ART 187

Arch of Titus (after 81 CE) [Roman Empire]

"At the end of a Roman triumph, the defeated general was murdered. The victim was marched under this triumphal arch." Shows the spoils of Jerusalem being brought into Romein the great triumphal parade honoring Titus for destroying Jerusalem Big moment of celebrating victory in Rome At the end of which the general of the losing army was ceremonially murdered Easy to miss the violence of it, because it exemplifies Roman art Naturalistic figures, illusion of space Roman empire is growing in the first century moving into the middle east, Judea becomes absorbed into the Roman Empire Jewish people there had one temple for one god, very different from the Romans, it is in Jerusalem, in temples are holy objects. Jews were very different from Romans Temple of Jerusalem was the place where the objects were taken from Objects... Menorah Bread table The Roman Triumph was an ancient martial traditional parade Treated the victorious general as a divine figure for the day Long held roman tradition of celebrating victory "the Triumph rivaled anything that Rome had ever seen before: spoils, prisoners, pictorial narratives in abundance. All this was meant to awe the spectators and to transport the viewers to the battlefields of the war in the east. But the ritual of the triumph was ephemeral. For this reason, the later construction of permanent monuments (like the Arch of Titus) served to make an impact on the urban landscape (and the collective memory of city dwellers) that lasted far longer than the events of the day itself." The tradition of triumphal monuments connects the Flavians to the traditions of the Roman Republic. "The Arch of Titus is located in Summa Sacra Via, the highest point of the Sacra Via, Rome's "Sacred Way" that served as its main processional street. The Arch of Titus commands a key point along the triumphal route" Many triumphal parades had passed along this route for many centuries, thus the choice to place a permanent triumphal monument astride the route was not accidental but, rather, deliberately evocative of the fact that the triumph as a ritual both created and reinforced collective memory for Romans. This arch, built as an honorific monument, honored Titus posthumously and was a project executed by his younger brother and imperial successor, Domitian (emperor, 81-96 C.E.). Inscription: "The Senate and the Roman people (dedicate this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian" "Inscription makes the dedication a public one—and reminds viewers of Titus' link to his likewise deified father, Vespasian. This dedication is an example of shrewd power politics on the part of the Emperor Domitian—he had been too young to take part in the military glory enjoyed by his father and brother. Perhaps he sought to bask in the generally favorable public opinion they enjoyed as he himself made the transition to power." Two panel relief on a passageway "The subject matter of the flanking relief draws upon the 71 C.E. triumph of Vespasian and Titus, depicting key triumphal episodes following the fall of Jerusalem. In one scene (below) Romans carry spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem, including a Menorah, sacred trumpets and the showbread table." "The triumph panel opposite depicts Titus in a triumphal four-horse chariot (quadriga) followed closely by the goddess of Victory (Victoria), preceded by official attendants known as lictors, and accompanied by symbolic representations (genii) of the Senate, the Roman people, and Virtus (manly virtue)" Third relief on the vault a relief of the apotheosis of Titus "triumphal parade would have passed through the very spot on which the arch was constructed, these images serve as powerful evocations of collective memories shared and held by the Roman people. The depiction in the reliefs echoes the riotous parade"

Parthenon Marbles (who is their proper owner?)

Ancient Greeks made them, Ottomans captured them, Venetians blew them up, and the British took them away. More than 2000 years old from the Parthenon From classical period of ancient greece Naturalism and realistic rendering of the body Ended up in London When Napoleon came to power and conquered much of Europe, the sculpture frieze was taken from Athens and made its way to London Interest in ancient Greek and roman antiquities explodes in the 18th century Lord Elgin- british ambassador of the ottoman empire-- responsible for bringing work to Britain Wanted to develop the arts of Britain First wanted to create copies of the work Was first a church, then a mosque, then a storage space for the ottomans When it was attacked by the venetians, the building exploded leaving debris across the acropolis Requested access: rules... No one should meddle with their scaffolding and implements, nor hinder them from taking away any pieces of stone with inscriptions and figures They see an opportunity to extend the interpretation enough to allow for them to take sculpture from the parthenon, an act of expensive destruction 247 feet of the frieze, 15 metopes, 17 sculptures from the pediments In deep dept and offered to sell them to the british government Payed him half of what he wanted for them Was criticism against him for it Soon after the marbles arrive, Greece gets independence from The Ottoman Empire These sculptures and the Parthenon become symbols of national identity for the greeks Greeks ask for marbles back Arguments made... Elgins actions were legal He preserved the sculpture Europeans were collecting ancient fragments from the Parthenon and many have disappeared Concerns that returning world would empty museums in the west The british museum had advanced museum facilities The sculptures are best seen in a universal museum The legacy of ancient Athens s central to Western culture broadly VS Elgin exceeded his legal authority He damaged the sculptures and the building The British Museum damaged the sculptures when cleaning them The parthenon sculptures and their history are a unique case The new Acropolis Museum is a state of the art facility designed with a view of the Acropolis The sculptures could be reunited The sculptures are central to Greek national identity Athens in the 5ht century BCE established the first democracy in Western culture Can a single monument act as a symbol both of national and world culture? How do we reconcile the universal meaning of them? That they stand for democracy and the nobility of humankind? Balance that with the fact that it was the Greeks who made the contribution? The story starts in the early 1800s. The Parthenon had fallen to ruin. Half the marbles were destroyed by neglect and war. Then, a British ambassador, Lord Elgin, made an agreement with Ottoman authorities who were in control of Athens at the time to remove some of statues and friezes. He took about half of the remaining sculptures. And then he shipped that back to the UK. For a long time it remained part of his personal collection so he put it on display and then he made the decision to sell the collection to the nation. And the Parliament chose to acquire it and then pass it on the British Museum. So we would certainly say that Lord Elgin had performed a great service in terms of rescuing some of these examples. But Greeks don't see it that way. For decades now, they have argued that the Ottomans were occupiers, so the deal with Elgin wasn't valid, and the marbles belong in Greece. It's not just bringing them back to Athens or to Greece. That's where they were created. But this is not our claim. Our claim is to put back a unique piece of art. To put it back together. Bring it back together. So first it was Lord Elgin who removed 50 percent. He damaged the art pieces, yes. All of the marbles, she says, have now been removed from the monument for protection from the elements. Then it was Greece that consciously decided to remove the remaining. the Acropolis Museum was built in part as a response to the British Museum's claim that Greece did not have a proper place to display the sculptures. The glass and steel structure has a dramatic view of the Acropolis, so while you're observing the art you can see the actual Parthenon. The third floor is set up just like the Parthenon, with the same proportions. These friezes, from the west side of the temple, are nearly all original. On the other three sides, there are some originals but also a lot of gaps, as well as white plaster copies of the friezes and statues now in Britain.We believe that one day we could replace the copies with the orginals to show all this unique art in its grandeur. Every block has two or three figures and here is only one. The British Museum disputes the claim Elgin damaged the sculptures. It also sees it as a plus that half the collection is in Britain and half in Greece. The Parthenon Sculptures are a collection of different types of marble architectural decoration from the temple of Athena (the Parthenon) on the Acropolis in Athens. Made between 447BC and 432BC they consist of: a frieze which shows the procession of the Panathenaic festival (the commemoration of the birthday of the goddess Athena); a series of metopes (sculpted relief panels) depicting the battle between Centaurs and Lapiths at the marriage-feast of Peirithoos; and figures of the gods and legendary heroes from the temple's pediments. The British Museum houses 15 metopes, 17 pedimental figures and 247ft (75m) of the original frieze. The Parthenon itself has a complex history. It has been a temple, a church, a mosque and is now an archaeological site. It has sustained significant damage throughout its long history, in particular as a result of an explosion while it was in use as an ammunition store in 1687; this left the Parthenon as a ruin. Around 50% of the original architectural decoration on the Parthenon is now lost, having been destroyed over many centuries in the ancient world and later. It is therefore impossible to reconstruct the monument completely or reunite it with its sculptural decoration. It is universally recognised that the sculptures that survive are best seen and conserved in museums. In 2009, a new museum in Athens, the Acropolis Museum, was built to house the sculptures that remain in Greece alongside other treasures, providing an in-depth view of the ancient history of the Acropolis and its surrounding religious sanctuaries and civic structures. How did they come to the British Museum? By the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had been the governing authority in Athens for 350 years. Lord Elgin was the British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire and successfully petitioned the authorities to be able to draw, measure and remove figures. He was granted a permit (firman), and between 1801 and 1805 acting under the oversight of the relevant authorities, Elgin removed about half of the remaining sculptures from the ruins of the Parthenon. He also obtained permission to have removed sculptural and architectural elements from other buildings on the Acropolis, namely the Erechtheion, the Temple of Athena Nike and the Propylaia. All of Elgin's collection of antiquities was then transported to Britain. His actions were thoroughly investigated by a Parliamentary Select Committee in 1816 and found to be entirely legal, prior to the sculptures entering the collection of the British Museum by Act of Parliament. What has been requested? A formal request for the permanent return to Greece of all of the Parthenon Sculptures in the Museum's collection was first made in 1983. There have been various meetings and discussions since then. Media coverage has referred to Greek government requests to borrow the sculptures, but a loan request has never been received.The Trustees will consider any loan request for any part of the collection (subject to all our normal loan conditions). Successive Greek governments have refused to acknowledge the Trustees' title to the Parthenon Sculptures. Status of discussions There are no current discussions with the Greek Government on this issue. The British Museum enjoys a good professional relationship with the Acropolis Museum, which in recent years has included scholarly workshops, staff placements and sharing knowledge over a wide range of subjects from colour on ancient sculpture to museum display and presentation.The British Museum is wholeheartedly committed to respectful collaboration worldwide, to sharing and lending the collection, and working in partnership for the benefit of the widest possible audience. In recent years, the British Museum has lent to the Acropolis Museum, the National Archaeological Museum and the Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens. The British Museum's position The collection is a unique resource to explore the richness, diversity and complexity of all human history, our shared humanity. The strength of the collection is its breadth and depth which allows millions of visitors an understanding of the cultures of the world and how they interconnect - whether through trade, migration, conquest, conflict, or peaceful exchange. The Parthenon Sculptures are an integral part of that story and a vital element in this interconnected world collection, particularly in the way in which they convey the influences between Egyptian, Persian, Greek and Roman cultures. We share this collection with the widest possible public, lending objects all over the world and making images and information on over four million objects from the collection available online. The approach of the Acropolis Museum and the British Museum are complementary: the Acropolis Museum provides an in-depth view of the ancient history of its city, the British Museum offers a sense of the wider cultural context and sustained interaction with the neighboring civilizations of Egypt and the Near East which contributed to the unique achievements of ancient Greece.

Constantinople

Capital of the Byzantine Empire

Gallic Warrior Killing Himself and His Wife (third century BCE) [Hellenistic Greece]

Dignify the defeated and therefore honor the victorious Hellinistic, dramatic, in your face, emotional

Justinian and Theodora mosaics, San Vitale, Ravenna (527 CE) [Byzantine Empire]

Flaking the alps are the emperor justinian and his empress theodora image Never came to Ravenna but are in the mosaics to reassert their authority over the city Justinian reestablishes Christianity when he takes over His panel Seeing the reassertion of eastern imperial control Spiritual power goes along with this political power Justinian saying he is in change despite him not being there He wears purple the color of the throne,royalty, shows church figures, emperor, and military figures, some treated more individualized than others Justinian is divine, halo around head, holding bowl associated witht he Eucharist which is handing in the direction of christ in the alps Frontal figures, abstracted, schematic, no real concern for accurate proportions Seem to float in an eternal space Maximian next to Justinian, wearing purple associated him with the emperors power Emperor leading procession for the enactment of the sacrament of the eucharist Figures stand in front of a field of gold--bytanine tradition Gold fuzed between clear glass at angles to illuminate light Theodoras panel Idea that she is a co ruler to justinian even though she was apparently lower class entertainer Wearing elaborate clothing and jewelery In back of her head, just like justinian, she has a halo that speaks not to her own divinity but to the divine origin of her authority Like justinian who is carrying a bowl for the bread for the Eucharist, Theodora is carrying a callice for the wine for the Eucharist Also surrounded by attendants that represent the imperial court Curtain raised as though she is about to take part in a ceremony related to the Eucharist Elaborate Bytantine costume Trying to bring the richness of the imperial court in Constantinople to Ravenna Unique centrally planned church Inspired by Hagia Sophia in constantinople Still has an Apse showing image of christ handing crown to justinian San Vitale is one of the most important surviving examples of Byzantine architecture and mosaic work. It was begun in 526 or 527 under Ostrogothic rule. It was consecrated in 547 and completed soon after. A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history. The mosaic program can also be seen to give visual testament to the two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: as heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith. As such it was his duty to establish religious uniformity or Orthodoxy throughout the Empire. In the chancel mosaic Justinian is posed frontally in the center. He is haloed and wears a crown and a purple imperial robe. He is flanked by members of the clergy on his left with the most prominent figure the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna being labelled with an inscription. To Justinian's right appear members of the imperial administration identified by the purple stripe, and at the very far left side of the mosaic appears a group of soldiers. This mosaic thus establishes the central position of the Emperor between the power of the church and the power of the imperial administration and military.Like the Roman Emperors of the past, Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority. The clergy and Justinian carry in sequence from right to left a censer, the gospel book, the cross, and the bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. This identifies the mosaic as the so-called Little Entrance which marks the beginning of the Byzantine liturgy of the Eucharist. Justinian's gesture of carrying the bowl with the bread of the Eucharist can be seen as an act of homage to the True King who appears in the adjacent apse mosaic (image left). Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifying universal dominion, offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale, but the same gesture can be seen as offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. Justinian is thus Christ's vice-regent on earth, and his army is actually the army of Christ as signified by the Chi-Rho on the shield. Closer examination of the Justinian mosaic reveals an ambiguity in the positioning of the figures of Justinian and the Bishop Maximianus. Overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, but when the positioning of the figures on the picture plane is considered, it is evident that Maximianus's feet are lower on the picture plane which suggests that he is closer to the viewer. This can perhaps be seen as an indication of the tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church. Echarist=body of christ Encounter it in the communion In the practices of the church one of the most important ceremonies today is the communion, the right of holy communion. Bread and wine is distributed to attendees at church, those substances are transformed to the body and blood of Jesus Christ Ritual being presented in the mosaics When emperor and empress are distributing the things for this ritual, they are an important part of this ceremony One cannot be powerful and feminine at the same time? Author trying to reveal that her status as female goes against the automatic way that people of that time understood power Anything that she did as empress is going against the assumption that women don't do that Justinian shown surrounded by authority figures unlike Theodora Figurehead power Needs extra things in her portrait to close the gap and be seen as an equal

