ART 187

Seated Scribe. From Tomb of Kai, Saqqara, Egypt. (c.2450-2325 BCE) [Old Kingdom Egypt]

How does this image differ from royal statuary? What does this stylistic difference suggest about systems of representation in Ancient Egypt? Painted, more focused on naturalism, seated cross legged on the ground rather than the throne Not idealized in his musculature like a king Not made out of expensive stone Ready to listen, not say something...In position of attentiveness No headwear, beard or any kind of facial wear Not idealized like a kings--flabby with wrinkles More of a member of society than a member of the gods

Realism vs Idealism

Idealism is when you envision or see things in an ideal or perfect manner. Realism, on the other hand, tends toward a more pragmatic and actual view of a situation. ... Realism, on the other hand, deals with the fact that reality has an absolute existence independent from our thoughts, ideas and even consciousness.

Black-figure painting

In early Greek pottery, the silhouetting of dark figures against a light background of natural, reddish clay, with linear details incised through the silhouettes.

Red-figure painting

In later Greek pottery, the silhouetting of red figures against a black background, with painted linear details; the reverse of black-figure painting.

Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens (420 BCE) [Classical Greece]

In what ways does this monument reflect the identity of Athens? How does it relate to the works of art and architecture studied for today's class? It resembles The Erechtheion (421-406 BCE) in its ionic structure. Like The Erechtheion, this unknown structure demonstrates the Classical greek period in which the idea of perfect beauty and monumentality was rendered within the architecture of the period. Concerned with perfect proportions and harmony using mathematics Similar to the Parthenon, this monumental structure reflects the identity of Athens through not only its monumentality and ionic decorative beauty but also in its location. Very high up overlooking the city in order to show the dominance of Athens as a city state. Following the victory over the Persian Empire the Greeks had extreme confidence. This was seen in the physical embodiment of sculptures made during this time period, especially in the Parthenon. The sculptures on the frieze of the unknown structure are similar to the Parthenon in the way that they show naturalism of Phidian style. The figures bodies are ideal and athletic, bone structure and musculature rendered, and drapery is almost water like. The figure movement seems fluid and life like. Like The Erechtheion, this unknown structure beautifully expresses the ability of greek architects during the high classical period, to unify disparate purposes in a complex terrain as it is shown on a mountaintop. In all three examples there is emphasis on the artistry In what way is it most similar to the Parthenon? Adorned with sculptural decoration Polychromatic Shows the power and intelligence, focus on symmetric, harmony, and mathematical precision Reflect the rationality and intelligence of the athenian people But is ionic instead of doric Architecture is both functional and symbolic

Warka Vase (aka Uruk Vase) (3500-3000 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Innovation to do art in order to illustrate the role of the ruler and his place in society emerged in the Ancient Near East during the Uruk period In its decoration we find an example of the cosmology of ancient Mesopotamia. The vase, made of alabaster and standing over three feet high (just about a meter) and weighing some 600 pounds (about 270 kg), was discovered in 1934 by German excavators working at Uruk in a ritual deposit (a burial undertaken as part of a ritual) in the temple of Inanna, the goddess of love, fertility, and war and the main patron of the city of Uruk. Given the significant size of the Warka Vase, where it was found, the precious material from which it is carved and the complexity of its relief decoration, it was clearly of monumental importance, something to be admired and valued. The relief carvings on the exterior of the vase run around its circumference in four parallel bands (or registers, as art historians like to call them) and develop in complexity from the bottom to the top. Beginning at the bottom, we see a pair of wavy lines from which grow neatly alternating plants that appear to be grain (probably barley) and reeds, the two most important agricultural harvests of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southern Mesopotamia. rams and ewes (male and female sheep) that alternate in the band above this. The sheep march to the right in tight formation, as if being herded—the method of tending this important livestock in the agrarian economy of the Uruk period. The band above the sheep is a blank and might have featured painted decoration that has since faded away. Above this blank band, a group of nine identical men march to the left. Each holds a vessel in front of his face, and which appear to contain the products of the Mesopotamian agricultural system: fruits, grains, wine, and mead. The men are all naked and muscular and, like the sheep beneath them, are closely and evenly grouped, creating a sense of rhythmic activity. Nude figures in Ancient Near Eastern art are meant to be understood as humble and low status, so we can assume that these men are servants or slaves (the band above, displays the slave owners). The top band of the vase is the largest, most complex, and least straightforward. It has suffered some damage but enough remains that the scene can be read. The center of the scene appears to depict a man and a woman who face each other. A smaller naked male stands between them holding a container of what looks like agricultural produce which he offers to the woman. The woman, identified as such by her robe and long hair, at one point had an elaborate crown on her head. Behind her are two reed bundles, symbols of the goddess Inanna, whom, it is assumed, the woman represents. The man she faces is nearly entirely broken off, and we are left with only the bottom of his long garment. However, men with similar robes are often found in contemporary seal stone engraving and based upon these, we can reconstruct him as a king with a long skirt, a beard and a headband. The tassels of his skirt are held by another smaller scaled man behind him, a steward or attendant to the king, who wears a short skirt.The rest of the scene is found behind the reed bundles at the back of Inanna. There we find two horned and bearded rams (one directly behind the other, so the fact that there are two can only be seen by looking at the hooves) carrying platforms on their backs on which statues stand. The statue on the left carries the cuneiform sign for EN, the Sumerian word for chief priest. The statue on the right stands before yet another Inanna reed bundle. Behind the rams is an array of tribute gifts including two large vases which look quite a lot like the Warka Vase itself. The simplest way to interpret it is that a king (presumably of Uruk) is celebrating Inanna, the city's most important divine patron. A more detailed reading of the scene suggests a sacred marriage between the king, acting as the chief priest of the temple, and the goddess—each represented in person as well as in statues. Their union would guarantee for Uruk the agricultural abundance we see depicted behind the rams. The worship of Inanna by the king of Uruk dominates the decoration of the vase. The top illustrates how the cultic duties of the Mesopotamian king as chief priest of the goddess, put him in a position to be responsible for and proprietor of, the agricultural wealth of the city state. Major object directly involved in the ceremonies depicted there This object might have been used in the ceremonies carved in the exterior See this as a continuous procession that we can assume that these kind of ceremonies actually occurred The vase has a distinct hierarchy to it, through the layers. Topmost has the most important figures King leading parade of people giving offering and you see the god anana Priest/king and the goddess are married in a sense, not literally the wedding but instead a sense of union. Close relationship to ensure protection for everyone This event is a ritual that signifies/determines the union between the goddess and the priest

Snake Goddess (1700-1550 BCE) [Minoan]

It has been said that the image of the Snake Goddess, discovered by Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos on Crete, is one of the most frequently reproduced sculptures from antiquity. Whether or not this is true, it is certainly the case that she is a powerful and evocative image. What she meant to the Minoans who made her, however, is not very well understood. Evans found the sculpture of the Snake Goddess in a secondary exploration of the complex he called a "palace" at Knossos. After digging out the entire western wing, he decided to check under the paving stones. Most covered nothing but earth, but just south of the Throne Room, he discovered two stone-lined pits containing a wide variety of precious things, mostly broken: scraps of gold, ivory, faience, stone inlay, unworked horn, ceramic vessels, seal stones, sealings, shells, the vertebrae of large fish, and the broken pieces of at least three figurines, of which the Snake Goddess was one. Because of the fragmentary nature of these valuable objects, Evans assumed what he had found were damaged pieces that had been cleaned out from a temple. He named the pits the "Temple Repositories" and immediately set upon the reconstruction of as much as he could, with special interest in the figurines, which he assumed were of goddesses. The Snake Goddess, as originally excavated, lacked a head and half of her left arm. The complete right arm held a short wavy striped stick, which Evans interpreted as a snake. This was, in some measure, to match the other nearly complete figurine found in the Temple Repositories, which clearly had snakes slithering up both of her arms. The restoration of the Snake Goddess was done by the Danish artist Halvor Bagge together with Evans. Their contribution to the figurine was the creation of a matching arm and stripy snake, the head of the goddess, and the placement of the hat and cat (separate faience pieces found in the Appearance: In her restored state, the Snake Goddess is 29.5 cm (about 11.5 inches) high, a youthful woman wearing a full skirt made of seven flounced layers of multicolored cloth. This is likely not a representation of striped cloth, but rather flounces made from multiple colorful bands of cloth, the weaving of which was a Minoan specialty. Over the skirt she wears a front and back apron decorated with a geometric diamond design. The top of the skirt and apron has a wide, vertically-striped band that wraps tightly around the figure's waist. On top, she wears a short-sleeved, striped shirt tied with an elaborate knot at the waist, with a low-cut front that exposes her large, bare breasts. The Snake Goddess's head, restored by Bagge and Evans, stares straight forward, topped by the spherical object that Bagge and Evans believed would make a good crown, and, finally, a small sitting cat. Her long black hair hangs down her back and curls down around her breasts. The Snake Goddess is a provocative image, but its restoration and interpretation are problematic. The crown and cat have no parallel in any image of a Bronze Age woman, so these should be discounted. The interpretation of this figure as a goddess is also difficult, since there is no evidence of what a Minoan goddess might have looked like. Many images of elite Minoan women, perhaps priestesses, look very much like this figurine. If it is the action of snake-wrangling that makes her a goddess, this is also a problem. The image of a woman taming one or more snakes is entirely unique to the Temple Repositories. Therefore, If she is a snake goddess, she is not a particularly popular one. Certainly, Evans was interested in finding a goddess at Knossos. Even before he excavated at the site, he had argued that there was a great mother goddess who was worshiped in the pre-Classical Greek world. With the Snake Goddess, Evans found—or fashioned—what he had anticipated. Its authenticity and meaning, however, leave many questions today.

Judgment of Hunefer Before Osiris. Illustration from a Book of the Dead, c.1285 BCE [New Kingdom Egypt]

Lays out what the process of the afterlife entails God of the dead takes Hunefer and weighs him on a scale, heart placed on the scale. If your heart is lighter than a feather then you can go to the afterlife if not a dog eats the heart Then led by Horus who presents Hunifer to Osiris Up a top we see Hunifer with the deities

Djoser's Funerary Complex, Saqqara. Third Dynasty (c.2630-2575 BCE) [Early Dynastic Period]

Marks the place as important because of the size Ziggurats from Mesopotamia were platforms to have on an elevated level, these however were not temples but instead burial grounds. Functionally different but symbolically they share similarities Complex extends past the pyramid One of the most important feature of the funerary complex is the ka statue

Large Kneeling statue of Hatshepsut Kneeling (c.1479-1458 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

More submissive that typical royal statuary As powerful as the pharaoh is, they are still submissive to the gods Has to mask her gender identity to adopt the ruler positionship: false beard, breasts not prominent, broad shoulders, etc. Adapt to the office typically being held by a women Sense of wisdom and experience Differential human qualities But is showing herself in submission making her relatable to us

Standing Male Worshipper, Tell Asmar (2900-2600 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

One of the many Votive figures Submission because of fear of the god? The statuettes, the act of vision is not one that is governed by fear but the sense of admiration conveys a sense of joy (Irene Winter article) Seems to be locked in this hora of a trance. A sense of admiration and joy through viewing that convey that it wasn't always scary being in the presence of the gods Representing people that can not constantly be there worshipping, stand ins One of a group buried in a temple almost 5,000 years ago, this statue's job was to worship Abu—forever. Almost 5000 years ago One of many 11 Alabaster figures most of them male One of the smaller figures: range from just under a foot to almost three feet Temple where they were buried was in the city called Eshnunna in the Northern part of ancient Mesopotamia (Now called Tell Asmar) Thought to be the great expression of early dynastic Sumerian art Think that the temple was dedicated to the god Abu Wide eyed attentiveness in the sculpture Not meant to be attentive looking at us but rather attentive the a statue/scupture of a god who was believed to be embodied in the sculpture The person for whom this was a kind of stand in was also embodied in this figure So an elite member of ancient sumerian culture paid to have this sculpture made and placed before the god, to be continually attentive to the god Worshipful stance Difference from egyptian culture that represent the king that indicate his divinity but here we have images of worshipers but not so much of kings Figures found are similar, not meant to be portraits of a specific person but a SYMBOL of that person Not a naturalistic figure, but instead static symmetrical geometrical frontal You understand the decision to do this because a naturalistic figure before the god might give a sense of someone visiting but this instead gives a sense of timeless prayer forever

Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions. From Palace Complex of Assurnasirpal II (c. 875-860 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Showing a series of actions that collectively contribute to an event The figures are overlapping creating more of a 3D perspective What artistic aspects of this image appear innovative with respect to the images seen so far in class? How might this image have symbolized the power and authority of Ashurnasirpal ii A lot of attention to realism Showing the power might and authority of the king as he conquers and defeats the powerful lions

Stele of Amenemhat (c.2000 BCE) [Middle Kingdom Egypt]

Shown in the afterlife embracing his father and mother, and sister too but overall it is a celebration of their relationship as a family Privileging of the human qualities that relate us all as time progresses Loving embrace

Sculpture of Khafre from valley temple of Khafre, Giza, Egypt. (c.2520-2494 BCE) [Old Kingdom Egypt]

