines and solid areas that will be printed remain - ink is applied to these raised surfaces - paper is placed face down on the inked block - the back of the paper is rubbed with a padded surface called a baren - this transfers the ink onto the paper

How does this belief system reflect the desires of the aristocratic class during the Heian period?

Your book explains that at the time the Pheonix Hall was dedicated, fears were circulating about a Buddhist concept known as Mappo. It had to do with a belief that a golden age was coming to an end and a new dark age of "corruption, conflict, and vice" would commence. (Asian Art, 312) Your textbook adds: "In the years leading up to 1052, a sense of unease settled over the Heian court. The Heian court nobility could already point to signs of disorder, with a growing military class threatening their privileged existence. Hope was at hand, however, in the form of Pure Land Buddhism." (312) The aristocratic appeal of this sensory playground is clear; this was a well-appointed paradise, a first-class heaven. Yet, your book confirms that this vision of a comparatively effortless salvation had broad appeal: "In an age troubled by frequent fires, floods, earthquakes, and disease, where death closely shadowed the population, the concept of raigo [and Pure Land Buddhism more broadly] proved a popular source of comfort." (Asian Art, 314)

What are some of the interpretations of this garden?

Your textbook discusses interpretations that come out of different contexts: "Reduced to essentials, the significance of such a bare composition invites endless speculation. Tourist guidebooks suggest the rocks represent mountain peaks above clouds, islands in a sea, or a tigress and cubs crossing a river. Scholarly texts focus on the symbolism of rocks in gravel. One interpretation proposes that still water (the mind) reflects the true reality, but once a stone (thought) creates ripples, reality becomes distorted." (Asian Art, 339) This specific rock formation, situated close to the back wall at Ryoan-ji, reminds me of the view of Catalina Island visible from the mainland. In the juxtaposition(並行) of these two images, I love how the texture of the ocean surface mirrors the texture of the raked gravel.

How would it have been used?

Your textbook explains that a robe like this, "was worn by a male officiate conducting one of the numerous Ainu spiritual rituals." (Asian Art, 370)

How did Zen Buddhist teachings influence the arts in Japan?

Zen did not promote images for worship in the way that other Buddhist schools had. According to your textbook, subject matter shifts from buddhas, bodhisattvas and paradises to images that fostered "austerity, self-discipline, respect for nature, and the importance of meditation." (Asian Art, 335) The paintings that convey these principles are typically pared-down, monochromatic ink paintings. Can you see the small house on the rock outcropping, and the boat on the water below?

What is Zen Buddhism?

Zen is a sect of Buddhism. It has roots in India, in the figure of Bodhidharma (Daruma in Japanese), who is said to have brought his ideas to China in the 6th century. His teaching emphasized the centrality of meditation in the individual's ability to access enlightenment.

What does "zen" mean?

Zen means "meditation" In China it is called Chan, and in Korea it is called Seon.

15-16. The Great Wave Off Kanagawa

who made this: Katsushika Hokusai when: Edo period, ca. 1831 where: Japan medium: polychrome woodblock print on paper size: approx. 10 x 15 inches

13-14A and 13-15A. The Ryokai Mandala (includes the Womb World Mandala and the Diamond World Mandala)

who made this: Heian period artists when: Heian period, late 9th century where: To-ji, Kyoto, Japan medium: hanging scroll, color on silk size: each panel is approx. 6 feet x 5 feet 2 inches

15-20. Ainu Ceremonial Robe

who made this: Ainu craftswomen when: mid-19th century where: Hokkaido, Japan's northern island medium: elm bark fiber with cotton cloth appliqué and cotton thread embroidery size: length 4 feet 4 1/2 inches x width 4 feet 2 inches