Temple of Minerva [Etruscan]

Forget what you know about Greek and Roman architectural orders—Etruscans had their own unique style. Ancient etruscan temples look somewhat like roman and greek temples but are also very distinct DId not use the Greek orders that is doric, iconic or corinthian Had greek porches and the temples tended to be more square Not made of stone like the Ancient Greek temples were Built primarily from wood, mud brick and terracotta Italy a complicated in the 6th century BCE Etruscan temples have largely vanished Among the early Etruscans, the worship of the Gods and Goddesses did not take place in or around monumental temples as it did in early Greece or in the Ancient Near East, but rather, in nature . Early Etruscans created ritual spaces in groves and enclosures open to the sky with sacred boundaries carefully marked through ritual ceremony. Around 600 B.C.E., however, the desire to create monumental structures for the gods spread throughout Etruria, most likely as a result of Greek influence. But Etruscan religious architecture was markedly different in material and design. These colorful and ornate structures typically had stone foundations but their wood, mud-brick and terracotta superstructures suffered far more from exposure to the elements. Greek temples still survive today in parts of Greece and southern Italy since they were constructed of stone and marble but Etruscan temples were built with mostly ephemeral materials and have largely vanished. Despite the comparatively short-lived nature of Etruscan religious structures, Etruscan temple design had a huge impact on Renaissance architecture and one can see echoes of Etruscan, or 'Tuscan,' columns (doric columns with bases) in many buildings of the Renaissance and later in Italy. An ancient Roman architect by the name of Vitruvius wrote about Etruscan temples in his book De architectura in the late first century B.C.E. In his treatise on ancient architecture, Vitruvius described the key elements of Etruscan temples and it was his description that inspired Renaissance architects to return to the roots of Tuscan design and allows archaeologists and art historians today to recreate the appearance of these buildings. Archaeological evidence for the Temple of Minerva The archaeological evidence that does remain from many Etruscan temples largely confirms Vitruvius's description. One of the best explored and known of these is the Portonaccio Temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva at the city of Veii about 18 km north of Rome. Te tufa-block foundations of the Portonaccio temple still remain and their nearly square footprint reflects Vitruvius's description of a floor plan The temple is also roughly divided into two parts—a deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns and a back portion divided into three separate rooms. Known as a triple cella, this three room configuration seems to reflect a divine triad associated with the temple, perhaps Menrva as well as Tinia (Jupiter/Zeus) and Uni (Juno/Hera). In addition to their internal organization and materials, what also made Etruscan temples noticeably distinct from Greek ones was a high podium and frontal entrance. Approaching the Parthenon with its low rising stepped entrance and encircling forest of columns would have been a very different experience from approaching an Etruscan temple high off the ground with a single, defined entrance. Typical Etruscan temple plan Sculpture Perhaps most interesting about the Portonaccio temple is the abundant terracotta sculpture that still remains, In addition to many terracotta architectural elements (masks, antefixes, decorative details), a series of over life-size terracotta sculptures have also been discovered in association with the temple. Originally placed on the ridge of the temple roof, these figures seem to be Etruscan assimilations of Greek gods, set up as a tableau to enact some mythic event. Apollo of Veii The most famous and well-preserved of these is the Apollo of Veii) dynamic, striding masterpiece of large scale terracotta sculpture and likely a central figure in the rooftop narrative. His counterpart may have been the less well-preserved figure of Hercle (Hercules) with whom he struggled in an epic contest over the Golden Hind, an enormous deer sacred to Apollo's twin sister Artemis. Other figures discovered with these suggest an audience watching the action. Whatever the myth may have been, it was a completely Etruscan innovation to use sculpture in this way, placed at the peak of the temple roof—creating what must have been an impressive tableau against the backdrop of the sky. Since Etruscan art is almost entirely anonymous it is impossible to know who may have contributed to such innovative display strategies. We may, however, know the name of the artist associated with the workshop that produced the terracotta sculpture. Centuries after these pieces were created, the Roman writer Pliny recorded that in the late 6th century B.C.E., an Etruscan artist by the name of Vulca was summoned from Veii to Rome to decorate the most important temple there, the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The technical knowledge required to produce terracotta sculpture at such a large scale was considerable and it may just have been the master sculptor Vulca whose skill at the Portonaccio temple earned him not only a prestigious commission in Rome but a place in the history books as well. Only a front entrance gives a directional entrance that serves as a backdrop for worship

The Pergamon Altar (200-150 BCE) [Hellenistic Greece]

Greek gods battle Giants for supremacy of the universe, so deeply carved that they almost step out into our world. Hellinistic period Two fragments from a great frieze from Pergamon One has Athena at its center and one has Zeus Both sculptures combine what's most wonderful about ancient greek sculpture--the love of the body. Also get a sense of expressiveness and drama which we associate with the Hellinistic The hellinistic is the last period of Greek art After the death of Alexander the Great who conquered an enormous territory beyond greece's original borders and in so doing, he expanded the influence of Greek culture across a much wider area, "hellenized" the area, or made it greek Reached from Egypt all the way to the border between Persia and India After he died the empire was divided among his four generals One of those generals saw a hilltop near the coast of Turkey which he believed was an important defensive position and there founded the Garrison of Pergamon that ultimately became the kingdom of Perganon. Those are the people that built this altar and sculpted this frieze Seeing a battle between the giants and the gods and goddesses of Mount Olympus. A celestial battle of enormous proportions. The Giants battle the olympian gods for supremacy over the earth and the universe Fragment with Athena at the center She is graceful and beautiful even in battle Athena looks in control, pulling Alcyoneus by the hair out of the earth disempowering him.. His mom on the other side is unable to help him although she looks fearful of what will happen to her son Movement through sculpture Athena, is bracketed by the figures on the side, by these passionate wild figures who're being defeated At the same time Athena is being crowned by winged Nike coming from behind with a crown for her head Figures coming from behind and below, in flux, in motion with a sense of drama Swirling in a counterclockwise motion around athena's shield at the center Full of diagonals that activate the surface. Full of the deepest carving that creates this brilliant contrast between the highlights of the exposed bodies and the dark shadows behind them Complexity of the positions of the bodies Virtuoso sculpting of the human body Was painted originally Fragment with Zeus at the center Like Athena, he seems composed and in total control even as he rushes forward we could tell that he is the victor here Enormously powerful figure, exposed chest and abdomen, wild living drapery whipping around his legs Taking on 3 giants King of the gods so he has things like eagles and thunderbolts to help his out Eagle taking on giant in upper right Zeus able to turn his attention to the giant at his feet who is on his knees and is shortly going to be vanquished On his other side he has already put away a giant who has a thunderbolt stuck in his thigh Sense of heroism and balance even as there is a sense of momentary excitement that pulls us in Story of the gods and giants was important to the Greeks A set of symbols that spoke of the Greeks fear, but also optimism that they can overcome chaos Battle is a metaphor for the victory of Greek culture over the unknown, over the chaotic forces of nature Also represents their military victories over cultures that they didn't understand or feared Walking up the stairs of the Great Altar into the most sacred part of the altar, where the fire, presumably to Zeus would have been lit and sacrifices would have been offered Figures look like they're spilling out away from the wall entering our space Drama unfolding around us Would have been on the Acropolis in the city of Pergamon, about 20 miles of Turkey. Would walk up hill and find the altar of Zeus surrounded by a giant library structure

Head of a Roman Patrician (75-50 BCE) [Roman Republic]

Seemingly wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls, the face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages. In the aesthetic parlance of the Late Roman Republic, the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of mind and the virtue of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors. While this representational strategy might seem unusual in the post-modern world, in the waning days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena. This portrait head, now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy, comes from Otricoli (ancient Ocriculum) and dates to the middle of the first century B.C.E. The name of the individual depicted is now unknown, but the portrait is a powerful representation of a male aristocrat with a hooked nose and strong cheekbones. The figure is frontal without any hint of dynamism or emotion—this sets the portrait apart from some of its near contemporaries. The portrait head is characterized by deep wrinkles, a furrowed brow, and generally an appearance of sagging, sunken skin—all indicative of the veristic style of Roman portraiture. Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated, often to the point of absurdity. In the case of Roman Republican portraiture, middle age males adopt veristic tendencies in their portraiture to such an extent that they appear to be extremely aged and care-worn. This stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ancestral imagines as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. The imagines were essentially death masks of notable ancestors that were kept and displayed by the family. In the case of aristocratic families these wax masks were used at subsequent funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade. The ancestor cult, in turn, influenced a deep connection to family. For Late Republican politicians without any famous ancestors the need was even more acute—and verism rode to the rescue. The adoption of such an austere and wizened visage was a tactic to lend familial gravitas to families who had none—and thus (hopefully) increase the chances of the aristocrat's success in both politics and business. This jockeying for position very much characterized the scene at Rome in the waning days of the Roman Republic and the Otricoli head is a reminder that one's public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history. Why do they have influence from a culture but also keep it slightly different? Expresses admiration but also establishes a sense of conquest We are the inheritors of this greek civilization that came before us Establishing their own evolution/development as a society

Sarcophagus of the Spouses (c. 520 BCE) [Etruscan]

The intimacy of this clay sculpture is unprecedented in the ancient world. What can it tell us about Etruscan culture? Learn about their culture through sculptures and their inscriptions Two well known versions of this Large ceramic container, the 2 figures are essentially a lid that can be lifted off The Etruscans occupied an area of northern italy in the 6th century BCE. At the same moment the romans are occupying rome and blow that were greek colonies Couple are incredibly lifelike, not stiff, moving out into our space, extending their arms The figures represented in archaic Greek art are also separate--Think of the Male kouros figure of the female kore, free standing alone figures Here they are intimately embrace lying together In ancient greek culture there are no monumental tombs like the ones we find in Etruscan culture Are similarities and differences between the two cultures that are closely communicating with one another One of the most important differences is that this was made from terracotta, clay, instead of marble/bronze like the Greeks The figures arms are outstretched, likely holding objects related to a banquet, maybe the women was holding a perfume bottle or maybe one of the figures were holding a pomegranate Sense of sociability here, like scenes of greek pottery but in greek pottery these were men and no women But we're not supposed to see these as portraits--instead like the archaic smile we see features that are stylized Found broken into 400 pieces The Sarcophagus of the Spouses is an anthropoid (human-shaped), painted terracotta sarcophagus found in the ancient Etruscan city of Caere (now Cerveteri, Italy). The sarcophagus, which would have originally contained cremated human remains, was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations in the Banditaccia necropolis of ancient Caere during the nineteenth century and is now in Rome. The sarcophagus is quite similar to another terracotta sarcophagus from Caere depicting a man and woman that is presently housed in the Louvre Museum in Paris; these two sarcophagi are contemporary to one another and are perhaps the products of the same artistic workshop. An archaic couple The sarcophagus depicts a reclining man and woman on its lid. The pair rests on highly stylized cushions, just as they would have done at an actual banquet. The body of the sarcophagus is styled so as to resemble a kline (dining couch). Both figures have highly stylized hair, in each case plaited with the stylized braids hanging rather stiffly at the sides of the neck. In the female's case the plaits are arranged so as to hang down in front of each shoulder. The female wears a soft cap atop her head; she also wears shoes with pointed toes that are characteristically Etruscan. The male's braids hang neatly at the back, splayed across the upper back and shoulders. The male's beard and the hair atop his head is quite abstracted without any interior detail. Both figures have elongated proportions that are at home in the archaic period in the Mediterranean. A banquet The Sarcophagus of the Spouses has been interpreted as belonging to a banqueting scene, with the couple reclining together on a single dining couch while eating and drinking. This situates the inspiration for the sarcophagus squarely in the convivial (social) sphere and, as we are often reminded, conviviality was central to Etruscan mortuary rituals. Etruscan funerary art—including painted tombs—often depicts scenes of revelry, perhaps as a reminder of the funeral banquet that would send the deceased off to the afterlife or perhaps to reflect the notion of perpetual conviviality in said afterlife. Whatever the case, banquets provide a great deal of iconographic fodder for Etruscan artists. At Etruscan banquets, men and women reclined and ate together, a circumstance that was quite different from other Mediterranean cultures, especially the Greeks. We see multiple instances of mixed gender banquets across a wide chronological range, leading us to conclude that this was common practice in Etruria. The terracotta plaque from Poggio Civitate, Murlo (below), for instance, that is roughly contemporary to the sarcophagus of the spouses shows a close iconographic parallel for this custom. This cultural custom generated some resentment—even animus—on the part of Greek and Latin authors in antiquity who saw this Etruscan practice not just as different, but took it as offensive behavior. Women enjoyed a different and more privileged status in Etruscan society than did their Greek and Roman counterparts. Banquet Plaque (detail) from Poggio Civitate, early 6th century B.C.E., Etruscan, terracotta (Antiquarium di Poggio Civitate Museo Archeologico, Murlo, Italy) (photo: sailko, CC BY-SA 3.0) Technical achievement Is a masterwork of terracotta sculpture. Painted terracotta sculpture played a key role in the visual culture of archaic Etruria. Terracotta artwork was the standard for decorating the superstructure of Etruscan temples and the coroplastic (terracotta) workshops producing these sculptures often displayed a high level of technical achievement. This is due, in part, to the fact that ready sources of marble were unknown in archaic Italy. Even though contemporary Greeks produced masterworks in marble during the sixth century B.C.E., terracotta statuary such as this sarcophagus itself counts as a masterwork and would have been an elite commission. Etruscan culture In the case of the Caeretan sarcophagus, it is an especially challenging commission. Given its size, it would have been fired in multiple pieces. The composition of the reclining figures shows awareness of Mediterranean stylistic norms in that their physiognomy reflects an Ionian influence (Ionia was a region in present-day Turkey, that was a Greek colony)—the rounded, serene faces and the treatment of hairstyles would have fit in with contemporary Greek styles. However, the posing of the figures, the angular joints of the limbs, and their extended fingers and toes reflect local practice in Etruria. In short, the artist and his workshop are aware of global trends while also catering to a local audience. While we cannot identify the original owner of the sarcophagus, it is clear that the person(s) commissioning it would have been a member of the Caeretan elite. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses as an object conveys a great deal of information about Etruscan culture and its customs. The convivial theme of the sarcophagus reflects the funeral customs of Etruscan society and the elite nature of the object itself provides important information about the ways in which funerary custom could reinforce the identity and standing of aristocrats among the community of the living.