Similar to the sculpture of King Menkaure and Queen (2490-2472 BCE), the function of the stature might have been primarily to ensure rebirth for the king in the Afterlife. If placed within one of the pyramid complex's Valley Temples, they could have been used to worship the king. Similar to the studied statue, this unknown sculpture of a king shows a number of attributes that were commonly used to separate the image of a king from that of a mere mortal. Both statues depict the king with a broad-shouldered, youthful body covered only with a traditional short pleated kilt, known as a shendjet. In addition, both Pharoah's heads sport the primary pharaonic insignia of the iconic striped nemes headdress and an artificial royal beard. However, in this unknown statute picture, only one fist is clenched and the other is resting on his lap whereas in the sculpture of King Menkaure and Queen, both fists are clenched. Another difference is that the unknown sculpture shows the king sitting whereas in the sculpture of King Menkaure and Queen, the two figures are standing on the feet. Associated with the funerary context of the funerary complex and rituals and death associated with the pharaoh Embody the presence of the pharaoh Visible effects of the sculpture add to it Conform to the basic formula of being the pharaoh, the general office of the king Compact stature conveys power Papyrus and lotus intertwined on side of throne symbolizes that kafra rules over both upper and lower egypt Be the body that the ka inhabits

Stele of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Stele--tall carved object Carved in relief at the top and below that and on all sides we have inscribed Cuneiform (Script used on the stele) written in the language of Akkadian (court language of the Babylonians) Divided into three parts the prologue which talks about the scene being represented on the top--the Investiture of Hammurabi. We see the King Hammurabi ruler of Babylonia on the left, he's smaller, and he is facing the god, Shamash, this is the sun god, the god of justice. We can tell that he is a god because of the special horned crown that he wears and the flames of light that emulate from his shoulders. We have a composite view of the god that is often seen in Ancient Egyptian and Ancient Near eastern art (Shoulders are frontal and face is in profile). Shamash sits on a throne and below his feet are mountains that he rises from each day. He is giving the king a scepter and a ring that are signs of power. Hammurabi is demonstrating that these are divine laws and his authority comes from Shamash. More than 300 laws written, take the form of announcing an action and its consequence The last part speaks to the posterity of the king, of the importance of the rule and that he will be remembered for all time These laws tell us a lot about the culture, talk about issues of agriculture and irrigation, expressing tension within society, also talks about family Such an advanced civilization Documents show Hammurabi was a classic micro-manager, concerned with all aspects of his rule, and this is seen in his famous legal code, which survives in partial copies on this stele in the Louvre and on clay tablets. We can also view this as a monument presenting Hammurabi as an exemplary king of justice. He is seen as receiving the laws from the god Shamash, who is seated, complete with thunderbolts coming from his shoulders. The emphasis here is Hammurabi's role as pious theocrat, and that the laws themselves come from the god. Hammurabi more focused on the general rules of society Restricted code of behavior telling you what you can and cannot do, that is delivered from god to hammurabi to the people, hammurabi is the middle man. Submissive to the god but is strict authority of the people For the Stele of Hammurabi, the image depicted is Shamash, the god of the sun, sitting on a throne. We can tell that he is a god because of the special horned crown that he wears and the flames of light that emulate from his shoulders. Below his feet are mountains that he rises from each day and he appears giving the king to the left of him a scepter and a ring-- symbols of power. Below them is the written Code of Hammurabi which includes about 280 clauses dealing with both criminal and civil aspects of everyday life. By combining both the imagery of the Stele carving and the inscription of text setting the laws that govern his people, Hammurabi is demonstrating that these are divine laws and his authority comes from Shamash. The prologue of the code further demonstrates this idea of Ancient Mesopotamian rulers being guided by the gods. In the prologue the king states that he was ordered by Marduk, the tutelary god of Babylon, to bring justice to his subjects and ensure them good government and also to destroy the wicked and prevent the strong from oppressing the weak. The emphasis here is that the laws themselves come from the god to "ensure stable governance and good rule".

Ishtar Gate and Processional Way, Babylon (575 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Symbolic the animals fears Symbolic of power in a more general sense The text written on the gate is stated directly that it is the will of the gods that he is in power Role as the intermediary is to make sure that there is the constant honoring of the deity in order to ensure the prosperity of everyone Benevolent aspect to his rule that he is conveying Had the ability to be a great leader Shows his power not just in a military way but that he is an effective leader that was able to rally everyone together to build the gate A gate for a city There we eight gates Nebuchadnezzar of biblical fame ascended to the throne and proceeded to rebuild the ancient city of Babylon Part of the enormous building campaign that Nebuchadnezzar took Ruler of Babylon who conquered and destroyed the temple in jerusalem and was responsible for the exile of the jews Reconstructed the great ziggaret of babylon Created palace Had eight double gates, this is the smaller of the double gates This gate is lined with beautiful lions Speak of power, pride and of his rule The lions represent Ishtar one of the Babylonian goddesses...the goddess of war and wisdom and sexuality Raised up to eye level, are snarling, almost lifesize The fact that they're placed in this regular way makes them seem like they are trained/controlled by the king Nebuchadnezzar himself...makes us fear not only the lions but the king as well Faience raised to create a kind of relief sculpture Two other animal forms decorate the gate Both meant to be as ferocious as the lions An ancient Bull known as an auroch--terribly fierce Alternating with the rows of auroch is a kind of mesopotamian dragon..which a a composite beast Dragons associated with Marduk, the patron god of the city, and the king associated himself directly with Marduk The bulls are associated with the god Adad, a god associated with storms with the fertility of the land, with the harvest All of the animals speak to protecting the city but also providing for the city Furrocious animals but also represented in a very regular way, the symmetry and sense of order in the way that they are represented The color is a brilliant blue, material was very technical to build the gate The inscription "I Nebuchadnezzar laid the foundation of the gates down to the groundwater level and had them built out of pure blue stone. Upon the walls in the inner room of the gate are bulls and dragons. And thus, I magnificently adorned them with luxurious splendor for all mankind to behold in awe." Understood his place in history, knew that empires come and go The Assyrian Empire which had dominated the Near East came to an end at around 600 B.C.E. due to a number of factors including military pressure by the Medes, the Babylonians, and possibly also civil war. The Babylonians rose to power in the late 7th century and were heirs to the urban traditions which had long existed in southern Mesopotamia. They eventually ruled an empire as dominant in the Near East as that held by the Assyrians before them. This period is called Neo-Babylonian (or new Babylonia) because Babylon had also risen to power earlier and became an independent city-state, most famously during the reign of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.). In the art of the Neo-Babylonian Empire we see an effort to invoke the styles and iconography of the 3rd millennium rulers of Babylonia. The Neo-Babylonians are most famous for their architecture, notably at their capital city, Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.E.) largely rebuilt this ancient city including its walls and seven gates. It is also during this era that Nebuchadnezzar purportedly built the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon" for his wife because she missed the gardens of her homeland in Media (modern day Iran). Though mentioned by ancient Greek and Roman writers, the "Hanging Gardens" may, in fact, be legendary. The Ishtar Gate (today in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin) was the most elaborate of the inner city gates constructed in Babylon in antiquity. The whole gate was covered in lapis lazuli glazed bricks which would have rendered the façade with a jewel-like shine. Alternating rows of lion and cattle march in a relief procession across the gleaming blue surface of the gate

Amarna Period

The Amarna Period was an era of Egyptian history during the later half of the Eighteenth Dynasty when the royal residence of the pharaoh and his queen was shifted to Akhetaten in what is now Amarna. It is characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images, with figures having raised heads, many figures overlapping and many scenes busy and crowded. Also, the human body is depicted more accurately as opposed to past glorification of pharaohs via preferable portrayal. radically changes the way people think about the body types of the egyptian kings Frailty and oddness to the body types Elongated facial features Established a new monotheistic religion dedicated to the sun deity Aten Called the Amarna Period King Amenhotep IV changed name to Akhenaten (""One who is effective on behalf of Aten") in 1348 BCE Transferred the capital of Egypt from Thebes to a new place called Akhenaten ("Horizon of Aten") Initiated radical stylistic changes in imagery of the king and his family

Riace Warriors (460-450 BCE) [Early Classical Greece]

The Riace Warriors (also referred to as the Riace bronzes or Bronzi di Riace) are two life-size Greek bronze statues of naked, bearded warriors. The statues were discovered by Stefano Mariottini in the Mediterranean Sea just off the coast of Riace Marina, Italy, on August 16, 1972. . The statues are commonly referred to as "Statue A" and "Statue B" and were originally cast using the lost-wax technique. Statue A Statue A stands 198 centimeters tall and depicts the younger of the two warriors. His body exhibits a strong contrapposto stance, with the head turned to his right. Attached elements have been lost - most likely a shield and a spear; his now-lost helmet atop his head may have been crowned by a wreath. The warrior is bearded, with applied copper detail for the lips and the nipples. Inset eyes also survive for Statue A. The hair and beard have been worked in an elaborate fashion, with exquisite curls and ringlets. Statue B Statue B depicts an older warrior and stands 197 centimeters tall. A now-missing helmet likely was perched atop his head. Like Statue A, Statue B is bearded and in a contrapposto stance, although the feet of Statue B and set more closely together than those of Statue A. The Severe or Early Classical style describes the trends in Greek sculpture between c. 490 and 450 B.C.E. Artistically this stylistic phase represents a transition from the rather austere and static Archaic style of the sixth century B.C.E. to the more idealized Classical style. The Severe style is marked by an increased interest in the use of bronze as a medium as well as an increase in the characterization of the sculpture, among other features. The chronology of the Riace warriors has been a matter of scholarly contention since their discovery. In essence there are two schools of thought—one holds that the warriors are fifth century B.C.E. originals that were created between 460 and 420 B.C.E., while another holds that the statues were produced later and consciously imitate Early Classical sculpture. Those that support the earlier chronology argue that Statue A is the earlier of the two pieces. Those scholars also make a connection between the warriors and the workshops of famous ancient sculptors. For instance, some scholars suggest that the sculptor Myron crafted Statue A, while Alkamenes created Statue B. Additionally, those who support the earlier chronology point to the Severe Style as a clear indication of an Early Classical date for these two masterpieces. The art historian B. S. Ridgway presents a dissenting view, contending that the statues should not be assigned to the fifth century B.C.E., arguing instead that they were most likely produced together after 100 B.C.E. Ridgway feels that the statues indicate an interest in Early Classical iconography during the Hellenistic period. In terms of identifications, there has been speculation that the two statues represent Tydeus (Statue A) and Amphiaraus (Statue B), two warriors from Aeschylus' tragic play, Seven Against Thebes (about Polyneices after the fall of his father, King Oedipus), and may have been part of a monumental sculptural composition. The statues have lead dowels installed in their feet, indicating that they were originally mounted on a base and installed as part of some sculptural group or other. The art historian Carol Mattusch argues that not only were they found together, but that they were originally installed—and perhaps produced—together in antiquity. Idealized human form but now on a older body instead of a youthful one Greater degree of articulation of musculature

Lion-Human. c. 30,000-26,000 BCE [Prehistoric]

The cave lion was the fiercest animal of the ice age, and this mammoth ivory carving combines human and lion. The oldest object we have that shows us that we are having a conversation with something that doesn't exist in nature Made with mammoth ivory, biggest animal in the late ice age... the fiercest animal in the environment was the cave lion The sculptor combined the mammoth the lion and the human Made with naturalism, he is watching, listening, this alertness shows an important conversation going on Sign of using belief in being and worlds beyond nature that help us to get by and help us to give us meaning and understanding. Help us to overcome the things that frighten us. Used to share stories with one another around a fire...We could tell because his body is polished by the wear of being passed from hand to hand, found in a cave where he was carefully put away after sharing stories around a fire, bonding, socializing, planning for tomorrow. Shows beliefs in other worlds and beings being an important part for social cohesion and confidence for human beings to have meaning and carry on with their lives Can derive significance from it's smooth surface indicating being passed around An imagined made up entity that gives us incite that the paleolithic people had the imagination to conjure new ideas and images

Hall of Bulls. Lascaux Cave, France, c. 15,000 BCE [Prehistoric]

The cave of Lascaux, France is one of almost 350 similar sites that are known to exist — most are isolated to a region of southern France and northern Spain. Both Neanderthals and Modern Humans coexisted in this region 30,000 years ago. Life was short and very difficult; resources were scarce and the climate was very cold. Approximately 15,000 years later in the valley of Vèzére, in southwestern France, modern humans lived and witnessed the migratory patterns of a vast range of wildlife. They discovered a cave in a tall hill overlooking the valley. Inside, an unknown number of these people drew and painted images that, once discovered in 1940, have excited the imaginations of both researchers and the general public. White calcite, roofed by nonporous rock, provides a uniquely dry place to feature art. To paint, these early artists used charcoal and ocher . We find images of the area's large prehistoric wildlife. Among these images are abstract marks — dots and lines in a variety of configurations. In one image, a humanoid figure plays a mysterious role The animals are rendered in what has come to be called "twisted perspective," in which their bodies are depicted in profile while we see the horns from a more frontal viewpoint. The images are sometimes entirely line drawn to define the animal's contour. In many other cases, the animals are described in solid and blended colors blown by mouth onto the wall. In other portions of the Lascaux cave, artists carved lines into the soft calcite surface. Some of these are infilled with color—others are not. The cave spaces range widely in size and ease of access. The famous Hall of Bulls (below) is large enough to hold some fifty people. Other "rooms" and "halls" are extraordinarily narrow and tall. Given the large scale of many of the animal images, we can presume that the artists worked deliberately—carefully plotting out a particular form before completing outlines and adding color. Some researchers believe that "master" artists enlisted the help of assistants who mixed pigments and held animal fat lamps to illuminate the space. Alternatively, in the case of the "rooms" containing mostly engraved and overlapping forms, it seems that the pure process of drawing and repetitive re-drawing held serious (perhaps ritual) significance for the makers. Why did they do it? The most famous theory was put forth by a priest named Henri Breuil. Breuil believed that the images played a role in "hunting magic." The theory suggests that the prehistoric people who used the cave may have believed that a way to overpower their prey involved creating images of it during rituals designed to ensure a successful hunt. This seems plausible when we remember that survival was entirely dependent on successful foraging and hunting, though it is also important to remember how little we actually know about these people. Another theory suggests that the images communicate narratives (stories). While a number of the depictions can be seen to do this, one particular image in Lascaux more directly supports this theory. A bison, drawn in strong, black lines. Interpreters of this image tend to agree that some sort of interaction has taken place among these animals and the bird-headed human figure—in which the bison has sustained injury either from a weapon or from the horn of the rhinoceros.