Temple of Portunus, Rome (late 2nd century BCE) [Roman Republic]

This small temple is a rare surviving example from the Roman Republic. It is both innovative and traditional. c.75 BCE One of the only from the republic Small temples, survived bc it became a church when rome became christian Close to the river Tiber, its name refers to the god of the harbor/port Might at first appear to look like an ancient greek temple Romans interested in ancient greek and etruscan architecture Borrowed elements... Pediment (both) Has a front (Etruscan) Ionic columns with a continuous feize (greek) Porch is deep (Etruscan) Attached columns (roman) unlike greeks that believed in fully exposed architecture Not post and lintel architecture, columns purely for decoration Emphasis on an interior space unlike greek architecture Made of Roman Tufa and Travertine and concrete The Temple of Portunus is a well preserved late second or early first century B.C.E. rectangular temple in Rome, Italy. Its dedication to the God Portunus—a divinity associated with livestock, keys, and harbors—is fitting given the building's topographical position near the ancient river harbor of the city of Rome. The city of Rome during its Republican phase was characterized, in part, by monumental architectural dedications made by leading, elite citizens, often in connection with key political or military accomplishments. Temples were a particularly popular choice in this category given their visibility and their utility for public events both sacred and secular. The Temple of Portunus is located adjacent to a circular temple of the Corinthian order, now attributed to Herakles Victor. The assignation of the Temple of Portunus has been debated by scholars, with some referring to the temple as belonging to Fortuna Virilis (an aspect of the God Fortuna). This is now a minority view. The festival in honor of Portunus (the Portunalia) was celebrated on 17 August Temple attributed to Herakles Victor, Forum Boarium, Rome, late 2nd century B.C.E. The temple has a rectangular footprint, measuring roughly 10.5 x 19 meters (36 x 62 Roman feet). Its plan may be referred to as pseudoperipteral, instead of a having a free-standing colonnade, or row of columns, on all four sides, the temple instead only has free-standing columns on its facade with engaged columns on its flanks and rear. Plan, Temple of Portunus (Rome, c. 120-80 B.C.E.) The pronoas (porch) of the temple supports an Ionic colonnade measuring four columns across by two columns deep, with the columns carved from travertine. The Ionic order can be most easily seen in the scroll-shaped capitals.There are five engaged columns on each side, and four across the back. Overall the building has a composite structure, with both travertine and tufa being used for the superstructure A stucco coating would have been applied to the tufa, giving it an appearance closer to that of the travertine. The temple of Portunus finds perhaps its closest contemporary parallel in the Temple of the Sibyl at Tibur (modern Tivoli) which dates c. 150-125 B.C.E. The temple type embodied by the Temple of Portunus may also be found in Iulio-Claudian temple buildings such as the Maison Carrée at Nîmes in southern France. The Temple of Portunus is obviously in an excellent state of preservation. In 872 C.E. the ancient temple was re-dedicated as a Christian shrine sacred to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt), leading to the preservation of the structure. The architecture has inspired many artists and architects over the centuries Neo-Classical architects were inspired by the form of the Temple of Portunus and it led to the construction of the Temple of Harmony, a folly in Somerset, England, dating to 1767 (below). The Temple of Portunus is important not only for its well preserved architecture and the inspiration that architecture has fostered, but also as a reminder of what the built landscape of Rome was once like - dotted with temples large and small that became foci of a great deal of activity in the life of the city. Those temples that survive are reminders of that vibrancy as well as of the architectural traditions of the Romans themselves.

Miason Carrée, Nimes (5-7 CE) [Roman Republic]

This well-preserved building in modern-day France is a textbook example of a Vitruvian temple. The so-called Maison Carrée or "square house" is an ancient Roman temple located in Nîmes in southern France. Nîmes was founded as a Roman colony (Colonia Nemausus) during the first century B.C.E. The Maison Carrée is an extremely well preserved ancient Roman building and represents a nearly textbook example of a Roman temple as described by the architectural writer Vitruvius. The frontal temple is a classic example of the Tuscan style temple as described by Vitruvius (who wrote On Architecture in the first century B.C.E.). This means that the building has a single cella (cult room), a deep porch, a frontal, axial orientation, and sits atop a high podium. The building is executed in the Corinthian order and is hexastyle in its plan (meaning it has six columns across the façade); twenty engaged columns line the flanks, yielding a pseudoperipteral arrangement (the front columns are free-standing but the columns on the sides and back are engaged, that is, attached to the wall). The temple has a very deep porch.. The superstructure is decorated with egg-and-dart motifs, with the architrave divided into three zones. The deep porch which puts an emphasis on the temple front and the pseudoperipteral arrangement clearly differentiate this from an ancient Greek temple. The temple once carried a dedicatory inscription that was removed in the Middle Ages. Following the reconstruction of the inscription in 1758, scholars believe that the dedication of the building honored Augustus' grandsons and intended heirs, Caius and Lucius Caesar. The dedicatory inscription read, in translation, "To Gaius Caesar, son of Augustus, Consul; to Lucius Caesar, son of Augustus, Consul designate; to the princes of youth" (CIL XII, 3156). While not especially common within Italy during the time of the Iulio-Claudians, the worship of the emperor and the imperial family was more commonplace in the provinces of the Roman empire. The late first century B.C.E. Temple of Augustus and Livia in located in Vienne, France (an ancient settlement of the Allobroges that received a Roman colony) is very similar in plan to the Maison Carrée. This temple was originally dedicated to Augustus alone, but in 41 C.E. the emperor Claudius re-dedicated the building to include Livia, his grandmother (and the wife of Augustus). Taken together these temples show us not only well preserved examples of early Imperial architecture but they also show the degree to which local elites would invest in monumental construction in order to celebrate the emperor and his family members. Just as honorific temples at Rome were sponsored by elites, construction in the provinces also often relied on elite members of the community to fill the role of artistic patron. Presence of columns remain Structural Aesthetic Give the buildings a sense of grace Return of columns going all the way around At least mimic columns being all the way around--engaged columns

Gemma Augustea (1st century CE)[Roman Empire]

Upper register, Dioskourides, Gemma Augustea, 9 - 12 C.E., 19 x 23 cm, double-layered sardonyx with gold, gold-plated silver (Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna) In public art Augustus wanted to promote that he was a military victor, that he brought peace to the Roman Empire, and that he was connected to the gods. The emperor also commissioned small private works of art such as gems, and cameos. Unlike art in the public sphere, private art would not have been seen by a large audience. Instead, only a select few would have been granted access. If invited to a dinner party at the emperor's palace, he might display his gem collection or show off his large imperial cameos. Despite the fact that private art would not have been seen by the majority of Roman citizens, the messages contained within these works would have functioned in much the same way as their public counterparts. So if you were at that dinner party with Augustus and he showed you a large cameo, that cameo would have advertised the emperor's military victories, his role as the bringer of peace, and his connection to the gods. Cameos were a popular medium in the private art of the Roman Empire. While cameos first appeared in the Hellenistic period, they became most fashionable under the Romans. Typically cameos were made of a brown stone that had bands or layers of white throughout, such as sardonyx. This layered stone was then carved in such a way that the figures stood out in white relief while the background remained the dark part of the stone. Most cameos were small and functioned as pendants or rings. But there are a few examples of much larger cameos that were specifically commissioned by the emperor and members of his imperial circle, the most famous example is the Gemma Augustea. The Gemma Augustea is divided into two registers that are crammed with figures and iconography. The upper register contains three historical figures and a host of deities and personifications. Our eyes immediately gravitate towards the center of the upper register and the two large enthroned figures, Roma (the personification of the city of Rome) and the emperor Augustus. Roma is surrounded by military paraphernalia while Augustus holds a scepter, a symbol of his right to rule and his role as the leader of the Roman Empire. At his feet is an eagle, a symbol of the god Jupiter and so we quickly realize that Augustus has close ties to the gods. Augustus is depicted as a heroic semi-nude, a convention usually reserved for deities. Augustus is not only stating that he has connections to gods, he is stating that he is also god-like. Two other historical figures accompany Augustus in the upper register. At the far left is Tiberius, who will eventually succeed Augustus on the throne. To the right of Tiberius, standing in front of a chariot, is the young Germanicus, another member of Augustus' family and a potential heir to the throne. Clearly the Gemma Augustea is making Augustus' dynastic message clear: he hopes that Tiberius or Germanicus will succeed him after he dies. Interspersed amongst the three historical figures of the upper register are deities and personifications. Directly behind Tiberius is winged Victory. Behind Augustus is Oikoumene, the personification of the civilized world, who places a civic crown on the emperor's head. In the Roman Empire, it was a great honor to be awarded the civic crown as it was only given to someone who had saved Roman citizens from an enemy Oceanus, the personification of the oceans, sits on the far right. Finally, Tellus Italiae, the mother earth goddess and personification of Italy, sits with her two chubby children and holds a cornucopia. What does the top register mean, with its grouping of mortals, deities, and personifications? In short, everything praises Augustus. The emperor expresses his domination throughout the Roman Empire and his greatest accomplishment, the pacification of the Roman world, which resulted in fertility and prosperity. Augustus' peace and dominion will spread not only throughout the city of Rome (represented by the goddess Roma), but also to all of Italy (represented by Tellus Italiae) and throughout the entire civilized world (symbolized by Oikoumene). And as to Tiberius and Germanicus, Augustus' potential heirs, either will continue the peace and prosperity established by Augustus. The lower register is significantly smaller than the upper, but it nevertheless has plenty of figures in its two scenes, both of which show captive barbarians and victorious Romans At the left, Roman soldiers raise a trophy while degraded and humiliated barbarians sit at their feet. At the right is a similar scene, with barbarians being brought into submission by Roman soldiers. While the upper register focuses on peace, the lower register represents the wars that established and maintained peace throughout the Roman Empire. So even though the Gemma Augustea is a work of private art, the cameo nevertheless offers a political message and thus serves a purpose similar to public art. The Gemma proclaimed Augustus's greatest accomplishment, the Pax Romana, his military victories, his connections to the gods and his god-like status, and his hopes for dynastic succession.

Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos (c. 350 BCE) [Late Classical Greece]

Variety to idealism Motion shown here Contrapposto Nude but modest, hesitancy Pose called the modest venus First depiction of a female nude in ancient greece, also one of the first instances at all of a nude female form in general Male figure previously seen as more beautiful Changing conceptions of an ideal nude More about movement and grace instead of focusing on musculature The idealized body is about the muscular system being enacted Demonstrates the knowledge of the body Varieties of idealism, not only seen as a male body but beauty is not being sought in both the male and female bodies

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (359 CE) [Early Christian]