Great Pyramids of Giza [Old Kingdom Egypt]

The last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, the great pyramids of Giza are perhaps the most famous and discussed structures in history. represent an apogee in the development of the royal mortuary complex. The three primary pyramids on the Giza plateau were built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary complex that also included a temple at its base and a long stone causeway (some nearly 1 kilometer in length) leading east from the plateau to a valley temple on the edge of the floodplain. several smaller pyramids belonging to queens are arranged as satellites. A major cemetery of smaller tombs, known as mastabas (Arabic for 'bench' in reference to their shape—flat-roofed, rectangular, with sloping sides), fills the area to the east and west of the pyramid of Khufu and were constructed in a grid-like pattern for prominent members of the court. Being buried near the pharaoh was a great honor and helped ensure a prized place in the afterlife. The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk about the sun's rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to the sky—the earliest pyramids, such as the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara—were actually designed as a staircase. The pyramid was also clearly connected to the sacred ben-ben stone, an icon of the primeval mound that was considered the place of initial creation. The pyramid was considered a place of regeneration for the deceased ruler. Many questions remain about the construction of these massive monuments, and theories abound as to the actual methods used. The workforce needed to build these structures is also still much discussed. urban encroachment and the problems that come with it—such as pollution, waste, illegal activities, and auto traffic—are now the biggest threats to these invaluable examples of global cultural heritage. The pyramids were inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, and since 1990, the organization has sponsored over a dozen missions to evaluate their status. It has supported the restoration of the Sphinx, as well as measures to curb the impact of tourism and manage the growth of the neighboring village. Still, threats to the site continue

Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak (c. 1250 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

The massive temple complex of Karnak was the principal religious center of the god Amun-Re in Thebes during the New Kingdom (which lasted from 1550 until 1070 B.C.E.). The complex remains one of the largest religious complexes in the world. However, Karnak was not just one temple dedicated to one god—it held not only the main precinct to the god Amun-Re—but also the precincts of the gods Mut and Montu. Compared to other temple compounds that survive from ancient Egypt, Karnak is in a poor state of preservation but it still gives scholars a wealth of information about Egyptian religion and art. The site was first developed during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 B.C.E.) and was initially modest in scale but as new importance was placed on the city of Thebes, subsequent pharaohs began to place their own mark on Karnak. The main precinct alone would eventually have as many as twenty temples and chapels. Karnak was known in ancient times as "The Most Select of Places" and was not only the location of the cult image of Amun and a place for the god to dwell on earth but also a working estate for the priestly community who lived on site. Additional buildings included a sacred lake, kitchens, and workshops for the production of religious accoutrements. The main temple of Amun-Re had two axes—one that went north/south and the other that extended east/west. The southern axis continued towards the temple of Luxor and was connected by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes. While the sanctuary was plundered for stone in ancient times, there are still a number of unique architectural features within this vast complex. The tallest obelisk in Egypt stood at Karnak and was dedicated by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut who ruled Egypt during the New Kingdom. Made of one piece of red granite, it originally had a matching obelisk that was removed by the Roman emperor Constantine and re-erected in Rome. Another unusual feature was the Festival Temple of Thutmose III, which had columns that represented tent poles, a feature this pharaoh was no doubt familiar with from his many war campaigns. Hypostyle hall One of the greatest architectural marvels of Karnak is the hypostyle hall built during the Ramesside period (a hypostyle hall is a space with a roof supported by columns). The hall has 134 massive sandstone columns with the center twelve columns standing at 69 feet. Like most of the temple decoration, the hall would have been brightly painted and some of this paint still exists on the upper portions of the columns and ceiling today. With the center of the hall taller than the spaces on either side, the Egyptians allowed for clerestory lighting (a section of wall that allowed light and air into the otherwise dark space below). In fact, the earliest evidence for clerestory lighting comes from Egypt. Not many ancient Egyptians would have had access to this hall, since the further one went into the temple, the more restricted access became. Temples as Cosmos Conceptually, temples in Egypt were connected to the idea of "the first time," the beginnings of the creation of the world. The temple was a reflection of this time, when the mound of creation emerged from the primeval waters. The pylons, or gateways in the temple represent the horizon, and as one moves further into the temple, the floor rises until it reaches the sanctuary of the god, giving the impression of a rising mound, like that during creation. The temple roof represented the sky and was often decorated with stars and birds. The columns were designed with lotus, papyrus, and palm plants in order to reflect the marsh-like environment of creation. The outer areas of Karnak, which was located near the Nile River, would flood during the annual inundation—an intentional effect by the ancient designers no doubt, in order to enhance the temple's symbolism. The theatrical atmosphere of sacred space Meant to be in awe and feel as though you are in a devine otherworldly presence

Woman from Willendorf. C. 24,000 BCE [Prehistoric]

The name of this prehistoric sculpture refers to a Roman goddess—but what did she originally represent? Name speaks to the lens that our culture looks to 25,000 years ago Put her in darkness illuminated from above Attempt to fill in the gaps We have no context to her By giving her the goddess name we were assigning meaning to her that might not be true Almost all sculpture that were found were female figures of different stature She has no feet and very thin arms resting on her breasts No facial features Careful rendering of the hair, perhaps it is a hat It is suggested that perhaps the exaggeration of the stomach, breasts and head are partially results of the natural shape of the stone Have a sense that she is something that is meant to be held, easily fit in a hand Originally painted with ochre red paint The parts that are emphasized are reproductive and suggest that it may possibly be symbolic of nature Body type signifies an abundance of nutrition

Canon of Polykleitos

The renowned Greek sculptor Polykleitos designed a sculptural work as a demonstration of his written treatise, entitled the "Kanon" (or Canon, translated as "measure" or "rule"), exemplifying what he considered to be the perfectly harmonious and balanced proportions of the human body in the sculpted form.

Great Sphinx (2520-2494 BCE) [Old Kingdom Egypt]

The second great pyramid of Giza, that was built by Khufu's second son Khafre, has a section of outer casing that still survives at the very top (and which would have entirely covered all three of the great pyramids at Giza). Although this monument appears larger than that of his father, it is actually slightly smaller but was constructed 10 m (33 feet) higher on the plateau. The interior is much simpler than that of Khufu's pyramid, with a single burial chamber, one small subsidiary chamber, and two passageways. The mortuary temple at the pyramid base was more complex than that of Khufu and was filled with statuary of the king-over 52 life-size or larger images originally filled the structure. Khafre's valley temple, located at the east end of the causeway leading from the pyramid base, is beautifully preserved. It was constructed of megalithic blocks sheathed with granite and floors of polished white calcite. Statue bases indicate that an additional 24 images of the pharaoh were originally located in this temple. The Great Sphinx Right next to the causeway leading from Khafre's valley temple to the mortuary temple sits the first truly colossal sculpture in Egyptian history: the Great Sphinx. This close association indicates that this massive depiction of a recumbent lion with the head of a king was carved for Khafre The Sphinx is carved from the bedrock of the Giza plateau, and it appears that the core blocks used to construct the king's valley temple were quarried from the layers of stone that run along the upper sides of this massive image. The lion was a royal symbol as well as being connected with the sun as a symbol of the horizon; the fusion of this powerful animal with the head of the pharaoh was an icon that survived and was often used throughout Egyptian history. The king's head is on a smaller scale than the body. This appears to have been due to a defect in the stone; a weakness recognized by the sculptors who compensated by elongating the body. Directly in front of the Sphinx is a separate temple dedicated to the worship of its cult, but very little is known about it since there are no Old Kingdom texts that refer to the Sphinx or its temple. The temple is similar to Khafre's mortuary temple and has granite pillars forming a colonnade around a central courtyard. However, it is unique in that it has two sanctuaries—one on the east and one on the west—likely connected to the rising and setting sun. Pyramids are not stand-alone structures. Those at Giza formed only a part of a much larger complex that included a temple at the base of the pyramid itself, long causeways and corridors, small subsidiary pyramids, and a second temple (known as a valley temple) some distance from the pyramid. These Valley Temples were used to perpetuate the cult of the deceased king and were active places of worship for hundreds of years (sometimes much longer) after the king's death. Images of the king were placed in these temples to serve as a focus for worship

Bust of Queen Tiye (c. 1390 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

The second unknown work of the head of the women resembles the Bust of Queen Nefertiti (1353-1336 BCE). Both show subtle effects in the face that render a sense of realism and are sensitively carved. Both sculptures of the heads show a new ideal of beauty that was different than typical Egyptian art. If I remember correctly from the video, this unknown head sculpture is of Akhenaten's mother. Nefertiti being the wife of Akhenaten, and this woman being his mother, as he created this new religion in Egypt he also created a new idea of beauty that we see in the sculptures created during his reign. They depict women in a more powerful sense than we see in past Egyptian artworks. For Bust of Queen Tiye--growing desire for rendering realism. Purpose behind it

Bull-Leaping Fresco from Palace at Knossos (1550-1450 BCE) [Minoan]

The wall painting, as it is now reconstructed, shows three people leaping over a bull: one person at its front, another over its back, and a third at its rear. The image is a composite of at least seven panels, each .78 meters (about 2.5 feet) high. Fragments of this extensive wall painting were found very badly damaged in the fill above the walls in the Court of the Stone Spout, on the east side of the Central Court at Knossos. The fact that the paintings were found in fill indicates that this wall painting was destroyed as part of a renovation. The pottery which was found together with the fragments gives us its date, likely LM II (around 1400 B.C.E.). When Sir Arthur Evans, the first archaeologist to work at Knossos, found the fragments, he recognized them as illustrating an early example of bull sports, and he was eager to create a complete image that he could share with the world. He hired a well-known archaeological restorer, Émile Gilliéron, to create the image we know today from the largest bits of the seven panels. Unfortunately, it is impossible to reconstruct all of the original panels and to get a sense of the painting at all, we are left with Gilliéron's reconstruction. What we see is a freeze-frame of a very fast moving scene. The central image of the fresco as reconstructed is a bull charging with such force that its front and back legs are in midair. In front of the bull is a person grasping its horns, seemingly about to vault over it. The next person is in mid-vault, upside down, over the back of the bull, and the final person is facing the rear of the animal, arms out, apparently just having dismounted—"sticking the landing," as they say in gymnastics. The people on either side of the bull, as reconstructed, bear markers of both male and female gender: they are painted white, which indicates a female figure according to ancient Egyptian gender-color conventions, which we know the Minoans also used. But both characters wear merely a loincloth, which is male dress. The hairstyle (curls at the top with locks falling down the back) is not uncommon in representations of both youthful males and females. Many interpretations of this gender crossing are possible, but there is little evidence to support one over another, unfortunately. At the very least, we can say that the representation of gender in the Late Aegean Bronze Age was fluid. The person at the center of the action, vaulting over the bull's back, is painted brown, which indicates male gender according to ancient Egyptian gender-color conventions, and this makes sense considering his loincloth. It is interesting to note that the muscles of all three of the bull leapers, at their thighs and chests, have been very delicately articulated, accentuating their athletic build. The background of the scene is blue, white, or yellow monochrome, and indicate no architectural context for the activity. Moreover, the seven panels and Gilliéron's composite reconstruction all show a border of painted richly variegated stones overlapping in patches. So, it seems we are meant to see these scenes as abstracted action within frames, not part of a wider visual field or narrative. The most interesting question about the bull leaping paintings from Knossos is what they might mean. We cannot understand the whole bull-leaping cycle in detail as it is so fragmentary, but we know that it covered a lot of wall space and a considerable amount of resources must have been expended to create it. As mentioned above, many cultures across space and time have engaged in bull sports, and they all have a few things in common. First, these sports are life-threatening. Second, these activities are usually performed before a crowd: they are a civic event, publicly presented and recorded in memory. Third, those who participate in these bull activities are often youths at an age when they are passing from childhood into adulthood and the achievement of the bull sport contributes to that passage. Anthropologists refer to this sort of activity as a "rite of passage," which, when witnessed by one's community, establishes the participant as an adult. Therefore, we might surmise that the bull leaping scenes from Knossos refer to such a rite of passage ceremony. Many have identified the Central Court (Theatral area) just beyond the west façade of the palace at Knossos as locations where bull-leaping ceremonies might have taken place. We may never know the exact meaning of these paintings, but they continue to resonate with us today—not only because of their beauty and dynamism, but because they represent an activity that is still an important part of many cultures around the world.