Was made after christianity was made legal Early example of an openness and iconography of christian tradition Christ in center with most likely peter and paul Christ is frontal and seated, youthful, not typical representation, naturalism of body Foot above the image of a river god Shows christianity surmounting the old polytheistic traditions of ancient romans Using iconography in a new context Wears a classical garb, contrapposto, looks inda pagan Hints of what is to come in christian art Heads and bodys becoming disproportionate See old testament scenes that prefigure christ's own sacrifice Invention of a new language for the telling of the story Deep carving of high relief Columns with capitals bringing together the classical and beginning of christian art. "Christianity appealed to the faithful's desires for personal salvation; however, due to Christianity's monotheism (which prohibited its followers from participating in the public cults), Christians suffered periodic episodes of persecution. By the middle of the fourth century, Christianity under imperial patronage had become a part of the establishment. The elite of Roman society were becoming new converts." "The office of urban prefect was established in the early period of Rome under the kings. It was a position held by members of the most elite families of Rome. In his role as prefect, Junius Bassus was responsible for the administration of the city of Rome. " "had become a convert to Christianity shortly before his death." "The style and iconography of this sarcophagus reflects the transformed status of Christianity. This is most evident in the image at the center of the upper register. Before the time of Constantine, the figure of Christ was rarely directly represented, but here on the Junius Bassus sarcophagus we see Christ prominently represented not in a narrative representation from the New Testament but in a formula derived from Roman Imperial art." "artists had articulated identifiable formulas for representing Sts. Peter and Paul. Peter was represented with a bowl haircut and a short cropped beard, while the figure of Paul was represented with a pointed beard and usually a high forehead." "Bishops claimed that their authority could be traced back to the original Twelve Apostles. Peter and Paul held the status as the principal apostles. The Bishops of Rome have understood themselves in a direct succession back to St. Peter, the founder of the church in Rome and its first bishop. " " Early Christian art reveals two competing conceptions of Christ. The youthful, beardless Christ, based on representation of Apollo, vied for dominance with the long-haired and bearded Christ, based on representations of Jupiter or Zeus. "The feet of Christ in the Junius Bassus relief rest on the head of a bearded, muscular figure, who holds a billowing veil spread over his head. This is another formula derived from Roman art. A comparable figure appears at the top of the cuirass of the Augustus of Primaporta. The figure can be identified as the figure of Caelus, or the heavens. In the context of the Augustan statue, the figure of Caelus signifies Roman authority and its rule of everything earthly, that is, under the heavens. In the Junius Bassus relief, Caelus's position under Christ's feet signifies that Christ is the ruler of heaven." "The lower register directly underneath depicts Christ's Entry into Jerusalem. This image was also based on a formula derived from Roman imperial art." "Whereas the traditio legis above conveys Christ's heavenly authority, it is likely that the Entry into Jerusalem in the form of the adventus was intended to signify Christ's earthly authority." We can determine some intentionality in the inclusion of the Old and New Testament scenes. image of Adam and Eve shown covering their nudity after the Fall was intended to refer to the doctrine of Original Sin that necessitated Christ's entry into the world to redeem humanity through His death and resurrection. Humanity is thus in need of salvation from this world. inclusion of the suffering of Job on the left hand side of the lower register conveyed the meaning how even the righteous must suffer the discomforts and pains of this life. Job is saved only by his unbroken faith in God. The scene of Daniel in the lion's den to the right of the Entry into Jerusalem had been popular in earlier Christian art as another example of how salvation is achieved through faith in God. Salvation is a message in the relief of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac on the left hand side of the upper register. God challenged Abraham's faith by commanding Abraham to sacrifice his only son Isaac. The story of the father's sacrifice of his only son was understood to refer to God's sacrifice of his son, Christ, on the Cross. Early Christian theologians attempting to integrate the Old and New Testaments saw in Old Testament stories prefigurations or precursors of New Testament stories. While not showing directly the Crucifixion of Christ, the inclusion of the Judgment of Pilate in two compartments on the right hand side of the upper register is an early appearance in Christian art of a scene drawn from Christ's Passion. Saints. Peter and Paul were martyred under Roman rule. The remaining two scenes on the sarcophagus represent Saints. Peter and Paul being led to their martyrdoms. Peter and Paul as the principal apostles of Christ are again given prominence. At either end of the Junius Bassus sarcophagus appear Erotes harvesting grapes and wheat. A panel with the same subject was probably a part of a pagan sarcophagus made for a child. This iconography is based on images of the seasons in Roman art. Again the artists have taken conventions from Greek and Roman art and converted it into a Christian context. The wheat and grapes of the classical motif would be understood in the Christian context as a reference to the bread and wine of the Eucharist. While the dumpy proportions are far from the standards of classical art, the style of the relief especially with the rich folds of drapery and soft facial features can be seen as classic or alluding to the classical style. Comparably the division of the relief into different registers and further subdivided by an architectural framework alludes to the orderly disposition of classical art. This choice of a style that alludes to classical art was undoubtedly intentional. The art of the period is marked by a number of competing styles. Just as rhetoricians were taught at this period to adjust their oratorical style to the intended audience, the choice of the classical style was seen as an indication of the high social status of the patron, Junius Bassus. In a similar way, the representation of the figures in togas was intentional. In Roman art, the toga was traditionally used as a symbol of high social status. In both its style and iconography, the Junius Bassus Sarcophagus witnesses the adoption of the tradition of Greek and Roman art by Christian artists. Works like this were appealing to patrons like Junius Bassus who were a part of the upper level of Roman society. Christian art did not reject the classical tradition: rather, the classical tradition will be a reoccurring element in Christian art throughout the Middle Ages. Romanized object modeled after ancient roman art Columns Clean shaven figures Intermingling of christian subjects with roman imagery Did not represent a new stye to render the images Chrsitianity did not start from scratch in terms of art and architecture What advantage would this be from a christian stance? Makes it more accessible Gives it a validity that this is legitimate and not new, a familiarity because it is not such a change from what people were used to seeing. Avoids risking christianiity seem alienated and lessens distant exotisism that christianity would've otherwise had Of the newly converted man expressing admiration for christianity

Idol / idolatry

idol=false god; image regarded as divine Fear of idolatry

Insula (insulae = plural)

individual grid blocks

Byzantium

the eastern portion of the Roman empire; lasted 1000 years after the fall of Western Rome

Spolia

the re-use of earlier building material or decorative sculpture on new monuments

Cardo VS Decumanus

2 names for the two types of main streets of Roman city plan... --Cardo street, North/ south --Decumanus is East/west The intersection is where the main forum is in theory, but that was not always the case

Grid plan

Allows for easy surveillance Shows sophistication of the people who designed it Ease of zoning cities Ease of mobility Ease of control Projects rational order

Basilica of Santa Sabina, Rome (432 CE) [Early Christian]

At the top of the Aventine Hill After legalization of christianity Looked back to large scale architecture and repurposed the basilica from a administrative structure to a religious structure Holds huge numbers of people Already associated with the empire Long longitudinal axis to focus attention on the altar Enormous arches cretes visual rhythm leading our eye to the altar Element of porch Carved wooden doorway carved with scenes of the new and old testament One scene in upper left hand corner of a crucifixion No cross just center figure with arms out Clear view of nave Does Not have a transep... an aisle that went across at one end of the church Simple space Hallways on either side of the nave A lot of light coming in Flat ceiling with pitched roof above Columns line either side of the nave Spolia Columns used in a pagan building and here have been repurposed in this christian context Carry a nave arcade of arches In spaces of arches facing the nave are images that show a chalice and bread plates Reference to the holy communion, eucharist Wall above arches would contain imagery of decoration fresco but are gone Screen separates the sanctuary from the nave- elaborately carved Looks back to the pagan tradition but also sets up the form that christian churches will follow Basilicas — a type of building used by the ancient Romans for diverse functions including as a site for law courts — is the category of building that Constantine's architects adapted to serve as the basis for the new churches. The original Constantinian buildings are now known only in plan, but an examination of a still extant early fifth century Roman basilica, the Church of Santa Sabina, helps us to understand the essential characteristics of the early Christian basilica. The Church of Santa Sabina has a dominant central axis that leads from the entrance to the apse, the site of the altar. This central space is known as the nave, and is flanked on either side by side aisles. The architecture is relatively simple with a wooden, truss roof. The wall of the nave is broken by clerestory windows that provide direct lighting in the nave. The wall does not contain the traditional classical orders articulated by columns and entablatures. Now plain, the walls apparently originally were decorated with mosaics. This interior would have had a dramatically different effect than the classical building. As exemplified by the interior of the Pantheon constructed in the second century by the Emperor Hadrian, the wall in the classical building was broken up into different levels by the horizontals of the entablatures. The columns and pilasters form verticals that tie together the different levels. Although this decor does not physically support the load of the building, the effect is to visualize the weight of the building. The thickness of the classical decor adds solidity to the building. In marked contrast, the nave wall of Santa Sabina has little sense of weight. The architect was particularly aware of the light effects in an interior space like this. The glass tiles of the mosaics would create a shimmering effect and the walls would appear to float. Light would have been understood as a symbol of divinity. Light was a symbol for Christ. The emphasis in this architecture is on the spiritual effect and not the physical. The opulent effect of the interior of the original Constantinian basilicas is brought out in a Spanish pilgrim's description of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem: The decorations are too marvelous for words. All you can see is gold, jewels and silk ... You simply cannot imagine the number and sheer weight of the candles, tapers, lamps and everything else they use for the services ... They are beyond description, and so is the magnificent building itself. It was built by Constantine and ... was decorated with gold, mosaic, and precious marble, as much as his empire could provide. Houses a lot of people Columns draw attention to the major Alps, the altar, focal point to the ritual place Columns are spolia from Roman structures, often temples

The Pantheon (125 CE) [Roman Empire]

Best preserved ancient roman monument Originally a temple to the gods, then sanctified and made into a church Complex history Seen higher now than it was in antiquity Used to be framed by a colonnade--would have been surprising to seen the dome when you stepped inside Columns rise up with no fluting and have corinthian capitals Rectilinear porch that opens up to a vast dome space Radial building,a centralpoint, centralpoint in the middle of the building,accommodates perfect sphere Obsession with geometric perfect shapes Anything but static space If you move your eye up the columns you see the elements of the walls do not align with the dome, makes it feel as though the dome could rotate Complex visual relationship between the decorative elements of the barrel and the dome, reminds us that the system is reliant on concrete that support the structure Concrete allows for a vast uninterrupted space Architecture could now shape space with the help of concrete Originally Contained sculptures of the divine About the earthly sphere meeting the heavenly sphere Colored marbles seen taken from around roman empire symbols hadrians wealth and power Oculus above is a perfect circle, critical of the meaning, reflection of the movement of the heavens as it projects light. Functions almost like a sundial, manifests the heavens on Earth Most influential building in architecture Eight wonder of the ancient world Building dated back to the Emperor Hadrian's reign and described as a temple to all the gods "A traditional rectangular temple, first built by Agrippa" Agrippa's original building was not a small rectangular temple, but contained the distinctive hallmarks of the current building: a portico with tall columns and pediment and a rotunda (circular hall) behind it, in similar dimensions to the current building." Agrippa built the original Pantheon in honor of his and Augustus' military victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E.—one of the defining moments in the establishment of the Roman Empire (Augustus would go on to become the first Emperor of Rome). It was thought that Agrippa's Pantheon had been small and conventional: a Greek-style temple, rectangular in plan." "Damaged by fires, Hadrian—a great patron of architecture and revered as one of the most effective Roman emperors—conceived and possibly even designed the new building with the help of dedicated architects. It was to be a triumphant display of his will and beneficence. He was thought to have abandoned the idea of simply reconstructing Agrippa's temple, deciding instead to create a much larger and more impressive structure. And, in an act of pious humility meant to put him in the favor of the gods and to honor his illustrious predecessors, Hadrian installed the false inscription attributing the new building to the long-dead Agrippa." the temple may be Trajan's (not Hadrian's) "A number of scholars have now suggested that the original Pantheon was not a temple in the usual sense of a god's dwelling place. Instead, it may have been intended as a dynastic sanctuary, part of a ruler cult emerging around Augustus, with the original dedication being to Julius Caesar, the progenitor of the family line of Augustus and Agrippa and a revered ancestor who had been the first Roman deified by the Senate. " the Pantheon by the time of Trajan and Hadrian was primarily associated with the power of the emperors and their divine authority. "The symbolism of the great dome adds weight to this interpretation." " the oculus (open window) at the top of the dome was the interior's only source of direct light. The sunbeam streaming through the oculus traced an ever-changing daily path across the wall and floor of the rotunda. Perhaps, then, the sunbeam marked solar and lunar events, or simply time. The idea fits nicely with Dio's understanding of the dome as the canopy of the heavens and, by extension, of the rotunda itself as a microcosm of the Roman world beneath the starry heavens, with the emperor presiding over it all, ensuring the right order of the world." Basic powerful design Portico with free standing columns, intermediate block, and above is a round rotunda Example of advanced roman engineering: brick faced concrete walls, arches and vaults, "the Pantheon became a church—specifically, a station church, where the pope would hold special masses during Lent, the period leading up to Easter—meant that it was in continuous use, ensuring its survival." "Yet, like other ancient remains in Rome, the Pantheon was for centuries a source of materials for new buildings and other purposes—including the making of cannons and weapons. In addition to the loss of original finishings, sculpture, and all of its bronze elements, many other changes were made to the building from the fourth century to today."

Virgin Nicopeia, St. Mark's Basilica (Basilica of San Marco), Venice (10th century?) [Byzantine Empire]

Believed to be painted by St Luke, adds to the mystic quality of the space in addition to the sound and objects and light of the building Empsychos

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace). Rome (13-19 BCE) [Roman Empire]

Functional piece where frequent rituals of sacrifice occurred Ideological monument Open air building Kinda looks like a temple but isn't because it didn't house a cult statue A place of animal sacrifice Altar where sacrifice would have occurred Relief sculptures on walls Both have various depths of carving to create 3d representation Utmost skill of roman sculptors

Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa (150-140 BCE) [Etruscan]

How do you know this is an Etruscan work of art? What similarities does it share with the works of art studied for today's class? Although the composition of the reclining figure shows awareness of Mediterranean stylistic norms in that their physiognomy reflects an Ionian influence--the rounded, serene face and the treatment of hairstyle, I could tell that this is an Etruscan work of art because of the many things that reflect local practice in Etruria--the posing of the figures, the angular joints of the limbs, and the extended fingers and toes. These characteristics of this unknown sculpture make it similar to the Sarcophagus of the Spouses studied in the homework. Another thing that distinguishes this as sculpture of the Etruscan culture is the fact that this was most likely made from terracotta, clay, instead of marble/bronze like the Greeks. In addition, monumental tombs were a characteristic feature of Etruscan culture. Also, I can distinguish this as a Etruscan work because similar to other Etruscan sculptures such as the Sarcophagus of the Spouses and Apollo of Veii, we can see a sense of movement and liveliness within the figures. The woman figure in this unknown work shows her emotion and is animated, the proportions of his body are different than the sculptures seen in other cultures. The look on his face is not one looking into a generalized space, but is instead catching the eye of the viewer. The faces within Etruscan sculptures are stylized and the bodies are stylized as well. There is a sense of twisting at the hips and shoulders that are overly rounded and broad--this is not a naturalistic depiction of the body. In addition, the artists of the culture seemed to favor detail, as seen in the intricate drapery More movement and liveliness in Etruscan art Naturalistic pose

Augustus as Pontifex Maximus (12 BCE) [Roman Empire]

Not showing himself as a military general A greater sense of modesty shown Pontifix: high priest Idea that the king was not only the political head of state but also the religious head of state Facial features strongly resemble other sculptures of him Contrapposto stance resembles ancient classical greece artwork Idealistic looking

The Four Tetrarchs (ca. 300CE) [Late Roman Empire]

Tetrarchy ends with Constantine the Great who was one of the tetrarchs starting a civil war and taking over the empire, battles maxentius at Milvian Bridge, Constantine converts at battle when sees the sign of the cross in the sky at the battle. He made Christianity legal, the first Roman Emperor to do so. Changes capital to Constantinople

Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (306-12 CE) [Late Roman Empire]

"Built using new technologies, this building is overwhelming and unprecedented—displaying Roman imperial power." Huge scale, overwhelms you with the power of the engineering and architectur enad the power of the emperor Niche is where the famous head andlimbsofConstantine were found Started by maxentius and finished by constantine Concrete allowed for this size More massive--ceiling of roof beams Borrowing ideas from bath complexes Coffers reduce weight of vaulting Brick facing on concrete covered with marble Concrete allowed romans to shape space Civil war followed it being built Civil space, law court Kinda space that would be adopted by the christians for their churches

St. Mark's Basilica, Venice (begun 1063 CE; mosaics 1180-1200 CE) [Byzantine Empire]

Called st mark bc it holds the body of St mark Was one of the Evangelists- the authors of the new testament Bringing his body back from Alexandria, Egypt after being taken Church is byzantine in style Venetians wanted their art and architecture to recall not only the Byzantine Eastern traditions, but specifically the traditions of Constantinople This church was based on The CHurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople...no longer exists Both are structured as a greek cross with equal arms, domes over each arm and another dome over the crossing Recall the architecture of constantinople directly Dome has windows at its base that makes the dome look like is levitating, golden jewel box, dissolving into glittering light Covered in mosaics dated from different time periods Anastasis (The harrowing of hell), c. 1180-1200, Saint Mark's Basilica, Venice) Christ who has gone into hell and is saving virtuous souls who are there bc they lived before the possibility of salvation-his sacrific on the cross Grabbing adam and eve from limbo, grabbing adam on the wrist, humans cant save themselves, they need christ Christ standing on Satan whos hands are bound is chains and is represented in darker colors Deris of Chist's entrance into hell see the chains and keys thrown about Typical byzantine style Gold background Drapery created by lines that is more stylized than the way drapery falls on a human body Drapery on Christ seems to have it's own life, has just arrived Length of bodies are middle byzantine style, symbolic not precise rendering of human form Not naturalism, symbolic language of Byzantine style Begun in 1063 replacing two smaller shrines

Column of Trajan (113 CE) [Roman Empire]

Celebrated Trajan's military victory over the Dacians Conquering hero in Rome In Forum of Trajan Large triumphal arch In center was a sculpture of him All over forum were large sculptures of captured Dacian soldiers Would have seen the collun just over the basilica ulpia Emperor sculpted on top of the column Richly colored and differently marbled space Enormous expense to build came from the conquest The booty taken was shown in the forum Lost sculpture of Trajan, replaced with St Peter Base, shaft, capitol Trajan and his wife's ashes were once in the base Base highly decorated in relief sculpture Showing his victory Plaque inscription, trajan lettering Relief sculpture of wars wraps around column Above: 2nd Dacian War 105-106 BCE Nike separates the two wars Below: 1st Dacian War 101-102 C.E. Not shown a triumphal victory but instead images of an army marching, constructing and building. The engineering and day to day work required for a successful military adventure Only about 21% Represents battle scenes Reminder about the unique architecture of rome Not a literal document, but has stock scenes of certain events with the emperor Was painted with the primary colors and black Originally surrounded by viewing platforms At top we see Decebalus, the Dacian king that commits suicide rather than being captured by the Romans One of the scenes toward the bottom shows the Romans crossing a river of Danube to reach Dacia, we see engineering feat of them engineering a bridge to get across...naturalistic relief, also shifts of scale to help us read the column Symbols of his victory shown Bringing the story back to the capital Permanent means of commemoration Emperor Trjan fought a series of battles known as the Dacian wars (Modern Romania) Iconography of the collum illustrates Trajian's wars in Dacia Very detailed frieze "One of the clear themes is the triumph of civilization (represented by the Romans) over its antithesis, the barbarian state (represented here by the Dacians). The Romans are orderly and uniform, the Dacians less so. The Romans are clean shaven, the Dacians are shaggy. The Romans avoid leggings, the Dacians wear leggings (like typical barbarians)." Combat scenes frequent in the frieze "All of the Roman buildings depicted are solid, regular, and well designed—in stark contrast to the humble buildings of the Dacian world. Roman propaganda at work." Trajan appears on the frieze as a commanding figure demonstrates the complex tasks that Roman architects could successfully complete.

Mosaic Decoration at the Chora Church (12th and 13th century) [Byzantine Empire]

Chora=countryside Two proches lead into main church In outer narthex , see a lunette just above the doorway, with large christ Pantokrator(ruler of the universe) Holds the gospels in one hand, blessing gesture with other hand Elegant face characteristic of the LATE byzantine Inner Narthex Christ enthroned and kneeling before him is the patron presenting image of church, christ is blessing church Extensive mosaic cycle Largest is a Deesis: mary appealing to Christ on behalf of humankind Inner narthex focuses on the life of virgin mary Two domes Left devoted to the virgin mary and her ancestors On right to christ and his ancestry Express emotion and the human experience in the mosaics Exploration of human emotion Parekklesion Subsidiary chapel Added as a funerary chapel Chapel covered with fresco Dome in it shows mary and the christ child Surrounded by Christian images Connection in the divine and earthly in images Images from the old testament Another dome like space shows the last judgement Distinct fresco in the back alps, the harrowing of hell, Christ goes to hell to save those who are in hell because they lived in a time before Christ. Anastasis (resurrection) Overwhelming in iconography and symbolism Eastern Orthadox, Revival of byzantine art Covered with mosaics and frescoes Patron wanted to ensure salvation for his soul.

Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta, Torcello (founded 639 CE, reconstructed 864 and 1008 CE) [Byzantine Empire]

Church of Santa Maria Assunta, Tortello Venice Was part of the Byzantine Empire when Santa Maria Assunta was founded Recent flooding Being preserved SAVE VENICE Fresco fragments Marble revetment Deep faith evident in the mosaics Golden apse with mary holding the christ child, on archway above you see the angel Gabriel on the left and Virgin Mary on the right>>the Annunciation moment Annunciation was important to them March 25th=the anniversary of the foundation of Venice and the feast of the annunciation On opposite wall you see a mosaic of many scenes Christ taking adam and eve out of hell A scene of the last judgement Walk in and out of the west wall Mary in center above doorway holding hands out showing us the angel on one side and the demons on the other side reminding us that we will be judged when we die Side chapels, Diakonikon apse see christ as the all powerful judge, see angels of gabriel and michael, angels holding up the lamb of god Also see plant and animal life reminding us of paradise Was the most important church of the area

Apollo of Veii (510-500 BCE) [Etruscan]

Confronting Hercules in the middle of his labors, this clay statue of Apollo strides forward. Looking at the Fragments of 4 large terracotta figures from the temple at Veii, which was a principal city of the Etruscans Seeing them in a museum in Rome, in ancient greek architecture we might see these types of figures occupy a pediment, but instead these figures lined the rooftop Like ancient greek sculpture, they were highly painted Slightly larger than life Although they were placed equidistantly, they do enact a specific scene From ancient greek mythology: the third labor of Hercules Hercules is sent out to capture a large deer with golden horns, the deer is very special to the goddess Artemis The idea is that the person who sent Hercules on this labor wants to annoy Artemis So she punished Hercules He is shown here with the golden hind under him, he has captures it and now he's being confronted by both Artemis and her brother Apollo They want the deer back Hercules agrees to release it once he shows it to the king who sent him on this labor In Etruscan sculpture we see a sense of movement and liveliness In the Sarcophagus of the Spouses, c. 520 BCE In the figure of Apollo Wears archaic smile that we see in Kouros figures, but is still very different from the greek figures...His smile is more animated, the proportions of his body are different. The look on his face is not one looking into a generalized space, he is instead catching the eye of Hercules. He is engaged directly and therefore engages us Faces are stylized and bodies are stylized as well A sense of twisting at the hips and shoulders are overly rounded and broad--not a naturalistic depiction of the body Artist seems to favor detail, seen in drapery In hercules too Best example of Etruscan culture Wearing clothes--- unlike greeks--diferent way of envisioning the body, less emphasis on the celebration of the anatomical form of the body More lifelike characteristic Extending arms rather that symmetrical stiff features Drapery is sharp and angular, patterned and repetitve

The Colosseum (70-80 CE)

Functional stadium Prototype for today's stadiums Was pillaged Also monumental: sevres as a summary of Roman architecture...see the different architectural orders Like a textbook of ancient roman architecture Interior was brick and concrete allowing for more structurally sound buildings Covered with other materials hiding them because they aren't as elegant looking Place of death Grandeur of ancient rome shown in its size Horrific place Was the center of a vast palace that Nero built for himself Build by a later Roman emperor, Vespasian flavian emperor as a gift to the city Romans called it the flavian amphitheatre, colossal statue of a sun god that was later built by the emperor Hadrian next to it led to its current name Thinking back to the ancient greek traditions, classical orders... Top is corinthian order Below that ionic order Below that tuscan order...italic variation of the doric order Would get in through entering arches Almost all of the arches were numbered Dedicatory inscription above main entryways, given by Vespasian as a gift to the roman people from the spoils of the Jewish War Funded with spoils from the captured Temple in Jeruselem All other gateways were a diect entrance that would lead you to your seat The numbers above arches indicated you seat number More privileged seats were lower 3 things that typically went on Animal hunts (morning) Romans imported exotic animals from africa and brought them to Rome to slaughtered them in these animal hunts Gladiatorial Combats (afternoon) Executions (lunchtime) Execution of prisoners in very colorful ways, gruesome In later history these were seen as gruesome events of pagan past Idea that many christians were murdered in the Colosseum The gladiators often ended up killed too Even now there is a collision between the idea of death and the theatrical We love to view acts of violence Underneath is that stage Amphitheatre: double theatre A stage in a sense, theatricality Arena floor made of wood planks that were punctuated with trapped doors to elevators used to bring animals up to the main floor Velarium planks at the top looped on outside on ground level posts Emperor had a tunnel that went right under his box seat, endangering him Netting protected spectator in the lowest seats Symbol of Rome's brilliance and also despotism

Praxiteles, Hermes and the Infant Dionysos (4th century BCE)[Late Classical Greece]

Greater degree of confidence to depict bodies that are off balance Less vertical Changing proportion of the body 8 to 1 proportion instead of 7 to 1 Late classical sculptures' heads are smaller looking, changing canon also known as the Hermes of Praxiteles or the Hermes of Olympia an ancient Greek sculpture of Hermes and the infant Dionysus discovered in 1877 in the ruins of the Temple of Hera, Olympia, in Greece. It is displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Olympia. It is traditionally attributed to Praxiteles and dated to the 4th century BC, has made a major contribution to the definition of Praxitelean style. Its attribution is, however, the object of fierce controversy among art historians. The sculpture is unlikely to have been one of Praxiteles' famous works, as no ancient replicas of it have been identified. The documentary evidence associating the work with Praxiteles is based on a passing mention by the 2nd-century AD traveller Pausanias. The Olympia site was hit by an earthquake during the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian in the final years of the third century C.E, collapsing the roof of the Temple of Hera and burying the statue in rubble. In 1874, the Greek state signed an agreement with Germany for an archaeological exploration of the Olympia site,which was first dug in the French Morea expedition of 1829. The German excavations in 1875 were led by Ernst Curtius. On 8 May 1877, in the temple of Hera, he uncovered the body (head, torso, legs, left arm) of a statue of a young man resting against a tree trunk covered by a mantle. Protected by the thick clay layer above it, it was in an exceptionally good state of preservation. It took six more separate discoveries to uncover the rest of the statue as it is displayed today. Hermes is still missing his right forearm, two fingers of his left hand, both forearms below the elbow, the left foot and his penis, whilst Dionysus is missing his arms (except the right hand on Hermes's shoulder) and the end of his right foot. Much of the tree trunk and the plinth are also lost. However, an ancient base survives, made of a grey limestone block between two blocks of marble. The group is sculpted from a block of the best quality of Parian marble

Lysippos, Man Scraping Himself (Apoxyomenos) (350-325 BCE)[Late Classical Greece]

In ancient greece people didn't use soap and water to wash but instead used oil Sculpture shows him washing himself First by covering his body with oil and then using a strigil to scrape all the grime off with the oil Lysippos was one of the most famous sculptures from the first century BCE Changed the classical canon of proportions Elongated the figure Reduced the size of head Reached the figures arm into space, breaking out of the frontal orientation of Classical sculpture, makes us want to move around the sculpture to see it in its entirety Tree trunk not original in the sculpture, originally in bronze Still embedded in the Greek tradition of representing the idealized human body, the nude athlete Stands in contraposto which was invented by the Greeks in the Classical period Body rendered musculature even though it is supposedly the body after his exercises Pagan in its celebration of human achievement and human beauty When you compare this with a 5th century sculpture from the classical period by Polykleitos, Doryphoros or Canon (7 head lengths tall) vs this sculpture which is (8 head lengths tall) Looking as copy of the marble

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (425 CE) [Byzantine Empire]

In italy, city of Ravenna Ravenna played a key role in the Roman Empire Ultimately Constantine moved the capital to Byzantium(Constantinople..now Istanbul) Early 5th century, the capital of the western Roman empire was moved to Ravenna. Important port in ancient rome Galla Placidia daughter of the emperor who ruled from Constantinople, she's also the sister of the man who would rule the western capital Married off to the king of the Goths in a political alliance Would ultimately remarry and her son would become emperor, but he was too young to rule Rules Western Roman empire as Regent 379-395 In place of her son until he took over Powerful women, responsible for building many buildings Mausoleum was originally attached to a church that she built Called it's name bc they though she was buried here but we are unsure Made of reused ancient roman brick of dismantled buildings Small Interior walls covered with marble, Above are amazing mosaics Building in shape of a cross On each of the 4 transepts are barrel vaults Inc enter is a shallow dome covered in mosaic, gold sandwiched between colored glass, illuminated by lanterns and capturing light that gave a divine presence, of another world Mosaics Remind us of ancient roman carving Acanthus leaves and vines Grape vines referring to the Sacrament of the Eucharist First mosaic you see is one with a saint ont he right running towards a fire in the center with a grill on it, st laurence?--burned to death. On other side you see a cabinet revealing four books. Perhaps it is st vincent of saragossa whose legend does involve books unlike st laurence All figures in the mosaics are dressed as ancient romans Animation to figures, energy expressed in cloth and flames of grill Specificity to the elemental decisions of the mosaics Opposite wall that you turn to to leave, shows a mosaic of Christ surrounded by sheep. Christ as the Good Shepherd. Looking ancient roman, wearing a halo, body turning in a natural way, classical way. Also has a simplification of the bodies forms that locate this in the early Medieval period. SYmmetrical image, decorative quality. Symbolism of Christ leading his flock, leading the faithful, taking care of them. Christ is young and beardless. Luminosity in image Not technically Byzantine but instead early christian Natural colors, abstracted flatness, but is anchored in early christianity is the representation of clean shaven Christ as the good shepherd, more anchored in the visual legacy of ancient rome

Aulus Metellus (The Orator). c.80 BCE [Roman Republic] *NOTE: some scholars categorize this as an Etruscan sculpture

In what ways does this reflect both the influence of ancient Greece and differentiation from it? What message is being sent by having it go both ways? Realism in face Similar to the Head of a Roman Patrician (75-50 BCE) the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of mind and the virtue of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors. Idealized in this way Balance between a portrait that conveys the identifiable features Idealistic light of strong confident controlled pose Body is not the strong muscular body that we have previously seen, but body is still monumental and confident in its stance Slightly stepping forward alike egyptian sculpture Movement and vitality Protrail is meant to be seen as a figure in the act of doing something

Pompeii (city plan) [Roman Empire]

Like Pompeii, Oxford has a roughly grid-shaped street plan. As Pompeii grew in size and population, the grid expanded. Pompeii had two main areas of Pompeii that were loosely organized around a general function: The Forum and the entertainment district. Oxford resembles this...the Forum, at the southwest corner of the city of Pompeii, was the site of various services and structures, and could be considered a sort of "downtown". Here in Oxford we have Uptown that serves the same function. Additionally, the"entertainment district" in the south-central section of Pompeii included two theaters—one open-air, the other smaller and roofed. In these theaters, one could see plays, hear musical performances, and perhaps hold civic or social gatherings. We have multiple theatre's and entertainment centers such as Goggin Ice Center, The Center for performing arts, the Miami University Art Museum, Hefner Zoology Museum, Oxford Lanes and much more. To add on, the structure of many of the buildings here in Oxford resemble those seen in Pompeii, especially with the presence of a centralized reception hall/atrium leading out to several other rooms. There are also many dome like structures present in the buildings around campus as well. Grid plan... Allows for easy surveillance Shows sophistication of the people who designed it Ease of zoning cities Ease of mobility Ease of control Projects rational order Timgrad, Algeria also has grid plan, Roman city plan Florence, Italy is also a Roman city plan, street plan has a grid like center square Pennsylvania was the first planned out city plan in the US 2 names for the two types of main streets of Roman city plan... --Cardo street, North/ south --Decumanus is East/west The intersection is where the main forum is in theory, but that was not always the case Insulae- individual grid blocks

Pont du Gard. Nîmes, France. Late 1st century BCE [Roman Republic]

Merger of what the romans did best in architecture Merging of aesthetics and engineering Functional object Meant to carry water from source to city Evident of their intellectual capabilities Graceful lightness due to the arch

Dying Gallic Trumpeter (third century BCE) (Links to an external site.) [Hellenistic Greece]

Monument in honor of the bravery of the vanquished, increasing the valor of the winners Using his last strength and energy to prop himself up Still has athletic body Barbarian Gallic man being defeated by the Greeks Monument shown in a heroic way still, body still muscular, barbarian haircut--not the typical curly mane hairstyle, still shown in a dignified way

Nike or Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BCE) [Hellenistic Greece]

Monumental heroism different from the Dying Gallic Trumpeter

Augustus of Primaporta (1st century CE)

Nothing was more important to a Roman emperor than his image. Marble statue of Agustus the Roman emperor: 27 BCE--14BCE Emerges the first emperor of the new roman empire Fresco and sculpture found at the Villa of Livia near Primaporta (just north of Rome) Actually a copy of an original bronze statue that would have been in public?? This marble version was for private use Made within the lifetime of Augustus, after his military victory over the Parthians Important symbolic victories Think that this sculpture was made to celebrate his victory All about the political ideology of the augustan era Naturalism of the human body, of its musculature of its bone structure Figure seems as though he is moving forward easily Nothing static about him The fringe and drapery shows off the artists skill The sculpture was originally painted Raises hand amidst addressing his troops Contrapposto stance, gives a sense of being alike Seems like a copy of sculpture by Greek artist Polykleitos called Doryphoros Recalls the Golden Age of Greece Implies a Golden Age for Rome Rome as the inheritor of the Greek tradition Also reflected in Cupid riding a dolphin at the feet of Augustus Reminds us that venus was born from the sea Augustus has chosen cupid because he linked his lineage back to the ancient hero Aeneas who had come from Greece. And therefore he traces his lineage back to Venus--he was descended from the gods Beautiful face, seriousness in expression Idealizing Augustus to make him more youthful than reality alike the ancient Classical Greek tradition of beautiful idealized figures. Simultaneously in contrast to the Republican Rome tradition of portraits that represented age and experience through the lines of the face Augustus is inventing a new tradition for the portraiture of Roman Emperors--one that idealized instead of emphasizing that dignity that comes with age Cuirass (armored breastplate) is full of imagery telling of Augustus and his achievements In center Left figure perhaps is the goddess Roma, Represents rome On right we see a Parthian holding a standard that may represent the hundreds of standards that were returned after defeat Gods and goddesses around them Captives represented referring to previous victories by Augustus Overall the impression that rome's victories and expansion of the empire is divinely ordained and that augustus is this divinely ordained leader of the roman empire Roman art was closely intertwined with politics and propaganda. This is especially true with portraits of Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire; Augustus invoked the power of imagery to communicate his ideology. At first glance this statue might appear to simply resemble a portrait of Augustus as an orator and general, but this sculpture also communicates a good deal about the emperor's power and ideology. In fact, in this portrait Augustus shows himself as a great military victor and a staunch supporter of Roman religion. The statue also foretells the 200 year period of peace that Augustus initiated, called the Pax Romana. In this marble freestanding sculpture, Augustus stands in a contrapposto pose (a relaxed pose where one leg bears weight). The emperor wears military regalia and his right arm is outstretched, demonstrating that the emperor is addressing his troops. We immediately sense the emperor's power as the leader of the army and a military conqueror. Distinct resemblance to Polykleitos' Doryphoros, a Classical Greek sculpture of the fifth century B.C.E., is apparent. Both have a similar contrapposto stance and both are idealized. That is to say that both Augustus and the Spear-Bearer are portrayed as youthful and flawless individuals: they are perfect. The Romans often modeled their art on Greek predecessors. This is significant because Augustus is essentially depicting himself with the perfect body of a Greek athlete: he is youthful and virile, despite the fact that he was middle-aged at the time of the sculpture's commissioning. By modeling the Primaporta statue on such an iconic Greek sculpture created during the height of Athens' influence and power, Augustus connects himself to the Golden Age of that previous civilization. So far the message of the Augustus of Primaporta is clear: he is an excellent orator and military victor with the youthful and perfect body of a Greek athlete The sculpture contains even more symbolism. First, at Augustus' right leg is cupid figure riding a dolphin. The dolphin became a symbol of Augustus' great naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, a conquest that made Augustus the sole ruler of the Empire. The cupid astride the dolphin sends another message too: that Augustus is descended from the gods. Cupid is the son of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Julius Caesar, the adoptive father of Augustus, claimed to be descended from Venus and therefore Augustus also shared this connection to the gods. Augustus is wearing a cuirass, or breastplate, that is covered with figures that communicate additional propagandistic messages. Scholars debate over the identification over each of these figures, but the basic meaning is clear: Augustus has the gods on his side, he is an international military victor, and he is the bringer of the Pax Romana, a peace that encompasses all the lands of the Roman Empire. In the central zone of the cuirass are two figures, a Roman and a Parthian. On the right, the enemy Parthian returns military standards. This is a direct reference to an international diplomatic victory of Augustus in 20 B.C.E., when these standards were finally returned to Rome after a previous battle. Surrounding this central zone are gods and personifications. At the top are Sol and Caelus, the sun and sky gods respectively. On the sides of the breastplate are female personifications of countries conquered by Augustus. These gods and personifications refer to the Pax Romana. The message is that the sun is going to shine on all regions of the Roman Empire, bringing peace and prosperity to all citizens. And of course, Augustus is the one who is responsible for this abundance throughout the Empire. Beneath the female personifications are Apollo and Diana, two major deities in the Roman pantheon; clearly Augustus is favored by these important deities and their appearance here demonstrates that the emperor supports traditional Roman religion. At the very bottom of the cuirass is Tellus, the earth goddess, who cradles two babies and holds a cornucopia. Tellus is an additional allusion to the Pax Romana as she is a symbol of fertility with her healthy babies and overflowing horn of plenty. The Augustus of Primaporta is one of the ways that the ancients used art for propagandistic purposes. Overall, this statue is not simply a portrait of the emperor, it expresses Augustus' connection to the past, his role as a military victor, his connection to the gods, and his role as the bringer of the Roman Peace. In public art Augustus wanted to promote that he was a military victor, that he brought peace to the Roman Empire, and that he was connected to the gods.

Iconoclasm

Opposing or even destroying images, especially those set up for religious veneration in the belief that such images represent idol worship. What is an icon? "eikon"= "image" in Greek Cult image (image for prayer) Miracles!! If these things are meant to facilitate communication and create miracles, might people confuse the image as the legitimate divine figures themselves rather than representations of them Fear of idolatry (idol=false god; image regarded as divine) Argue against this with 2 arguments When you pray to the icon, the prayer goes THROUGH the icon, is the portal to the divine, the virgin mary doesn't live in the painting, they are a means of communicating with the divine Justification that images are important because they teach stories, a picture is instead of reading, books for illiterate people, portray stories and show the lives of the divine

Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors. End of 1st century BCE or beginning of 1st century CE [Roman Republic]

Portraiture in Republican Rome What does this passage tell us about how Romans in the Republican period valued portraiture and what they valued in it? How does this differ from what we saw in ancient Greece? Take distinguished portraits of dead figures and bring them to the funerals Reincarnation? Use them like masks and put them on family members that resemble the deceased That person gets reincarnated so to speak in the next person down the line We can be the possessors of the spirit of the ancestor when putting the masks on

basilica-plan church

Roman temple architecture was largely an architecture of the exterior. Since Christianity was a mystery religion that demanded initiation to participate in religious practices, Christian architecture put greater emphasis on the interior. The Christian churches needed large interior spaces to house the growing congregations and to mark the clear separation of the faithful from the unfaithful. At the same time, the new Christian churches needed to be visually meaningful. The buildings needed to convey the new authority of Christianity. The basilica was not a new architectural form. The Romans had been building basilicas in their cities and as part of palace complexes for centuries. Basilicas had diverse functions but essentially they served as formal public meeting places. One of the major functions of the basilicas was as a site for law courts. These were housed in an architectural form known as the apse. Basilicas also served as audience halls as a part of imperial palaces

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (173-76 CE) [Late Roman Empire]

Saved from destruction bc of mistaken identity Don't know where it originally was in rome Was the only equestrian sculpture of this size to survive from antiquity,there had been dozens though--created to celebrate the triumphal return of an emperor Addressing the troops or citizens of Rome, confidence in his posture and scale Thought to have represented Constantine- the emperor who ade christianity legal in the Roman Empire--so it wasn't melted down like most equestrian sculptures Shows how accomplished the ancient romans were Lifelike and animated, detailed Momentary and timeless balance of horse and man Unity and animation In full control of the horse Commemorating of a great man Interest in the representation of his authority and representation in society but also in their ability to render in such detail in the renaissance "A gilded bronze monument of the 170s C.E. that was originally dedicated to the emperor referred to commonly as Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180 C.E.), the statue is an important object not only for the study of official Roman portraiture, but also for the consideration of monumental dedications." Has important influence over other statues "an over life-size depiction of the emperor elegantly mounted atop his horse while participating in a public ritual or ceremony" "The emperor's horse is a magnificent example of dynamism captured in the sculptural medium. The horse, caught in motion, raises its right foreleg at the knee while planting its left foreleg on the ground, its motion checked by the application of reins, which the emperor originally held in his left hand. The horse's body—in particular its musculature—has been modeled very carefully by the artist, resulting in a powerful rendering" "The horseman sits astride the steed, with his left hand guiding the reins and his right arm raised to shoulder level, the hand outstretched." The statue is part of a public monument, commissioned to mark an important occasion in the emperor's reign

"empsychos"

The multi-sensory experience the one has inside a Byzantine Church, a distinct Byzantine feature, Earthly experience is left behind and you are transported to another heavenly realm

Laocoön and His Sons (early first century CE) [Hellenistic Greece]

The writhing agony of the Trojan Laocoon made this Hellenistic masterpiece famous throughout history. Laocoon was a trojan priest He knew that the gift that had arrived outside of the gates of the City of Troy from the Greeks, their enemies, was a trick. Tried to warm the city Gift was a wooden "trojan" horse full of greek soldiers A goddess who was a protector of the reeks didn't like this and to punish him, sent serpents to strangle him and his sons Unknown origins Full of dynamism, energy associated with the Hellinistic period, third or second century Similar the the figures on the Pergamon Altar, in the way that figures move into our space and interact with us Theatricality, agony, tragedy, emphasis on the diagonal...Fixes this style in the hellinistic "Serpentine", figure twists in space and is so expressive in the body Found in fragments, perhaps could be placed wrong Terrible pain and agony in the figures but also a beauty in the body despite this Pliny claims that the sculptors were Atheanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes 1st century BCE What aspects of the story are emphasized most by the sculpture? When the snakes wrap around his kids and he tries to fight back A struggle that is in vein What conclusions can you make about what his aims and ambitions were in portraying this subject in the way that they did? Captures ideal beauty through pain Exaggeration of trends of sculpture style that were already in place Artist trying to demonstrate their skill and abilities Exaggerated motion emotion and drama opposed to the classical perfect beauty that was