Palace complex at Knossos [Minoan]

There aren't many places in the world like Knossos. Situated 6km south of the sea, on the north central coast of Crete, several things make this archaeological site important: its great antiquity (it is 9,000 years old), many different cultural layers (Neolithic through Byzantine), its size (nearly 10 square Km) and its great popularity (the second most visited archaeological site in Greece after the Acropolis at Athens). Aside from these, however, Knossos is also exceptional because of its role in the writing of history. It is the type site for all of Minoan archaeology, was one of the first large-scale scientific excavations in Europe, and contains some of the most contentious restorations in the ancient Mediterranean. Bronze Age Knossos is traditionally called a palace, a description used by its most famous excavator, Sir Arthur Evans. Indeed, when Evans, just three weeks after beginning his work at the site, discovered a grandly paved and painted room with a large stone chair set in the wall he believed he had found the throne of Minos and the kings of Crete. This royal interpretation of the site of Knossos stuck. Although it is now clear that the role of Knossos was at least as religious and economic as it was political, it is still just called a palace. Early Knossos The site of Knossos was first inhabited around 7000 B.C.E. and was one of the earliest Neolithic sites in the Mediterranean, settled at a time when pottery had yet to be invented. It continued to be a well-populated site for successive Neolithic eras, one literally building upon another, eventually creating one of the only tell sites of the Aegean, nearly 100 meters above sea level. Unfortunately, not a lot is known about Neolithic Knossos as the Bronze Age inhabitants entirely covered over its remains with their own structures. However, limited excavations show that it was one of the oldest farming villages in Europe which had connections to even earlier Mesolithic inhabitants elsewhere on the island. Before the palace The end of the 4th millennium B.C.E. is the beginning of the early Bronze Age at Knossos, a time when the inhabitants learned how to combine tin and copper to make bronze tools and weapons, far more durable than their stone predecessors. Although the palace structure is yet to come, already the buildings on the site have a north-south orientation, as the palace eventually will. Moreover, it appears that ceremonial activity was already common at this time, evidenced by so many specially made and decorated drinking cups. Approximately 1,000 years later, around the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E., the first large-scale buildings were built at Knossos. The nature and shape of these structures are very difficult to ascertain because the later palace largely obscures them, but already the outline of the large (49 x 27m) rectangular open central court is established. Protopalatial or Old Palace Knossos Approximately two hundred years later, at the start of the 2nd millennium (around 1950-1800 B.C.E.) the outline and dimensions of the palace of Knossos emerges and begins what is called the Protopalatial or Old Palace period. The two most distinctive features of this earliest version of Knossos are the long, monumental, cut ashlar stone of the palace's west façade and the central court, now squared off in the corners and paved. This court functioned as a grand performance space. In this period, a wide paved road, which Evans named the Royal Road, was built. The road connects Knossos to the adjacent town to the west. An entrance system of raised walkways is also built at this time. It is clear that, like contemporary ancient Near Eastern temples, storage was an important aspect of Protopalatial Knossos. Long thin storage rooms to the west of the central court are built at this time. In addition, sunk into the open court to the west of the palace were large, deep, circular pits lined with plastered stone, called Kouloures, which archaeologist believe stored grain. Protopalatial Knossos stored more that raw materials, it also produced finished goods. There is evidence of seal stone carving, weaving, and pottery production (especially Kamares Ware) and likely gold working as well. In this busy place, a written script, Cretan Hieroglyphic, was used to keep records, written on clay tablets and nodules which were attached to containers of goods. As of yet, the language this script recorded has not been translated. Neopalatial or New Palace Knossos Around 1700 B.C.E. major renovations are undertaken at Knossos, likely the result of a destructive event, possibly an earthquake. These renovations mark the beginning of the Neopalatial or New Palace period and result in the most characteristic elements of Knossos: the West Court is paved (made by filling in the Protopalatial Kouloures) to be used for public ceremonies, the monumental south entrance (or South Propylaeum) is added to impress visitors. The Throne Room with its lustral basin or light well is built to comfortably accommodate the leadership of the palace, and the elegant spaces of the East Wing or Domestic Quarter are constructed, where Evans believed the queen of Knossos passed her time. These new spaces were replete with innovative architectural details including colonnaded staircases, light wells, pier and door partitions, and wall and floor paintings. This was a grand era for painting at Knossos. There were beautiful scenes of the natural world, such as in the Blue Monkey or Partridge Frieze frescoes, as well as miniature scale works such as the Grandstand Fresco, which seems to represent group performances in the West Court. The monumental North Entrance passage was rebuilt in the Neopalatial period and decorated with a relief wall painting of a raging bull, an image which becomes emblematic of Knossos and Minoan Crete. Pottery production reaches new heights, most famously in the delightful marine style, which some archaeologists believe is a reflection of a Minoan thalassocracy (sea power) Innovation in the Neopalatial period extends to writing as well: a new script, in addition to Cretan Hieroglyphic, is used at Neopalatial Knossos, Linear A. Although this script also remains largely unreadable, it is clear that it was used for accounting and administration, noting the movement of materials and people between the palace and sites across the island. It also reflects the way in which Knossos and a number of other smaller sites which look very similar to Knossos, and are also called palaces (Malia, Phaistos, Zakros, Monastiraki, Petras, Chania and Galatas) were a focal point for much of the population and labour on Crete at the time. This palatial network not only connected Cretan communities but also maintained trading ties with the Eastern Mediterranean. Postpalatial or Final Palatial Knossos There are signs that the palace suffered a series of destructions around 1450 B.C.E., at the same time that there are widespread destructions and abandonment of Minoan sites all over Crete. These events begin what is called the Postpalatial or Final Palatial period, which lasts approximately 150 years. Knossos is rebuilt after these destructions but differently. For instance, no more lavish limestone ashlar masonry was cut for the exterior of the palace and new interior walls were erected to change the flow of movement, seemingly to cut off certain areas, such as the West magazines (storage areas), presumably for security. Most importantly, the Throne Room was redesigned in this era to include the griffins seen in the archaeological reconstruction and possibly for the installation of the throne itself. Much of the palace interior was repainted in this Postpalatial era and this includes many of the most famous wall paintings from Knossos: the bull leaping or Toreador fresco, the Procession fresco, and the Camp Stool fresco. Pottery produced at Postpalatial Knossos is called Palace Style and is based on Neopalatial predecessors but with a quirky kind of stylization which renders subjects less naturalistic and more pattern-like. Some new pottery shapes are created which appear in imitation of mainland Mycenaean pieces. Postpalatial Knossos is still a place of very complex administration as is described by the hundreds of clay tablets discovered. However, the Linear A script is no longer used; it is replaced by Linear B, which can be read, and records a very early form of Classical Greek, the language of the contemporary Mycenaeans of mainland Greece. The social order described in these tablets is that of a Wanax as the leader of Knossos and a deep administration concerned with land tenure, religious activities, and a massive textile industry which employed over 700 shepherds harvesting between 50-75 tons of raw wool, woven by nearly 1,000 workers, men, women, and children, capable of producing some 20,000 individual textile pieces. Knossos was clearly a prosperous city in this period and this can also be seen through a new type of burial at the site: warrior graves. These, sometimes extravagantly constructed, tombs of men and women feature a range of fighting weapons such as swords and thrusting daggers, as well as valuable metal vessels and elegant pottery. These sorts of very rich, well-constructed graves are a tradition which is associated with the mainland of Greece. Cretan and mainland cultures A lot about Postpalatial Knossos has a distinct Mycenaean flavor and this fact has led many archaeologists to conclude that the destructions at the beginning of the period were actually the Mycenaeans invading the island. However, many Minoan elements remain in Postpalatial culture, and obvious signs of warfare which would have resulted from a large-scale invasion have yet to be found. Therefore, we now like to think of the Post Palatial period at Knossos as one of a hybrid, between Cretan and Mainland cultures, likely created by a local elite who wished to maintain status in both spheres. As to who exactly these local elite were, we have some information. Those buried in warrior graves in the Postpalatial cemeteries around Knossos were born in the region, as recent analysis of skeletal materials has shown. The new Knossian elite did not come from the Mycenaean mainland. Knossos collapses . . . and rises again Towards the end of the Postpalatial period Knossos' status relative to other sites (especially to the south and west) on the island seems to wane. Eventually there is a massive destruction, collapse, and fire at the palace around 1300 B.C.E. From that point there is little reoccupation within the most important parts of the palace, although there is some small-scale reoccupation around its periphery. Knossos wasn't down for long. Rapidly after the late Bronze Age collapse a large Early Iron Age settlement emerged north of the palace and was clearly cosmopolitan as it was the only site of the period in Greece with imports ranging from the Middle East to Sardinia. This area eventually develops into a Classical Greek polis (city-state) and in the 1st century B.C.E. suffers Roman conquest. Beautiful mosaics survive from a 2nd century C.E. Roman home, the Villa Dionysos, evidence of the thriving Roman city at the site. A large Christian church is built at the north edge of the site in the 6th century, witness to the Byzantine history of Knossos.

Funerary Krater, 725 BCE [Geometric Greece]

This pot stood above a grave, and the female mourners depicted on it tear out their hair in grief. Gigantic clay pot Long before the classical period Geometric Ancient Greece Krater: a type of Greek clay vessel This krater was found at the Dipylon cemetery in Athens Meant to mark a grave site, someone buried under it The bottom of the vase was open, maybe liquid was poured in the top as an offering for the deceased...or posible it was just used to drain off rain water Decoration covered every inch Divided into registers Comes from early period of Greek history, geometric Has pictorial bands called freizes, in them we see human figures and animals The pictures remind us that this is funerary The large central scene along the top register shows a figure on a bier, a dead figure, who is being mourned. The figures on either side of them are raising arms in gesture of grief Some interpret decorative lines as tears Checkered pattern his funerary shroud? Human forms nearly as abstract as the geometric motifs that fill the rest of the vase Narrative scene Band below shows a procession military in nature See chariots, horsemen, shields and spears and swords and horses Bodies reduces to forms of ancient greek shields Horses given three horses at a time, no sense of space that three horses would occupy Everything feels flat, no pictorial depth or illusionism Palpable sense of sadness tho Pot decorated with slip, particles of clay in a liquid applied to the surface Size and impressiveness of the pot is clearly representing the wealth and power of the family for whom it was made

Inner coffin and death mask of Tutankhamun (1332-1322 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

Tutankhamun was only the age of nine when he became king of Egypt during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom His nearly intact tomb held a wealth of objects that give us unique insights into this period of ancient Egyptian history. Tutankhamun ruled after the Amarna age, when the pharaoh Akhenaten, Tutankhamun's probable father, turned the religious attention of the kingdom to the worship of the god Aten, the sun disc. Akhenaten moved his capital city to the site of Akhetaten (also known as Amarna), in Middle Egypt—far from the previous pharaoh's capital. After Akhenaton's death and the rule of a short-lived pharaoh, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen shifted the focus of the country's worship back to the god Amun and returned the religious center back to Thebes. Tutankhamun married his half-sister, Ankhesenamun, but they did not produce an heir. This left the line of succession unclear. Tutankhamun died at the young age of eighteen, leading many scholars to speculate on the manner of his death—chariot accident, murder by blow to the head, and even a hippopotamus attack! The answer is still unclear. Tutankhamun's much-older advisor (and possible step-grandfather), Ay, married the widowed Ankhesenamun and became pharaoh. Tutankhamun's sarcophagus (a box-like stone container) held not one but three coffins in which to hold the body of the king. The outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with many semi precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin, however, was made of solid gold. When Howard Carter first came upon this coffin, it was not the shiny golden image we see in the Egyptian museum today (below). In his excavation notes, Carter states, it was "covered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles (top image). This was obviously an anointing liquid which had been poured over the coffin during the burial ceremony and in great quantity (some two buckets full)." The image of the pharaoh is that of a god. The gods were thought to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli—so the king is shown here in his divine form in the afterlife. He holds the crook and flail, symbols of the king's right to rule. The goddesses Nekhbet (vulture) and Wadjet (cobra), inlaid with semiprecious stones, stretch their wings across his torso. Beneath these goddesses are two more—Isis and Nephthys—etched into the gold lid. The death mask (above) is considered one of the masterpieces of Egyptian art. It originally rested directly on the shoulders of the mummy inside the innermost gold coffin. It is constructed of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg). Tutankhamen is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted again protecting his brow. He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god as with the inner coffin. He wears a broad collar, which ends in terminals shaped as falcon heads. The back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead, which the Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife. This particular spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamun as he moves into the underworld.