Lysippos, Farnese Hercules (4th century BCE) [Late Classical Greece]

Weary from his labors, Hercules leans on his club, with hints of his heroic trials hidden in plain sight. One of the most famous sculptures in ancient antiquity Gets its name from the fact that it was excavated by the Farnese family they'd been looking for building materials to take from ancient sites to build a new palace. But what they found in the Baths of Caracalla were an extraordinary array of ancient sculptures Really complex structures for the bathing facilities, a place where one would go to exercise, this sculpture makes good sense in this context. Gives people exercising a goal. Bulky Hercules Some successful greek athletes would sometimes dedicate sculptures to Hercules being thanking him for his successes A symbol of strength and heroism Irony in the treatment of his body Extreme musculature but at the same time looks exhausted leaning his full weight on a club that's propped up under his arm Body articulated Contrapposto Torso slouches over Calling attention to Hercules's hands... Open left hand and right hand is brought behind his back Makes up want to walk around the sculpture to see what is in his right hand It is holding apples Legend of Hercules Brute of a man in a fit killed his children Gods of mount Olympus punished him by putting this man, Heracles who was the son of a god and of a human, therefore a hero subservient to the king Twelve years of labor was his punishment King asked for extremely difficult tasks First was the killing of the Nemean Lion See the lion in this sculpture draped over the club Strange how small his head is Lysippos known for this Changing the canon of proportions that had existed in the classical period of greece Figure taller, head smaller Gave figure elegance and height Broke out of the more restricted space that the Classical figures had generally occupied Invites us to understand the object in the round opposed to seeing it as a frontal object We can understand his feeling of exhaustion and that is contrasted against the potential energy and power of that body Empathy for him See things common in the Hellinistic Period of ancient greek art Taller proportions, smaller head Invited to walk around sculpture Empathy Varieties of idealism Muscular brutish figure reflects his character Not in an idealized state although his body is idealized, his stance is not a ready to fight position. He looks tired and exhausted

Cityscape, House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale (near Pompeii) (c.50-30 BCE) [Roman Republic]

What additional info about Roman cities does this painting offer? What techniques for rendering a realistic view do you see here? Was a sense of there being a city view skyline, vs the one level of Pompeii Get a sense of a variety of different heights to the buildings Get greater sense of an artist trying to show illusion Shows a view of city that is more complete, get a sense of the complexity and what the city would look like This is a view that represent the sophisticated way of representing 3D space, shows us that the artists of ancient Rome were sophisticated in doing so.

The Good Shepherd (early 3rd century CE [Early Christian]

What features do these monuments share with other works of Early Christian art? What message is being sent about the identity and validity of Christianity in its early phases? (Your response must incorporate direct connections to at least one of the monuments assigned to study for today's homework.) The features of these monuments resemble those seen in other works of early christian art such as the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (359 CE) as both the figure in the unknown sculpture and the figures on the relief of the sarcophagus are rendered naturalistically in a contrapposto stance that is similar to the greek classical style of roman pagan artwork. Overall it just shows how Christianity was replacing Pagan beliefs and becoming the major religion of the Roman Empire. Statue is more simple that other roman art Is an image of Jesus Christ Shows a younger scrawny figure of him Similar to ancient greek statues Was modeled romanized, borrowed earlier pagan images such as apollo Youthful Clean shaven Christitanity develops as an outgrowth of the preexisting art and architecture of rome, classicizing stance and roman characteristics, not inventing a brand new way of rendering images or designing buildings, Utilizing ancient roman art and architecture to render these new images

Transfiguration of Christ, mosaic in apse of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (6th century CE) [Byzantine Empire]

What similarities do you see with the works studied for today's class? What features identify it as a Byzantine image? Use of gold harnessing light Create a heavenly divine experience Get a sense of the lushness of the place Also unnaturalistic Portrayal of naturalism seen in Roman art isn't here Is mosaic--a byzantine medium Even in the mosaic is rich is light and color reflecting and creating a sparkling effect giving you a transforming experiences Gold Flatness of images See jesus christ in his divine non human form, shown in a symbolic way

Saint Luke

Wrote the Acts of the Apostles Was contemporary with mary and jesus, was an icon painter, many regarded as original paintings from saint luke, no historical record of this though None that old He was thought to be a saint, so icons by Saint luke could do things, miracles and magic, miraculous power

Corinthian order

the most decorative of the classical Greek architectural styles, featuring a fluted column shaft, capitals with flowers and leaves below a small scroll, and a large base; used more by the Romans

Hagia Sophia (532-537 BCE) [Byzantine Empire]

In Istanbul (Constantinople) Aka city of constantine Christianity was recognized and became the official religion Churches burned during riots Nika Riot against Justinian, the patron of the church A way of putting a lot of people to work in the city that might otherwise riot and also a way of expressing his power Centerpiece of church building program Mountain of a building Unique for its scale, ambition, and design Hired scholars that were skilled in mathematics and physics Asked them to instead of building a traditional basilica, to do something different and build something that unified a centrally planned space with a basilica space Basilica- longitudinal format Centrally planned- based on a circle This dome is on a square building From square base emerges two half domes forming a rectangle of space that remind us of a basilica Accomplished this by using pendentives Base of dome comes onto a series of four arches , comes down of the slenderest of arches Architects hid the stone piers that supported weight and thrust of dome Engineering marvel Complex space, walls dissolve into light Seems as though the dome is suspended from heaven Pierced the base of the dome with windows so there appears to be continuous light Sets dome in motion Floating appearance Walls flanked with design processing movement Lacks solidity of rome in this architecture Transformation of physical into the spiritual Justinian was head of the church, appointed man in charge of the church, when emperor and patriarch came together in this building it was an expression of the unity of heaven and earth, of political power and spiritual power Surface decoration, covered with gold and silver mosaics, no figures shown though Avoid figural imagery because of concern about the period iconoclasm Also perhaps to highlight the architecture to the overall mystic effect of the space itself Color from the glass as well and the surface of the marbles was colored too--expensive and elegant---embedded into the walls Kalidoscope of movement and energy Gems imbedded in thrones Screen protected sanctuary Eventually conquered by the Ottoman Turks, who transformed it into a mosk, then later it was made into a museum Was filled with holy objects, gold and silver. Was the center of the empire FROM TEXT.... Symbol of Byzantium Attention to detail Mystical Building seems dematerialized, an impression that must have been very real in the perception of the medieval faithful Column Derives from classic ionic greed order Capital looks light and insubstantial, The whole appears more as filigree work than as robust stone capable of supporting enormous weight to the column. Shrunken volutes appear at the corners decorative detailing runs the circuit of lower regions of the capital. A capital fragment on the grounds of Hagia Sophia illustrates the carving technique. The stone is deeply drilled, creating shadows behind the vegetative decoration. The capital surface appears thin. The capital contradicts its task rather than expressing it. This deep carving appears throughout the capitals, spandrels, and entablatures. Everywhere we look stone visually denying its ability to do the work that it must do. The important point is that the decoration suggests that something other than sound building technique must be at work in holding up the building. Golden dome suspended from heaven The windows at the bottom of the dome are closely spaced, visually asserting that the base of the dome is insubstantial and hardly touching the building itself. The building planners did more than squeeze the windows together, they also lined the jambs or sides of the windows with gold mosaic. As light hits the gold it bounces around the openings and eats away at the structure and makes room for the imagination to see a floating dome. building that is dematerialized by common constructional expectation. Perception outweighs clinical explanation. To the faithful of Constantinople and its visitors, the building used divine intervention to do what otherwise would appear to be impossible. Perception supplies its own explanation: the dome is suspended from heaven by an invisible chain. Hagia Sophia sits astride an earthquake fault. The building was severely damaged by three quakes during its early history. Extensive repairs were required. Despite the repairs, one assumes that the city saw the survival of the church, amid city rubble, as yet another indication of divine guardianship of the church. Extensive repair and restoration are ongoing in the modern period

Lord Elgin

a British lord who removed the marble from the Parthenon from Greece and sold them to the British museum

Concrete

building material made by mixing small stones and sand with limestone, clay, and water

San Vitale, Ravenna (527 CE) [Byzantine Empire]

Emperor Justinian and His Attendants, north wall of apse of San Vitale Empress Theodora and Her Attendants, south wall of apse of San Vitale In Ravenna Italy Church from the 6th century Centrally planned opposed to the typical cross shaped Octagon shape with another higher octagon above Exterior is brick taken from ancient roman buildings Walls pierced with windows Light glistening on the inner mosaics Inside the church Center is high Apse like shapes suppored with columns Delicacy of columns Gallery above East end covered in mosaic Glass sandwiching gold that reflect the light The apse, semicircular space Windows and mosaic Image shows Christ dressed royally in purple in the center, sitting on the orb of the universe, below flow the four rivers of paradise, on either side of him an angel Christ holding the book of the apocalypse, in right hand holding a crown to San Vitalis, who was adopted as the primary martyr of the city, On other side is Ecclesius who founded and sponsored the building of the church handing the church to the angel beside christ All parts of apse are covered in mosaic images and stone marble Above the altar is an image of the lamb of god referring to christ wearing a halo, idea of christ as the sacrifice for mankind. Lamb surrounded by wreath of victory-- the idea of the triumph of christianity itself. Wreath held in place by four angels standing on globes Christ bearded and older in the archway at the beginning of the chancel, Surrounded by rainbow colored halow, apostles on either side of him Scenes from the old and new testament Decorated columns decorated with marble from the east Early christians making new iconography for their architecture Impost blocks on top of collumns helping to make the transition up to the arches Flaking the alps are the emperor justinian and his empress theodora image Never came to Ravenna but are in the mosaics to reassert their authority over the city Justinian reestablishes Christianity when he takes over His panel Seeing the reassertion of eastern imperial control Spiritual power goes along with this political power Justinian saying he is in change despite him not being there He wears purple the color of the throne,royalty, shows church figures, emperor, and military figures, some treated more individualized than others Justinian is divine, halo around head, holding bowl associated witht he Eucharist which is handing in the direction of christ in the alps Frontal figures, abstracted, schematic, no real concern for accurate proportions Seem to float in an eternal space Maximian next to Justinian, wearing purple associated him with the emperors power Emperor leading procession for the enactment of the sacrament of the eucharist Figures stand in front of a field of gold--bytanine tradition Gold fuzed between clear glass at angles to illuminate light Theodoras panel Idea that she is a co ruler to justinian even though she was apparently lower class entertainer Wearing elaborate clothing and jewelery In back of her head, just like justinian, she has a halo that speaks not to her own divinity but to the divine origin of her authority Like justinian who is carrying a bowl for the bread for the Eucharist, Theodora is carrying a callice for the wine for the Eucharist Also surrounded by attendants that represent the imperial court Curtain raised as though she is about to take part in a ceremony related to the Eucharist Elaborate Bytantine costume Trying to bring the richness of the imperial court in Constantinople to Ravenna Unique centrally planned church Inspired by Hagia Sophia in constantinople Still has an Apse showing image of christ handing crown to justinian San Vitale is one of the most important surviving examples of Byzantine architecture and mosaic work. It was begun in 526 or 527 under Ostrogothic rule. It was consecrated in 547 and completed soon after. A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history. The mosaic program can also be seen to give visual testament to the two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: as heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith. As such it was his duty to establish religious uniformity or Orthodoxy throughout the Empire. In the chancel mosaic Justinian is posed frontally in the center. He is haloed and wears a crown and a purple imperial robe. He is flanked by members of the clergy on his left with the most prominent figure the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna being labelled with an inscription. To Justinian's right appear members of the imperial administration identified by the purple stripe, and at the very far left side of the mosaic appears a group of soldiers. This mosaic thus establishes the central position of the Emperor between the power of the church and the power of the imperial administration and military.Like the Roman Emperors of the past, Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority. The clergy and Justinian carry in sequence from right to left a censer, the gospel book, the cross, and the bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. This identifies the mosaic as the so-called Little Entrance which marks the beginning of the Byzantine liturgy of the Eucharist. Justinian's gesture of carrying the bowl with the bread of the Eucharist can be seen as an act of homage to the True King who appears in the adjacent apse mosaic (image left). Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifying universal dominion, offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale, but the same gesture can be seen as offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. Justinian is thus Christ's vice-regent on earth, and his army is actually the army of Christ as signified by the Chi-Rho on the shield. Closer examination of the Justinian mosaic reveals an ambiguity in the positioning of the figures of Justinian and the Bishop Maximianus. Overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, but when the positioning of the figures on the picture plane is considered, it is evident that Maximianus's feet are lower on the picture plane which suggests that he is closer to the viewer. This can perhaps be seen as an indication of the tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church.

Icon

"eikon"= "image" in Greek Cult image (image for prayer) Miracles!! If these things are meant to facilitate communication and create miracles, might people confuse the image as the legitimate divine figures themselves rather than representations of them

Mausoleum of Constantina (later Church of Santa Costanza) (ca. 350 CE) [Early Christian]

Actually a big burial place a structure that surrounds a tomb, in this case the burial place of the daughter of the emperor Constantine Mosaics decorating the vaults surrounding Style and mosaic decorations are very Roman Show the harvesting of grapes, symbol of Bacchus, indication that early christians borrowed from Roman motifs, can remind you of Jesus Christ, wine is a potent symbol for sacrifice of blood-Jesus shed blood. Grapes used as a symbol in Chrsitianity Sarcophagus of the daughter has the same types of Roman motifs, cupid and grapes and vines Early christian architecture derives out of the context of rome to make christianity not seem so foreign so that the act of expanding christianity is not such a hard task because it seems more familiar

Burial Chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs. Cerveteri, Italy. 3rd century BCE [Etruscan]

Afterlife banquet Sarcophagus found in a place like this Signifies the kind of activities the dead would partake in in the afterlife

Pendentives

a curved triangle of vaulting formed by the intersection of a dome with its supporting arches.

Old St. Peter's Basilica (c. 320-27 CE) [Early Christian]

Adopted for christian purposes, because it was fitting for the christina function Columns divide space in rational way and give a longitudinal focus to the end of the nave, focal point of the church

Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels. second half of the 6th century [Byzantine Empire]

At Mount Sinai Monastery Icon painting of the Virgin and child between saints Theodore(left) and George(right) The icon shows the Virgin and Child flanked by two soldier saints, St. Theodore to the left and St. George at the right. Above these are two angels who gaze upward to the hand of God, from which light emanates, falling on the Virgin. Encaustic Painting technique used is a painting technique that uses wax as a medium to carry the color Classisizing style inherited from Rome Space is compressed and flat Knee of Mary beneath drapery New in our icon is what we might call a "hierarchy of bodies." Theodore and George stand erect, feet on the ground, and gaze directly at the viewer with large, passive eyes. While looking at us they show no recognition of the viewer and appear ready to receive something from us. The saints are slightly animated by the lifting of a heel by each as though they slowly step toward us. The Virgin averts her gaze and does not make eye contact with the viewer. The ethereal angels concentrate on the hand above. The light tones of the angels and especially the slightly transparent rendering of their halos give the two an otherworldly appearance. This supremely composed picture gives us an unmistakable sense of visual movement inward and upward, from the saints to the Virgin and from the Virgin upward past the angels to the hand of God. The passive saints seem to stand ready to receive the veneration of the viewer and pass it inward and upward until it reaches the most sacred realm depicted in the picture. We can describe the differing appearances as saints who seem to inhabit a world close to our own (they alone have a ground line), the Virgin and Child who are elevated and look beyond us, and the angels who reside near the hand of God transcend our space. As the eye moves upward we pass through zones: the saints, standing on ground and therefore closest to us, and then upward and more ethereal until we reach the holiest zone, that of the hand of God. These zones of holiness suggest a cosmos of the world, earth and real people, through the Virgin, heavenly angels, and finally the hand of God. The viewer who stands before the scene make this cosmos complete, from "our earth" to heaven.

Arch of Constantine (312-15 CE) [Late Roman Empire]

Built to celebrate the victory not over a foreign power but instead a roman rival Surface covered with sculpture that dated from different times in ancient history Reusing previous monument sculptures built by other emperors The emperors that were borrowed from were known as benevolent leaders Sculptures at the top Monument belonging to Trajn Dacian prisoners Shown as barbarians conquered by the roman empire Panels in between the dacians From monument belonging to the emperor Marcus Aurelius High relief sculpture Left to right: Presentation of a client king presenting to the roman people a foreign king that has been captured Marcus aurelius receives barbarian prisoners An address of marcus speaking to the people Marcus making a sacrifice to the people before battle Otherside of the arch has 4 other panels from Marcus Arrival of Marcus into rome Marcus leaving rome The distribution of largess Submission of barbarian prisoners Beauty classical style of relief, naturalism contrapposto, drapery Below that are free standing Corinthian Capitals In between columns are roundels Era of Emperor Hadrian Scenes set in round frames Southside left to right Departure for the hunt Sacrifice to the god silvanus Bear hunt Sacrifice to the goddess diana North side Boar hunt Sacrifice to the god apollo Aftermath of a lion hunt Sacrifice to hercules Sculpted in high relief, classical tradition of ancient greeks borrowed, contrapposto, naturalism Band wraps around arch Era of Constantine Shows: March to verona Siege of verona Battle of the milvian bridge Constantine entering Rome North side: imperial address at the forum and the Distribution of Money (largess) Stylistically different, figures squat, sunted proportions, almost liked drawings not sculpture, Lack of interest of the body associated with early cristian art and he is the pivotal figure of helping christianity become legal Style of early christitywas to be more symbolic than naturalistic, most important in constantines sculptures was clarity and legibility Sculpture in the Spandrels Date to time of Constantine Most show victory figures some roman gods In the bases of the columns more relief carvings Constantinian Victories and subjugated barbarians Last two major panels inside main archway From the era of Hadrian made to honor Trajan One side is an inscription that says bringer of peace...See an emperor being crowned by a figure of victory and on the right a battle scene Opposite side has Trajan on horseback trampling a barbarian, says "liberator of the city" Heads of previous emperors were often recarved of his own image Bringing fragments together to place himself in the lineage of good emperors and present himself to the city of Rome and to history as a victorious military leader and good provider of the state The Emperor Constantine, called Constantine the Great political transformation of the Roman Empire, his support for Christianity, and his founding of Constantinople example of the ideological and stylistic changes Constantine's reign brought to art demonstrates the emperor's careful adherence to traditional forms of Roman Imperial art and architecture. along the Via Triumphalis in Rome, and it is situated between the Flavian Amphitheater (better known as the Colosseum) and the Temple of Venus and Roma Highly visible from connective architecture "To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the Greatest, pious, fortunate, the Senate and people of Rome, by inspiration of divinity and his own great mind with his righteous arms on both the tyrant and his faction in one instant in rightful battle he avenged the republic,dedicated this arch as a memorial to his military victory Beginning in the late 3rd century, the Roman Empire was ruled by four co-emperors (two senior emperors and two junior emperors), in an effort to bring political stability after the turbulent 3rd century. But in 312 C.E., Constantine took control over the Western Roman Empire by defeating his co-emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (and soon after became the sole ruler of the empire). The inscription on the arch refers to Maxentius as the tyrant and portrays Constantine as the rightful ruler of the Western Empire Sculpted elements show a multiplicity of styles "Constantine's relief sculptures (below, right) feature squat and blocky figures that are more abstract than they are naturalistic. The Constantinian reliefs also depict historical, rather than general events related to Constantine" "If the spoliated (older) material from the arch can be traced to the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, then it situates Constantine as one worthy of the same level of reverence as those emperors—all of whom earned deserved levels of acclaim. This was vitally important to Constantine, who had himself essentially bypassed lawful succession and usurped power from others. Moreover, Constantine encouraged major social changes in Rome, such as decriminalizing Christianity. Any religious change was a threat to the ruling and political classes of Rome. By aligning himself with well-regarded emperors of Rome's 2nd-century C.E. golden age, Constantine was signaling that he intended to model his rule after earlier, successful leaders."

House of the Vettii, Pompeii (62-79 CE) [Roman Empire]

Buried by a volcanic eruption two thousand years ago, this Roman house was the epitome of wealth and style. The House of the Vettii or Casa dei Vettii (VI xv,1) is a Roman townhouse (domus) located within the ruined ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. A volcanic eruption destroyed Pompeii in the year 79 C.E., thus preserving extraordinary archaeological remains of the Roman town as it was at the time of its cataclysmic destruction. Those remains constitute a nearly unparalleled resource for the study of the Roman world. Beginning with the Renaissance interest in all things classical, architectural historians and archaeologists have been debating the form and function of ancient Roman houses for several hundred years. The interest in the domestic architectural form was fueled further by the re-discovery, in the middle of the eighteenth century, of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other sites destroyed by Vesuvius. A house is, of course, a dwelling—but it is also a stage on which the rituals of daily life and social hierarchy would be performed. During the time of the Roman republic ranking aristocratic families (patricians) used domestic display as a way to reinforce social position and as a way to advance their own fortunes, as well as those of their dependents and clients, within the community. Since Republican society operated on the basis of this patron-client relationship, the domus played a key part in the reinforcement of social hierarchy as the patron (patronus) would receive his clients (clientes) in the atrium of his domus each business day. While visiting with the patron, each client would get an eyeful of the patron's household wealth, thus applying implicit pressure on the patron to ensure that his house was tasteful and fashionable. The patron-client system revolved around asymmetrical social relationships whereby lower ranking clients were bound to their patrons by the qualities of trust (fides) and dutifulness (pietas). Governed by ancestral custom (mos maiorum), clients would seek support and favors from the patron; in turn the patron provided protection, support, and benefaction, collectively known as patrocinium. This system had changed somewhat by the time of the brothers Vettii and it is unclear to what extent the patron-client system factored in their lives or in their own domestic sphere. In his treatise on Roman architecture, the first century B.C.E. author Vitruvius outlines the key elements, proportions, and aesthetics of the Roman house, creating what has been treated as a canonical recommendation for domestic architecture of the period. The Vitruvian canon (or standard) proposes a range of plans, suggesting strongly that the organization of interior space was important in Roman architectural theory. Although the plan of the Roman domus does reflect the canonical aspects described by Vitruvius, we also see enormous variation with modifications and remodeling undertaken over time. The standard house (domus) plan has several key architectural elements. Generally entered from the street via a narrow doorway (fauces), the large centralized reception hall (atrium) is flanked by wings (alae) and often bounded by bedrooms (cubicula). The office of the head of household (paterfamilias), known as the tablinum, links the public part of the house (pars urbana) to the private part of the house (pars rustica). This latter area often focuses on an open, colonnaded courtyard (peristylium) and serves as the center of family life, with the kitchen (culina), dining room(s) (triclinium or oecus), and often a small garden (hortus). Many houses also had a second level that may have contained additional sleeping spaces and perhaps storage. Standard plan of an ancient Roman Domus Excavation and identification Plan of Pompeii, with location of the House of the Vettii The House of the Vettii was excavated between late 1894 and early 1896. The artifacts that were recovered allowed for the identification of the house's putative owners, Aulus Vettius Conviva and his brother, Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Both men have been identified as former slaves or freedmen (liberti). The Vettii had risen to some prominence; Conviva was an augustalis—the top civic office for which a freedman would be eligible. In the construction and decoration of their house the brothers display a mind-set not uncommon among the newly-rich. Two strongboxes (arca - essentially lockable boxes for storing valuables)—concrete signs of wealth—were placed prominently in the large atrium so that visitors would be sure to notice them. The strongboxes, paired with a painting of the god Priapus in the vestibule, serve to underscore the wealth of the brothers Vettii. This painting, which shows Priapus weighing his own phallus against a bag of money, may represent the socio-economic ambitions of the Vettii and perhaps indicates that those ambitions were different from those of high-ranking citizen families. This is interesting when we consider that achieving the status of augustalis likely indicates that Conviva made a large donation to a public works project in Pompeii. The plan of the house View through atrium to the peristyle Plan, House of the Vettii, Late Republican-Early Imperial domus, destroyed 79 C.E. The House of the Vettii covers an area of approximately 1,100 square meters. The construction of the house and its decorations belong to the final period of Pompeii's occupation and therefore provides important evidence of the aesthetics of the city on the eve of its destruction.. Was built atop the remains of an earlier house that survives, in part, in the form of the wings (alae) and a doorway. The plan of the House of the Vettii has two large central halls (atria) and, significantly, lacks an office space (tablinum). Entry to the house was gained from the east by way of a vestibule that granted admission to the larger atrium. The stone-lined basin for collecting rainwater (impluvium) lies at the center of the atrium. This larger atrium communicates directly with the peristyle (an open courtyard surrounded by fluted Doric columns) by means of a set of folding doors. The smaller atrium was the focus of the service portion of the house, while the peristyle and its well-appointed rooms were meant for entertainment and dining. Wall paintings Frescoes in the atrium, House of the Vettii, Pompeii The decorative schema of the House of the Vettii provides important evidence for trends in domestic decoration in the final years of Pompeii's occupation. Since Pompeii suffered a major earthquake in 62 C.E. that caused significant destruction, the chronology of the wall paintings and other decorations in the House of the Vettii has been a topic of debate since the house's discovery. Most art historians point to the house's decorative schema as being representative of a key transitional phase, between the Third and Fourth styles of Pompeian wall painting. Some scholars consider it among the finest examples of the Fourth Style at Pompeii. Paul Zanker sees the Fourth Style wall paintings as being imitations of higher art forms, reckoning that the chosen pictures aim to turn the rooms into picture galleries (pinacothecae). The atrium is richly decorated, as are the rooms opening onto the peristyle. Two of these were in the course of being painted at the time of destruction, while the other three are richly appointed with Fourth Style wall painting. The largest of these, a dining room, is decorated in panels of red and black with an exceptionally fine motif of erotes or putti (mythological winged gods associated with love) engaged in various occupations (image below). The central panel pictures that were likely set into the walls do not survive. Overall the scheme of wall painting in the house of the Vettii suggests an attempt at forward-looking interior decoration on the part of the owners.

Icon of the Madonna and Child ("Salus Populi Romani"), Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome (10th century?) [Byzantine Empire]

Gold used bc the reflective surface creates a play of light reflecting and making it seem heavenly, Icon serves as a window to the heavens, to an other world

Late Classical Greece

In the late classical period (400? 300 BC) there was increased emphasis on the expression of emotion in art. Sculptural works attributed to Praxiteles are characterized by elegance of proportion and graceful beauty.

Virgin and Child (aka "Virgin Hodegetria") (12th century) [Byzantine Empire]

Saint luke the icon painter Was contemporary with mary and jesus, was an icon painter, many regarded as original paintings from saint luke, no historical record of this though None that old He was thought to be a saint, so icons by Saint luke could do things, micales and magic, miraculous power Gold used bc the reflective surface creates a play of light reflecting and making it seem heavenly, Icon serves as a window to the heavens, to an other world

Harvesting Grapes, mosaic decoration in ambulatory vault of Mausoleum of Constantina (later Church of Santa Costanza) [Early Christian]

Style and mosaic decorations are very Roman Show the harvesting of grapes, symbol of Bacchus, indication that early christians borrowed from Roman motifs, can remind you of Jesus Christ, wine is a potent symbol for sacrifice of blood-Jesus shed blood. Grapes used as a symbol in Chrsitianity