White Temple and Ziggurat (3517-3358 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Uruk (modern Warka in Iraq)—where city life began more than five thousand years ago and where the first writing emerged—was clearly one of the most important places in southern Mesopotamia. Within Uruk, the greatest monument was the Anu Ziggurat on which the White Temple was built. Dating to the late 4th millennium B.C.E. (the Late Uruk Period, or Uruk III) Dedicated to the sky god Anu, Temple would have towered well above (approximately 40 feet) the flat plain of Uruk, and been visible from a great distance A ziggurat is a built raised platform with four sloping sides—like a chopped-off pyramid. Ziggurats are made of mud-bricks—the building material of choice in the Near East, as stone is rare. Ziggurats were not only a visual focal point of the city, they were a symbolic one, as well—they were at the heart of the theocratic political system (a theocracy is a type of government where a god is recognized as the ruler, and the state officials operate on the god's behalf). So, seeing the ziggurat towering above the city, one made a visual connection to the god or goddess honored there, but also recognized that deity's political authority. Excavators of the White Temple estimate that it would have taken 1500 laborers working on average ten hours per day for about five years to build the last major revetment (stone facing) of its massive underlying terrace (the open areas surrounding the White Temple at the top of the ziggurat). Although religious belief may have inspired participation in such a project, no doubt some sort of force (corvée labor—unpaid labor coerced by the state/slavery) was involved as well. The temple gets its name for the fact that it was entirely white washed inside and out, which would have given it a dazzling brightness in strong sunlight. archaeologists uncovered a foundation deposit of the bones of a leopard and a lion in the eastern corner of the Temple (foundation deposits, ritually buried objects and bones, are not uncommon in ancient architecture).

Bison. Ceiling of a cave at Altamira, Spain, c. 12,500 BCE [Prehistoric]

Utilizing what exists on the surface of the cave, not carved protrusions Perhaps the motion of the bison Perhaps the size and mass of the bison Keen ability to observe animals that existed in nature Projected surfaces of painted rock indicate attempt for realism in 3 dimensions more so than the 2d paintings, replications of the animals as they actually look Sense of wasting to convey motion cinematically Get flatter as you go back into the cave

Great Ziggurat of Ur (2100 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Visible markers that people can see from miles around Signifying the importance between the people and the god that they worship Religious structures One of the largest and best-preserved ziggurats of Mesopotamia is the great Ziggurat at Ur. The ziggurat is the most distinctive architectural invention of the Ancient Near East. Like an ancient Egyptian pyramid, an ancient Near Eastern ziggurat has four sides and rises up to the realm of the gods. However, unlike Egyptian pyramids, the exterior of Ziggurats were not smooth but tiered to accommodate the work which took place at the structure as well as the administrative oversight and religious rituals essential to Ancient Near Eastern cities. Ziggurats are found scattered around what is today Iraq and Iran, and stand as an imposing testament to the power and skill of the ancient culture that produced them. What Woolley found was a massive rectangular pyramidal structure, oriented to true North, 210 by 150 feet, constructed with three levels of terraces, standing originally between 70 and 100 feet high. Three monumental staircases led up to a gate at the first terrace level. Next, a single staircase rose to a second terrace which supported a platform on which a temple and the final and highest terrace stood. The core of the ziggurat is made of mud brick covered with baked bricks laid with bitumen, a naturally occurring tar The Ziggurat at Ur and the temple on its top were built around 2100 B.C.E. by the king Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur for the moon goddess Nanna, the divine patron of the city state The structure would have been the highest point in the city by far and, would have been visible for miles around As the Ziggurat supported the temple of the patron god of the city of Ur, it is likely that it was the place where the citizens of Ur would bring agricultural surplus and where they would go to receive their regular food allotments. In antiquity, to visit the ziggurat at Ur was to seek both spiritual and physical nourishment. The most important part of the ziggurat at Ur was the Nanna temple at its top, but this, unfortunately, has not survived. The lower parts of the ziggurat, which do survive, include amazing details of engineering and design. The Ziggurat at Ur has been restored twice. But has been damaged since the last restoration

Perforated relief of Ur-Nanshe (2550-2500 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

What conclusions can you draw about Mesopotamian religious belief and attitudes about their relationship to the gods? (Your response must make specific references to at least one of the works of art assigned to study for today's class, as well as to the article by Irene Winter, "The Eyes Have It.") Similar to the Warka (Uruk) Vase in terms of the complexity of its relief decoration, it was clearly of monumental importance, something to be admired and valued. Innovation to do art in order to illustrate the role of the ruler and his place in society emerged in the Ancient Near East during the Uruk period. Perhaps the carvings in this ancient unknown piece could be celebrating the ruler of the civilization at that time period...if this were true I would assume that the largest figure on the lower half would be that ruler...as it appears as though the other figures are catering to his needs. Or maybe this figure is a god in which is worshipped by the ancient civilization for which it was created. Many ancient artworks from that time period such as the Standing Male Worshipper were made for this purpose. The Standing Male Worshipper was made to honor the God Abu. In the article by Irene Winter, "The Eyes Have It.", she talks about somee third millennium Sumerian Sculptures. She describes the enlarged eyes of the statues as serving both as the "expression of devotion and the reflection of the admiring response to the awe-inspiring divinity whose image would presummable have been installed in the shrine where the votive statues were placed". Building off of this thought, I feel as though the size of the other figures that were carved into the unknown plaque being smaller in size besides one figure on the top half and one on the bottom half may play a key role in the meaning behind the artwork. I feel as though this shows that they were of less importance than those two figures. Now that I am really thinking about it...Maybe the bottom large figure is a god worshiped by the civilization and the top large figure is the king/ruler of the civilization. As you can see the top large figure seems to be also serving the bottom large figure as he is carrying some sort of basket on his head meanwhile the bottom large figure is merely sitting, perhaps on a throne. A throne only fit for a god. What is the significance of this object, based on the works of art studied for today's class? What conclusions can you draw about Mesopotamoan religious belief and attitudes about their relationship to the gods We see text on the tablet..."Cuneiform" Larger figures are the chief priest and the king of Lagash In the Warka vase, it is celebrating the Marriage between the King and the goddess....you see people presenting offering to the king and goddess Priest In the tablet is bringing the building blocks of a temple that will honor a particular goddess Great amount of emphasis to ensure the favor of the gods by building temples and such in order to honor the gods Vision triggers an overwhelming sense of admiration according to the article by Irene Winter, "The Eyes Have It." Body language of the figures show respect and admiration for the larger figures

Post-and-lintel

a structure consisting of vertical beams (posts) supporting a horizontal beam (lintel)

King Menkaure and Queen (2490-2472 BCE) [Old Kingdom Egypt]

nearly life-size statue of the pharaoh Menkaure and a queen . Smooth as silk, the meticulously finished surface of the dark stone captures the physical ideals of the time and creates a sense of eternity and immortality even today. Found in the Menkaure complex, in the barely-touched Valley Temple. In addition to the triads, Reisner's team also revealed the extraordinary dyad statue of Menkaure and a queen that is breathtakingly singular. The two figures stand side-by-side on a simple, squared base and are supported by a shared back pillar. They both face to the front Menkaure's head is noticeably turned to his right—this image was likely originally positioned within an architectural niche, making it appear as though they were emerging from the structure. The broad-shouldered, youthful body of the king is covered only with a traditional short pleated kilt, known as a shendjet, and his head sports the primary pharaonic insignia of the iconic striped nemes headdress (so well known from the mask of Tutankhamun) and an artificial royal beard. In his clenched fists, held straight down at his sides, Menkaure grasps ritual cloth rolls. His body is straight, strong, and eternally youthful with no signs of age. His facial features are remarkably individualized with prominent eyes, a fleshy nose, rounded cheeks, and full mouth with protruding lower lip. Menkaure's queen provides the perfect female counterpart to his youthful masculine virility. Sensuously modeled with a beautifully proportioned body emphasized by a clinging garment, she articulates ideal mature feminine beauty. There is a sense of the individual in both faces. Neither Menkaure nor his queen are depicted in the purely idealized manner that was the norm for royal images. Instead, through the overlay of royal formality we see the depiction of a living person filling the role of pharaoh and the personal features of a particular individual in the representation of his queen. Menkaure and his queen stride forward with their left feet—this is entirely expected for the king, as males in Egyptian sculpture almost always do so, but it is unusual for the female since they are generally depicted with feet together. They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever. The dyad was never finished—the area around the lower legs has not received a final polish, and there is no inscription. However, despite this incomplete state, the image was erected in the temple and was brightly painted —there are traces of red around the king's ears and mouth and yellow on the queen's face. The presence of paint atop the smooth, dark greywacke on a statue of the deceased king that was originally erected in his memorial temple courtyard brings an interesting suggestion—that the paint may have been intended to wear away through exposure and, over time, reveal the immortal, black-fleshed "Osiris" Menkaure Unusual for a pharaoh's image, the king has no protective cobra (known as a uraeus) perched on his brow. This notable absence has led to the suggestion that both the king's nemes and the queen's wig were originally covered in precious metal and that the cobra would have been part of that addition. Based on comparison with other images, there is no doubt that this sculpture shows Menkaure, but the identity of the queen is a different matter. She is clearly a royal female. She stands at nearly equal height with the king and, of the two of them, she is the one who is entirely frontal. In fact, it may be that this dyad is focused on the queen as its central figure rather than Menkaure. The prominence of the royal female—at equal height and frontal—in addition to the protective gesture she extends has suggested that, rather than one of Mekaure's wives, this is actually his queen-mother. The function of the sculpture in any case was to ensure rebirth for the king in the Afterlife. What artistic qualities do you notice in these sculptures? How does this sculpture communicate the idea of joint rulership? Are there any clues to suggest who might have a position of higher authority? Their joint rulership is shown as each figure embodying different aspects of rulership The Queen looks like she is trying to protect the king

Book of the Dead

scrolls that served as a guide for the afterlife in ancient Egypt

Palette of King Narmer (3000-2920 BCE) [Early Dynastic Egypt]

so valuable that it has never been permitted to leave the country. The imagery preserved on this palette provides a peek ahead to the richness of both the visual aspects and religious concepts that develop in the ensuing periods. It is a vitally important artifact of extreme significance for our understanding of the development of Egyptian culture on multiple levels. Discovered among a group of sacred implements ritually buried in a deposit within an early temple of the falcon god Horus at the site of Hierakonpolis (the capital of Egypt during the pre-dynastic period) this large ceremonial object is one of the most important artifacts from the dawn of Egyptian civilization. The beautifully carved palette, 63.5 cm (more than 2 feet) in height and made of smooth grayish-green siltstone, is decorated on both faces with detailed low relief. These scenes show a king, identified by name as Narmer, and a series of ambiguous scenes that have been difficult to interpret and have resulted in a number of theories regarding their meaning. The high quality of the workmanship, its original function as a ritual object dedicated to a god, and the complexity of the imagery clearly indicate that this was a significant object, but a satisfactory interpretation of the scenes has been elusive. The object itself is a monumental version of a type of daily use item commonly found in the Predynastic period —palettes were generally flat, minimally decorated stone objects used for grinding and mixing minerals for cosmetics. Dark eyeliner was an essential aspect of life in the sun-drenched region; like the dark streaks placed under the eyes of modern athletes, black cosmetic around the eyes served to reduce glare. Basic cosmetic palettes were among the typical grave goods found during this early era. In addition to these simple, purely functional, palettes however, there were also a number of larger, far more elaborate palettes created in this period. These objects still served the function of being a ground for grinding and mixing cosmetics, but they were also carefully carved with relief sculpture. Many of the earlier palettes display animals —some real, some fantastic—while later examples, like the Narmer palette, focus on human actions. Research suggests that these decorated palettes were used in temple ceremonies, perhaps to grind or mix makeup to be ritually applied to the image of the god. Later temple ritual included elaborate daily ceremonies involving the anointing and dressing of divine images; these palettes likely indicate an early incarnation of this process. The Palette of Narmer was discovered in 1898 by James Quibell and Frederick Green. It was found with a collection of other objects that had been used for ceremonial purposes and then ritually buried within the temple at Hierakonpolis. Temple caches of this type are not uncommon. There was a great deal of focus on ritual and votive objects (offerings to the God) in temples. Every ruler, elite individual, and anyone else who could afford it, donated items to the temple to show their piety and increase their connection to the deity. After a period of time, the temple would be full of these objects and space would need to be cleared for new votive donations. However, since they had been dedicated to a temple and sanctified, the old items that needed to be cleared out could not simply be thrown away or sold. Instead, the general practice was to bury them in a pit under the temple floor. Often, these caches include objects from a range of dates and a mix of types, from royal statuary to furniture. There are several reasons the Narmer Palette is considered to be of such importance. First, it is one of very few such palettes discovered in a controlled excavation. Second, there are a number of formal and iconographic characteristics appearing on the Narmer palette that remain conventional in Egyptian two-dimensional art for the following three millennia. These include the way the figures are represented, the scenes being organized in regular horizontal zones known as registers, and the use of hierarchical scale to indicate relative importance of the individuals. In addition, much of the regalia worn by the king, such as the crowns, kilts, royal beard, and bull tail, as well as other visual elements, such as the pose Narmer takes on one of the faces where he grasps an enemy by the hair and prepares to smash his skull with a mace, continue to be utilized from this time all the way through the Roman era. What we see on the palate The king is represented twice in human form, once on each face, followed by his sandal-bearer. He may also be represented as a powerful bull, destroying a walled city with his massive horns, in a mode that again becomes conventional—pharaoh is regularly referred to as "Strong Bull." In addition to the primary scenes, the palette includes a pair of fantastic creatures, known as serpopards—leopards with long, snaky necks—who are collared and controlled by a pair of attendants. Their necks entwine and define the recess where the makeup preparation took place. The lowest register on both sides include images of dead foes, while both uppermost registers display hybrid human-bull heads and the name of the king. The frontal bull heads are likely connected to a sky goddess known as Bat and are related to heaven and the horizon. The name of the king, written hieroglyphically as a catfish and a chisel, is contained within a squared element that represents a palace facade. Possible interpretation: unification of Upper and Lower Egypt As mentioned above, there have been a number of theories related to the scenes carved on this palette. Some have interpreted the battle scenes as a historical narrative record of the initial unification of Egypt under one ruler, supported by the general timing (as this is the period of the unification) and the fact that Narmer sports the crown connected to Upper Egypt on one face of the palette and the crown of Lower Egypt on the other—this is the first preserved example where both crowns are used by the same ruler. Other theories suggest that, rather than an actual historical representation, these scenes were purely ceremonial and related to the concept of unification in general. Another interpretation: the sun and the king More recent research on the decorative program has connected the imagery to the careful balance of order and chaos (known as ma'at and isfet) that was a fundamental element of the Egyptian idea of the cosmos. It may also be related to the daily journey of the sun god that becomes a central aspect in the Egyptian religion in the subsequent centuries. The scene, showing Narmer wearing the Lower Egyptian Red Crown* (with its distinctive curl), depicts him processing towards the decapitated bodies of his foes. The two rows of prone bodies are placed below an image of a high-prowed boat preparing to pass through an open gate. This may be an early reference to the journey of the sun god in his boat. In later texts, the Red Crown is connected with bloody battles fought by the sun god just before the rosy-fingered dawn on his daily journey and this scene may well be related to this. It is interesting to note that the foes are shown as not only executed, but rendered completely impotent—their castrated penises have been placed atop their severed heads. On the other face, Narmer wears the Upper Egyptian White Crown* (which looks rather like a bowling pin) as he grasps an inert foe by the hair and prepares to crush his skull. The White Crown is related to the dazzling brilliance of the full midday sun at its zenith as well as the luminous nocturnal light of the stars and moon. By wearing both crowns, Narmer may not only be ceremonially expressing his dominance over the unified Egypt, but also the early importance of the solar cycle and the king's role in this daily process. *The Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt were the earliest crowns worn by the king and are closely connected with the unification of the country that sparks full-blown Egyptian civilization. The earliest representation of them worn by the same ruler is on the Narmer Palette, signifying that the king was ruling over both areas of the country. Soon after the unification, the fifth ruler of the First Dynasty is shown wearing the two crowns simultaneously, combined into one. This crown, often referred to as the Double Crown, remains a primary crown worn by pharaoh throughout Egyptian history. The separate Red and White crowns, however, continue to be worn as well and retain their geographic connections. Early texts make it clear that these crowns were believed to be imbued with divine power and were personified as goddesses.

Idealization

the action of regarding or representing something as perfect or better than in reality.

Doric Order

the simplest of the classical Greek architectural styles, featuring unadorned columns with no base

Pediment

the triangular top of a temple that contains sculpture

Anavysos Kouros (530 BCE) [Archaic Greece]

"Stay and mourn at the monument of dead Kroisos, who raging Ares slew as he fought in the front ranks." From the archic period Life size or a bit larger The idea of monumental sculpture, of an ideal male youth is a very powerful motif in greek culture Thousands of these figures were produced, we give them the generic name of kouros or "Youth" Used as grave markers Offerings in sanctuaries Or a representation of a god, usually the god apollo Many think that they were inspired by contact with ancient Egypt Traces of original paint in hair and eyes Compare the sculptures to each other but also human bodies, how life like is it? In the earlier Kouros we have a greater sense of stiffness of, abstraction of the human body where forms are represented almost as symbols rather than as an articulation of what we see in the human body. You have a sense of the body corresponding to a block of stone. Saw a kind of inscribing in the stone This particular Kouros shows how figures are becoming more natural and less blocky. See a more gradual transition and rounded forming a natural flow, even in the face. Forms of the face are more integrated. Still continuity with this figure and old figures... Left leg out Both knees are locked The weight it distributed evenly on both legs Traditional braiding of the hair and headband and curls under it Archaic smile, a figure that has aristocratic nobility Often inscriptions on the base of the figures Scholars believe that the inscription of this one said... "Stay and mourn at the monument of dead Kroisos who raging Ares slew as he fought in the front ranks" Kroisos name of figure, Ares is god of war A youth who fell in battle Most noble way to die, a way that is associated with the ancient greek heroes At this moment of greatest strength Not a portrait, not a specific individual, reference to an individual, body being represented is an ideal

Sir Arthur Evans

(1851 - 1941): British archeologist who unearthed the remains of the Minoan civilization (Knossos) on the island of Crete., excavated Knossos

Phidias, Parthenon sculptures [Classical Greece]

(pediments, metopes and frieze) Parthenon: 447-438 BCE The classical period, hype point of greek history Following the victory over the Persian Empire Had over confidence Seen as the physical embodiment of these sculptures Sculpture production overseen by the famous sculptor Phidias, Phidian style: named for the classical style 3 locations of sculpture on the Parthenon... Pediment, triangular area at the very top of temple on both east and west sides Metopes, below the pediment in between triglyphs In the Frieze, a band of continuous sculpture Parthenon combines both doric and ionic elements...doric (triglyphs and metopes), iconic (frieze) Lost all their color, originally bright Has suffered terrible abuse West pediment Conflict fight between poseidon and athena to be the patron deity of the city of Athens East pediment The story of the birth of athena In center of pediment at tallest point would've been zeus giving birth to athen from his head central figures lost, still have figures on either side who were present, some who are reacting to the birth of athena Pediment traditionally read from left to right Begins with the dawn, the god helios at his chariot representing the rising sun Baseline functions as a horizon line Have the gods and goddesses on mount Olympus One figure in best condition is believed to be the nude of the god Dionysos, the god of wine Lounging with what seems like he would be holding wine Articulation in the muscles of the body, shown strong Toward the center there seems to be some acknowledgement of the action taking place in center Standing figure moving away in surprise Figure to her left seems to be jerking away Sense of momentary Dionisos and other seated figure don' seem to notice whats going on On right side is the famous group, the three goddesses Greeks extraordinary to render the body and drapery in detail revealing musculature. PHidias style, drapery almost acts as water on the body To the extreme right we see a horse's head belonging to the chariot of the goddess of the moon Bands of triglyphs and metopes On each of the 4 sides, 4 mythic battles All stand ins to how the greeks saw themselves compared to their enemies, the greeks are order and others had disorder, chaos and barbarism Even in distress the greeks render themselves as heroic and strong Diagonal and arched forms with an incredible amount of energy Freestanding sculpture Frieze Shallower relief sculpture General consensus that it represents the panathenaic yearly procession that honored athena Procession would make its way to one of the most sacred objects in all of athens, an ancient olive wood statue of the goddess athena Extremely rare, usually see images from greek mythology in greek temples Don't see representations of greeks of their own day Idealized image of athenians Projected themselves into the realm of the gods Naturalism in figure movement Figures bodies are ideal and athletic Bone structure an musculature rendered 60 horses on both the north and south side, incredible variety as th overlap each other, the men look calm and nobile with side profile Greeks ability to control powerful animals and nature Also see charioteers See animals brought for sacrifice See series of women walking forward solemnly See large seated figures of gods and goddesses on mount olympus depicted larger in size than humans Athenians placing themselves in the immediate company of the gods Two figures seen folding garment that would cloth the olivewood sculpture of athena Stylized drapery

Ka, or Ka statue

A ka statue is a type of ancient Egyptian statue intended to provide a resting place for the ka (life-force or spirit) of the person after death. The ancient Egyptians believed the ka, along with the physical body, the name, the ba (personality or soul), and the šwt (shadow), made up the five aspects of a person.

Exekias, Achilles and Ajax Playing a Game (540-530 BCE) [Archaic Greece]

Achilles and Ajax, heroes of the Trojan War, break from battle to play a friendly game that hints at a tragic future. Two heros and a simple image that gives us so much information Heroes are Achilles on the left and Ajax on the right Two of the great greek heroes featured in Homer's iliad Exekias, the potter signer it and also wrote the names of the the figures above them Also telling us what's happening between the two Achilles is saying the word four and Ajax is saying the word three Achilles is winning the game they're playing Metaphor for the way the myth will unfold On either side of them we see their shields Achilles still has his helmet on, although Ajax has taken his off, so a moment of relaxation between battles--- On the battlefield of Troy We get a sense of their fate Both figures hunched over the game at hand Both figures are good friends,intimacy brotherhood Achilles is holding his spears loosely you can see the way the points are separating not as parallel Ajax whose spears are held in a more parallel way so that we know that he is clenching with his fist, he's tense See ajax is tense in his brow too, double line opposed to achilles one brow Achilles' feet are relaxed on the ground line, but Ajax's heel is picked up slightly which means that his calf is engaged--his body is tense Ajax's body is more hunched over than Achilles Achilles is a great hero--as a child his mom dipped him in the river to give him powers but everything but his heel was dipped and therefore was unprotected--killed from an arrow that hits him there. But will die a great hero Ajax has a more complicated fate, will outlive his friend and carry him off the battle field Ultimately he will battle for achilles armor which was made by the god Hephaestus, god of the forge. Two people wanted it but he the loses contest and had a bad moment where he slayed himself with his own sword and then killed himself with his own sword Ancient greeks knew the stories The potter depicts them with nobility and fine detail. In the shape of an elegant vase Exekias was a master of attic black figure vase painting Are black figure silhouettes Slipware, iron in slip oxidizes, burnishes it His pots stand out from others

The Erechtheion (421-406 BCE) [Classical Greece]

At the top of the acropolis in athens adjacent from the Parthenon, the largest building is the the Erechtheion An ionic temple in contrast to the Parthenon which is largely doric Ionic features Columns more slender Decorative detail fineness Scroll shapes associated with ionic order in the capitals From east side looks fairly traditional Six columns On the east end was A room holding a statue of Athena that was said to drop from the heavens. Made of olivewood, simple nothing like the statue in the Parthenon Contrast between the erechtheion elegant building with simple statute of a Athena and the Parthenon that is more simple building with a highly decorative athena sculpture Not a very symmetrical building, built on a cliff A set of stairs bring person down to a precinct of zeus, the divine judge of the fight between the fight between Poseidon and Athena to be the divine figure of Athens Olive tree offered by Athena was on west side In north porch you see the hole in the ceiling where Posidons trident came down from th sky and struck the bedrock..missing stone on ground beneath Complicated place Held both the sculpture of Athena and also these preexisting shrines An elegant solution the the architectural problem Built on multiple levels Continuity created by carving surrounding the building Entablature extreme detail, the side of the building that was higher, but some had more carving than others based on height to create unity Tall north porch, on right porch of maidens, in between the two you see half collumns/ engaged columns that allow for symmetry Porch of the maidens 6 female figures holding up the porch Caryatids--load bearing sculpted female figures Reminiscent of Kore figures from the archaic period Make explicit the relationship between the vertical column and the human body Post and lintel system, correspond to the human body Not the first time this was done with female figures, but that was archaic and here the human body is handled in the high classical manner Contraposto pose, sense of movement that is balanced by the pull of drapery that gives them a sense of stability. Their locked legs are very columnar Seem to be in procession looking towards the parthenon Don't know who the figures are Elegance matches the ionic order Symmetry between the east porch of the building and the half columns on the west side A symmetry between the six caryatids on the south porch and the six columns on the north porch Beautifully expresses the ability of greek architects during the high classical period, to unify disparate purposes in a complex terrain All columns originally were more decorative Could refer to the building as the Temple to Athena Polias Athena as the protector goddess of the city of Athens

The Parthenon, Athens (447-432 BCE) [Classical Greece]

Athens and democracy By around 500 B.C.E. 'rule by the people,' or democracy, had emerged in the city of Athens. Following the defeat of a Persian invasion in 480-479 B.C.E., mainland Greece and Athens in particular entered into a golden age. In drama and philosophy, literature, art and architecture. The city's empire stretched from the western Mediterranean to the Black Sea, creating enormous wealth. This paid for one of the biggest public building projects ever seen in Greece, which included the Parthenon. The temple known as the Parthenon was built on the Acropolis of Athens between 447 and 438 B.CE. It was part of a vast building program masterminded by the Athenian statesman Perikles. Inside the temple stood a colossal statue representing Athena, patron goddess of the city. The statue, which no longer exists, was made of gold and ivory and was the work of the celebrated sculptor Pheidias. Parthenon sculptures The building itself was decorated with marble sculptures representing scenes from Athenian cult and mythology. There are three categories of architectural sculpture. The frieze (carved in low relief) ran high up around all four sides of the building inside the colonnades. The metopes (carved in high relief) were placed at the same level as the frieze above the architrave surmounting the columns on the outside of the temple. The pediment sculptures (carved in the round) filled the triangular gables at each end. Although the building was to undergo a number of changes, it remained largely intact until the seventeenth century. The early Christians turned the temple into a church, adding an apse at the east end. It was probably at this time that the sculptures representing the birth of Athena were removed from the centre of the east pediment and many of the metopes were defaced. The Parthenon served as a church until Athens was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the fifteenth century, when it became a mosque. In 1687, during the Venetian siege of the Acropolis, the defending Turks were using the Parthenon as a store for gunpowder, which was ignited by the Venetian bombardment. The explosion blew out the heart of the building, destroying the roof and parts of the walls and the colonnade. The Venetians succeeded in capturing the Acropolis, but held it for less than a year. Further damage was done in an attempt to remove sculptures from the west pediment, when the lifting tackle broke and the sculptures fell and were smashed. Many of the sculptures that were destroyed in 1687, are now known only from drawings made in 1674 Marble metope from the Parthenon The sculpted decoration of the Parthenon included ninety-two metopes showing scenes of mythical battle. Those on the south flank of the temple included a series featuring human Lapiths in mortal combat with Centaurs. The Centaurs were part-man and part-horse, thus having a civil and a savage side to their nature. The Lapiths, a neighboring Greek tribe, made the mistake of giving the Centaurs wine at the marriage feast of their king, Peirithoos. The Centaurs attempted to rape the women, with their leader Eurytion trying to carry off the bride. A general battle ensued, with the Lapiths finally victorious. Here a young Lapith holds a Centaur from behind with one hand, while preparing to deliver a blow with the other. The composition is perfectly balanced, with the protagonists pulling in opposite directions, around a central space filled by the cascading folds of the Lapith's cloak. Fragment from the frieze This block was placed near the corner of the west frieze of the Parthenon, where it turned onto the north. The horsemen have been moving at some speed, but are now reining back so as not to appear to ride off the edge of the frieze. The horseman in front twists around to look back at his companion, and raises a hand (now missing) to his head. This gesture, repeated elsewhere in the frieze, is perhaps a signal. Although mounted riders can be seen here, much of the west frieze features horsemen getting ready for the cavalcade proper, shown on the long north and south sides of the temple. Pediment sculpture The east pediment of the Parthenon showed the birth of goddess Athena from the head of her father Zeus. The sculptures that represented the actual scene are lost. Zeus was probably shown seated, while Athena was striding away from him fully grown and armed. Only some of the figures on either side of the lost central group survive. They include these three goddesses, who were seated to the right of centre. From left to right, their posture varies in order to accommodate the slope of the pediment that originally framed them. They are remarkable for their naturalistic rendering of anatomy blended with a harmonious representation of complex draperies. The figure on the left is on the point of rising and tucks her right foot in to lever herself up. To the right another figure cradles a companion reclining luxuriously in her lap. They are perhaps, from left to right, Hestia, goddess of the hearth and home, Dione, and her daughter Aphrodite. However, another suggestion is that the two figures on the right are the personification of the Sea (Thalassa) in the lap of the Earth (Gaia). Huge marble temple to the goddess athena Very high up overlooking the city In 15th century, Athens was the most powerful city state, that is the period that the Parthonon dates to This precinct became a sacred one rather than a defensive one Has had tremendous influence Becomes the symbol of the birth of Democracy Extraordinary architectural refinement Constructed 447-38 BCE Sculpture completed 432 BCE Built in the high classical moment Series of reforms made in the 5th century athens that allowed more and more people to participate in the government Limited idea of democracy Dedicated to athena City named after her A myth Two gods vying for the honor of being the patron of the city: poseidon, god of sea and athena, goddess of wisdom associated with war and intelligence Both gods gave the city a gift Poseidon: the saltwater of the sea, the gift of naval superiority Athena: offered an olive tree, the idea of the land of prosperity, and peace Athenians chose athena's gift Building style Doric order with some ionic elements Fluting: vertical indentations, shallow and broad Fluting columns go directly into the floor of the temple called the stylobate At the top the capitals are very simple A little flair that rises up to a simple rectangular block called an abacus Just above that are triglyphs and metopes Building covered with sculpture Frieze reconstruction Four ionic columns inside the temple A building that you walked up to and around Inside was a sculpture of Athena Metopes carved with scenes that showed the Greeks battling various enemies either directly or metaphorically All battles symbolized the athenians triumphs Civilization over barbarism, rational thought over chaos Not the first temple to Athena on the site, but the other was destroyed Great importance of the Persian war for the Athenian mindset that created the Parthenon Athens was invaded and the Persians sacked the acropolis, the sacred site, the temples, destroyed many of the buildings Great importance of the Persian war for the Athenian mindset that created the Parthenon Athens was invaded and the Persians sacked the acropolis, the sacred site, the temples, destroyed many of the buildings Later a ruler started storing treasure in the acropolis Athena sculpture was supposedly melted to sell the gold used to make her Imagine the building brightly colored and useful Full of valuable stuff Greek religion was different that other cultures when worshiping Usually was an altar on the outside were sacrifices were made and the temple was the house of the god/goddess Was a treasury but also a symbol of the city's wealth and power...also a gift to athena Concerned with perfect proportions and harmony using mathematics Slight deviation in columns, columns leaning in a bit, deception of the eye Doric u shapes columns surrounded athena To house cult statue More elaborate design than other temples

Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis (520-465 BCE) [Mesopotamian / Persian]

By the early fifth century B.C.E. The Achaemenid (Persian) Empire ruled an estimated 44% of the human population of planet Earth. Through regional administrators the Persian kings controlled a vast territory which they constantly sought to expand Famous for monumental architecture, Persian kings established numerous monumental centers, among those is Persepolis (today, in Iran). The great audience hall of the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes presents a visual microcosm of the Achaemenid empire—making clear, through sculptural decoration, that the Persian king ruled over all of the subjugated ambassadors and vassals (who are shown bringing tribute in an endless eternal procession). The Achaemenid Empire (First Persian Empire) was an imperial state of Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great and flourishing from c. 550-330 B.C.E. The empire's territory was vast, stretching from the Balkan peninsula in the west to the Indus River valley in the east. The Achaemenid Empire is notable for its strong, centralized bureaucracy that had, at its head, a king and relied upon regional satraps (regional governors). The Persian kings are noted for their penchant for monumental art and architecture. In creating monumental centers, including Persepolis, the Persian kings employed art and architecture to craft messages that helped to reinforce their claims to power and depict, iconographically, Persian rule. Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire (c. 550-330 B.C.E.), lies northeast of Shiraz, Iran. It was an important city of the ancient world, renowned for its monumental art and architecture. Persepolis was intentionally founded in the Marvdašt Plain during the later part of the sixth century B.C.E. It was marked as a special site by Darius the Great (reigned 522-486 B.C.E.) in 518 B.C.E. when he indicated the location of a "Royal Hill" that would serve as a ceremonial center and citadel for the city. This was an action on Darius' part that was similar to the earlier king Cyrus the Great who had founded the city of Pasargadae. Darius the Great directed a massive building program at Persepolis that would continue under his successors Persepolis would remain an important site until it was sacked, looted, and burned under Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C.E. Darius' program at Persepolis included the building of a massive terraced platform covering 125,000 square meters of the promontory. This platform supported four groups of structures: residential quarters, a treasury, ceremonial palaces, and fortifications. Scholars continue to debate the purpose and nature of the site. Primary sources indicate that Darius saw himself building an important stronghold. Some scholars suggest that the site has a sacred connection to the god Mithra (Mehr), as well as links to the Nowruz, the Persian New Year's festival. More general readings see Persepolis as an important administrative and economic center of the Persian empire. The Apādana palace is a large ceremonial building, likely an audience hall with an associated portico. The audience hall itself is hypostyle in its plan, meaning that the roof of the structure is supported by columns. The column capitals assumed the form of either twin-headed bulls (above), eagles or lions, all animals represented royal authority and kingship. The king of the Achaemenid Persian empire is presumed to have received guests and tribute in this soaring, imposing space. To that end a sculptural program decorates monumental stairways on the north and east. The theme of that program is one that pays tribute to the Persian king himself as it depicts representatives of 23 subject nations bearing gifts to the king. The monumental stairways that approach the Apādana from the north and the east were adorned with registers of relief sculpture that depicted representatives of the twenty-three subject nations of the Persian empire bringing valuable gifts as tribute to the king. The sculptures form a processional scene, leading some scholars to conclude that the reliefs capture the scene of actual, annual tribute processions—perhaps on the occasion of the Persian New Year-that took place at Persepolis The two sets of stairway reliefs mirror and complement each other. Each program has a central scene of the enthroned king flanked by his attendants and guards. Noblemen wearing elite outfits and military apparel are also present. The representatives of the twenty-three nations, each led by an attendant, bring tribute while dressed in costumes suggestive of their land of origin. Margaret Root interprets the central scenes of the enthroned king as the focal point of the overall composition, perhaps even reflecting events that took place within the Apādana itself. The relief program of the Apādana serves to reinforce and underscore the power of the Persian king and the breadth of his dominion. The motif of subjugated peoples contributing their wealth to the empire's central authority serves to visually cement this political dominance the Apādana, both as a building and as an ideological tableau, make clear and strong statements about the authority of the Persian king and present a visually unified idea of the immense Achaemenid empire.

Caryatid and Ionic Column from Erechtheion [Classical Greece]

Caryatid is a human figure acting as a column Looks like acollumn Drapery falls in what looks like the fluting of a column Stands on contrapposto One weight bearing leg that looks like a column Other leg shows her body Circular form around her hips outlining body Her head remains straight Thickness of cloth Sensibility to harmony and balance Nobility to her that is also seen in the Parthenon sculptures Classical Greek idea of perfect beauty, monumentality, Ionic column in the same museum Slender and graceful Referred to as more feminine and decorative Synthesis of the females taking their place Scrolled capital The caryatid The Erechtheion is perhaps the most complex building on the Acropolis. It houses shrines to several different deities, including Athena, Zeus and Poseidon. It is named for the mythic King Erechtheus who judged the contest between Athena and Poseidon for who would be the patron deity of Athens. This caryatid is one of six elegant female figures who supported the roof of the south porch of the Erechtheion . The figure wears a garment pinned on the shoulders The drapery bunches up at the waist and pours over the belt. She stands in contrapposto with her left knee bent and pressing against the drapery The folds of drapery on other right side resemble the fluting (vertical grooves) on a column. She looks noble and calm despite the fact that she carries the weight of a roof on her head. The column The Erechtheion is a highly decorated and elegant Ionic temple. The scroll forms at the top of the column (the capital) and its tall slender profile indicate that this is the Ionic order. The column is formed of four pieces (known as "drums") and is fluted (decorated with vertical grooves). Just below the scroll shapes (also called volutes) you see decorative moldings, including one called "egg and dart" (egg shapes alternating with V-shapes), and below that a ring of plant-like shapes—an alternating palmette and lotus pattern. These decorative patterns also appear on the entablature of the Erechtheion (the entablature is the horizontal area carried by the columns).

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

Combines the honoring of her as a pharaoh as well as the gods Takes a different form than others..Integrated into the landscape

Head of Senusret III. (c.1836-1818 BCE) [Middle Kingdom Egypt]

During the mid-Twelfth Dynasty, the face of the pharaoh underwent a startling transformation from that of a youthful, idealized monarch to a mature individual, with soft folds of sagging flesh, prominent bone structure, and protruding eyes, all of which are reflected in this imposing, monumental work. These changes must have resulted from new ideas about kingship, perhaps here manifested as a desire to depict a king who has gained the wisdom to lead Egypt.

Temple of Hera I, Paestum (c.550-540 BCE) [Archaic Greece]

Explore the development of the Doric order in the temples of the city of Poseidon, the god of the sea. Old town name was Poseidonia named after Posiden Was a greek settlement, small independent greek city Were lots of these Paestum has three ancient doric temples, two from the archaic period of the sixth century and one from the classical period of the fifth century The greeks over time adjusted proportions of the architecture always in a search of perfection and ideal beauty All the elements we would expect to see in a Doric temple Massive columns with no feet and go straight into the base of the temple Columns rise up with shallow broad fluting and end in a geometric capital An exaggerated entasis...the column isn't straight, it bulges in the middle and tapers towards the top. So exaggerated that it looks as though the column is bulging from the weight above The capitals seem flattened by the roof A real sense of horizontality and of weight Temple front has 9 columns across, along the side you have 18 Meant to be houses of gods Meant to worship outside of the temple Row of columns in the middle of the cella, perhaps there were two cult statues Location: all around are even older greek and roman ruins. Coexisting All have a sense of rising out of the landscape and giving form to human aspiration Temples were not intended for communal worship Instead were the housing of cult statues that represented the gods for whom the temple was dedicated to... kept in the adyton inner sanctum A lot of the worship occurred on the outside Set the stage for the exterior rituals that were carried out

Temple of Hera II, Paestum [Archaic Greece / Early Classical Greece]

Explore the development of the Doric order in the temples of the city of Poseidon, the god of the sea. Old town name was Poseidonia named after Posiden Was a greek settlement, small independent greek city Were lots of these Paestum has three ancient doric temples, two from the archaic period of the sixth century and one from the classical period of the fifth century The greeks over time adjusted proportions of the architecture always in a search of perfection and ideal beauty Contrasted with hera 1 often Greater sense of verticality and slenderness Better preserved in details Hera 2 is much closer to what we would expect from a Doric temple like the Parthenon in Athens. Has six columns in the front, symmetrical in the front, a gap tht we could walk through The side has 14 columns Has a second colonnade just in back of the first and then the interior space is defined by an outer wall and then a colonnade that has a second set of columns above it Better solution for supporting the roof than a row of columns down the center that we see in Hera 1 Changes that have taken place The columns have a less pronounced entasis The flair at the top of the column at the base of the capital is not as exaggerated and played with as it was in Hera 1 Structure has a greater sense of lift At the golden age of greece, culture inventing the things that we still use, innovation Location: all around are even older greek and roman ruins. Coexisting All have a sense of rising out of the landscape and giving form to human aspiration Temples were not intended for communal worship Instead were the housing of cult statues that represented the gods for whom the temple was dedicated to... kept in the adyton inner sanctum A lot of the worship occurred on the outside Set the stage for the exterior rituals that were carried out

Lamassu or guardian figures at Gate A of the Citadel of Sargon II (721-706 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

Extreme detail Palace complex

Kritios Boy (480 BCE) [Early Classical Greece]

Following war with the Persians, this highly naturalistic sculpture was buried out of respect. Late archaic period, severe style, maybe call it early classical Transition between the late archaic and early classical Allows us to see the transition from the archaic Kouros and the more naturalistic movement filled figures that we find on the Parthenon for example Broken originally when the Persians invaded Athens and desecrated the Acropolis, huge blow to the Greeks. Shortly after being found, the sculptures were buried on the acropolis Ironic because they were reserved because they were destroyed Before being defeated by the Persians, They had an earlier victory over the persians... Greek city states battle the Persian Empire 490 BCE Greeks victorious as the Battle of Marathon 480 BCE Greeks defeated, acropolis in Athens sacked Some have suggested that the new found naturalism in this sculpture is a result in the new sense of self and sense of self determination that followed the defeat of the Persians...sense of athens as a leader Like the Kouros figures Marble Relatively still with potential for movement With kouros the figures were both standing still and moving simultaneously Here we have incipient movement about to take place, a sense of process and unfolding of time that makes it seem more apart of our world Marble Nude Kouros figures depicted as stick figures, but here the more naturalistic rendering of the body is shown, potential for movement is believable Don't see the feet or calf but is believed to be standing in contraposto...weight shifted on one leg, body acts in unison Asymmetrical, sense of engagement with the world The kouros were symmetrical and seemed artificial No more archaic smile Relaxed pose Arm was at his sides before broken, similar to the traditional kouros Eyes hollowed out would have been inset with glass paste eyes, lifelike, used in traditional bronze In traditional marble sculptures, the eyes were a part of the solid piece of marble and painted In the entire body we've moved away from the linear representation of symbols of the body and now have these smooth beautiful volumes that represent this greek ideal of the athletic male youth. That represented the peak of human achievement and also the qualities of the divine For ancient greek statues what the makers pay most attention to? In what way are they real/ideal... All have attention paid to the hair and the archaic smile Feet in one foot forward position just like ancient Egypt Attention paid to the shape and contour of the body...Frontal More detail to the body than to the face Continuing coming to life of the figure Movement becoming more valued Less reproductive purpose Female form symbolizing different things to different people In ancient cultures there are more male than female nudes, seen as more beautiful Hair Is patterned repeated in almost a rhythmic way Reflects and matches how generic the body is as well

Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) (450-440 BCE) [Early Classical Greece]

For the ancient Greeks, the human body was perfect. Explore this example of the mathematical source of ideal beauty. What would perfect ideal beauty be is shown here Doryphoros-- means spear bearer, would have originally been holding a bronze spear Polykleitos called it Canon, as a kind of idealized form that could be studied and replicated...A set of ideas that you followed The idea that you can create a perfect human form based on math is a part of a bigger set of ideas for the greeks Pythagoras for ex discovered that harmony and music was based on the mathematical relationship between the notes and tried to understand the origin of all beauty through ratio Follows that the greeks would follow that technique Greeks would perform their athletics nude, celebrating the body and its abilities Even when presenting figures in noble pursuits, the clothes have been taken off Bc it is not about warfare and is not a portrait of an individual but instead about the perfection of human form Found where athletes would work out, perhaps as motivation Romans loved greek art and had copies done in marble often Based on a sculpture that is at the very beginning of the classical period, before the Parthenon sculptures but after the Kouros archaic figures Now turned away from the stiff rendering that were so characteristic of the Archaic and have begun to examine the human body and understand its physiognomy Contrapposto stance Harmony in the composition of the body No longer perfect symmetrical, tilted axis of body, turned head, contrapposto made the figures seem alive and lifelike Society that puts human potential at the center and creates figures that are ideal mirrors of ourselves Roman copies of ancient Greek art When we study ancient Greek art, so often we are really looking at ancient Roman art, or at least their copies of ancient Greek sculpture (or paintings and architecture for that matter). Basically, just about every Roman wanted ancient Greek art. For the Romans, Greek culture symbolized a desirable way of life — of leisure, the arts, luxury and learning. The popularity of ancient Greek art for the Romans Greek art became the rage when Roman generals began conquering Greek cities (beginning in 211 BCE), and returned triumphantly to Rome not with the usual booty of gold and silver coins, but with works of art. This work so impressed the Roman elite that studios were set up to meet the growing demand for copies destined for the villas of wealthy Romans. The Doryphoros was one of the most sought after, and most copied, Greek sculptures. Bronze versus marble For the most part, the Greeks created their free-standing sculpture in bronze, but because bronze is valuable and can be melted down and reused, sculpture was often recast into weapons. This is why so few ancient Greek bronze originals survive, and why we often have to look at ancient Roman copies in marble (of varying quality) to try to understand what the Greeks achieved. Why sculptures are often incomplete or reconstructed To make matter worse, Roman marble sculptures were buried for centuries, and very often we recover only fragments of a sculpture that have to be reassembled. This is the reason you will often see that sculptures in museums include an arm or hand that are modern recreations, or that ancient sculptures are simply displayed incomplete. The Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) in the Naples museum (image above) is a Roman copy of a lost Greek original that we think was found, largely intact, in the provincial Roman city of Pompeii. * The canon The idea of ​​a canon, a rule for a standard of beauty developed for artists to follow, was not new to the ancient Greeks. The ancient Egyptians also developed a canon. Centuries later, during the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci investigated the ideal proportions of the human body with his Vitruvian Man . Polykleitos's idea of ​​relating beauty to ratio was later summarized by Galen, writing in the second century, Polykleitos sought to capture the ideal proportions of the human figure in his statues and developed a set of aesthetic principles governing these proportions that was known as the Canon or "Rule." In formulating this "Rule," Polykleitos created a system based on a simple mathematical formula in which the human body ... Realism vs idealization

Akhenaten. c.1353-1336 BCE. [New Kingdom Egypt]

For the first unknown work of the entire figure, I see similarities to the sculpture and the relief carving of House Altar Depicting Akhenaten and His Family (1353-1336 BCE). The physical anatomy seems messed up but it is purely stylistic to distinguish the new age and religion from Egypts past. Egyptian art had previously been dominated by rectilinear forms, here we have curvilinear form. In addition they both show careful attention to drapery and a softness throughout. Akhentaten statue looks like the object of worship rather than just a symbol of power Has radically changes the way people think about the body types of the egyptian kings Frailty and oddness to the body types Elongated facial features Established a new monotheistic religion dedicated to the sun deity Aten Called the Amarna Period King Amenhotep IV changed name to Akhenaten (""One who is effective on behalf of Aten") in 1348 BCE Transferred the capital of Egypt from Thebes to a new place called Akhenaten ("Horizon of Aten") Initiated radical stylistic changes in imagery of the king and his family

Bust of Queen Nefertiti (1353-1336 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

Found in an artist's studio, this stunning bust exemplifies a change in style, and may have been an early prototype. Life size full color image Placed slightly higher than eye level so that we look up at her Not intended for a tomb, found in a studio. Thought to be a model, a 3Dsketch prototype that was created in order to create other sculptures of her Sockets of eyes are incomplete, no inlay Limestone covered with thin layer of plaster Subtle effects in the face Sensitively carved, get a sense of skin and bone Symmetry in the face, triangle continuity New ideal of beauty that was different than typical egyptian art Because she was the wife of Akhenaten who established a new religion in Egypt (Monotheistic, one god instead of polytheistic, many gods) Created a new idea of beauty that we see in the sculpture created during his reign She didn't simply function as the wife of the pharaoh, perhaps was the ruler as well What does this naturalism suggest about the belief that a sculpture is a surrogate of the ruler him/herself More realistic=captures the presence of her Striking presence

Votive Statue of Gudea [Mesopotamian]

Gudea more focused on the crop More about the prosperity that comes from worship front he god We benefit in a positive way from gudeas relationship with the god. Rewards gudea and the people with agricultural prosperity and good climate Benevolence of his relationship with the divine For the Votive Statue of Gudea, I think that it poses a similar purpose to the Standing Male Worshipper statue that we studied recently. I believe that the Votive Statue of Gudea also serves as a representation of the Ruler Gudea. A mere stand in sculpture placed before the god, to be continually attentive to the god. This sculpture belongs to a series of diorite statues commissioned by Gudea, who devoted his energies to rebuilding the great temples of Lagash and installing statues of himself in them. Inscribed into one of the figures is text of the god Ningirsu speaking to Gudea and encouraging him to rebuild his temple. It seems to make Gudea into a hero. Ningirsu says, "Prosperity shall accompany the laying of the foundations of my house". This inscription makes it seem as though Gudeas' actions to rebuild the temples of Lagash were justified by the fact that the god wanted him to do that, he was being led and directed to do so by Ningirsu. In addition, it makes it seem as though his actions were intended to ensure the prosperity of his people. This idea of Gudea being led by a god is further evident in one of his many commissioned statues. It bears the inscription, "I am the shepherd loved by my king [Nigirsu, the god of Girsu]; may my life be prolonged". This interpretation of the inscription on the statue is further justified by the physical appearance of the Statue of Gudea. The statue depicts him with a large chest (a sign the gods have given him fullness of life), muscular arms (revealing his god given strength), and large eyes (signify that his gaze is infinitely fixed on the gods). Gudea is holding a jar with free-flowing water, complete with swimming fish, coming out in two streams running down each side of him symbolizing the prosperity he brings to his people. Prosperity in which is bestowed upon Lagash by the gods.

House Altar Depicting Akhenaten and His Family (1353-1336 BCE) [New Kingdom Egypt]

House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, Changes state religion from the god Amen to the god, a sun god called Aten Changes his own name to Akhenaten Makes him and his wife the only representatives of Aten on Earth Upsets the entire priesthood of Egypt After he dies Egypt returns to its traditional religion Marks a shift in style Sunken relief carving would have been an alter in someone's home So informal compared to other egyprtian art Sense of a couple and their relationship with one another and their children Akhenaten on the left holding his oldest daughter who is pointing at the mom Nefertiti on the right holding a daughter on the right pointing back at Akhenaten and a third daughter on the shoulder playing with her earring Physical anatomy messed up, purely stylistic to distinguish the new age and religion from Egypts past Had previously been dominated by rectilinear forms, here we have curvilinear form Careful attention to drapery, a softness throughout Yet we still see a composite view of the body Iconography panel shows god rendered as sun disk, small cobra in it symbolizes him being the only deity... Rays of light come down Ankh's at ends of rays of light that hold them at the noses of the rulers. The breath of life for them Thrown of Nefertiti symbols of upper and lower egypt, she is Queen of both Simpler thrown showing her importance and the fact that they would rule Egypt together Anti relief sculpture What similarities do we see here with this piece and other past Egyptian artworks? Subservient from Aten, still a strong connection between the pharaoh and the gods Ideological in stance, acknowledging the limitations of 2D rendering, make sure that the parts of the body are shown from their most distinct angles What new stylistic features distinguish the image below from older examples of Egyptian art? Made to seem a little bit like us, we can sort of relate to this Picks up the growing trend of naturalism and builds upon it. Building on what previous kings did while making it his own

Victory Stele of Naram-sin (2254-2218 BCE) [Mesopotamian]

How and what kind of authority is conveyed in this image Military general not just a ruler, stepping on the dead bodies of the vanquished and defeated to be closer to god He is more important than the other figures- hieratic scale, more clothing, more detail, horns on his hat making him seen more devine Suns at the top, he and the victorious army climb the mountain. Suns seem representation of the deities shining down on the victory in celebration

New York Kouros (aka Metropolitan Kouros) (600 BCE) [Archaic Greece]

How can you tell that this sculpture derives from the same period as the other works of art studied for today's class? Reminds us of ancient Egyptian figures Geometric rendering...broad shoulders triangular shape Stiffness, symmetrical...in both sculpture and architecture Temples in the Archaic period... Those early temples have a stiffness monumental quality that is here as well. Neither geometric or archaic periods show grateful movement Simplicity Like achilles and ajax pot, as well as the Funerary Krater, even within the simplicity the subtle details rendered still are conveyed Grave marker commemorating the deceased, despite the fact that they look very generic

Euphronios, Death of Sarpedon (c.515 BCE) [Archaic Greece]

How does this depiction of the body fit into the development of anatomical representation in Greek sculpture? Representation of a body Asymmetry triangle shape Asymmetry conveys depth, not flat, thinking about representing space in the position of the body Naked not wearing battle clothing Even in death there is a celebration of the beauty and perfection and dignity of the body As body becomes more realistic, they are represented as more realistic as well Both real and ideal Removing dead body from field at war Are all gods rendered in human form