Art 187

Mihrab

(Islam) a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the direction of Mecca

Halo

(in paintings, etc.) a circle of light shown around or above the head of a holy person

Abbey at Cluny [Romanesque]

(located in Southern Burgundy, France) started modestly enough—the first church being a relatively simple barn like structure. However, Cluny quickly grew to be home to the largest church in Christendom—a title it would hold for over 200 years. An abbey can refer to a Christian church, but the term generally goes beyond that to refer to the grouping of buildings that constitutes the housing and other necessary buildings for a society of Christian monks or nuns who were all living under a specific religious rule In the case of Cluny, the rule the monks lived under was that of Saint Benedict of Nursia, who had, in the 6th century, advocated a life divided between prayer, rest, study, and work. A gift from William I, Duke of Aquitaine The site of abbey originally belonged to William I, Duke of Aquitaine and was home to his favorite hunting box (a hunting lodge for use during the hunting season). In the Middle Ages, a duke (the highest ranking member of the nobility) often wielded much more power and authority than a king (this was in part because the dukes held sway over the provinces, and power was decentralized). Dukes were often wealthier than the king toward the end of his life, William I gave up the home, lands, and hunting rights (and several other parcels of land as well), so that charitable institutions could be built The land that would become Cluny was placed into the hands of a venerable monk named Berno, who would become Saint Berno of Cluny. Cluny I Berno was the abbot of the newly founded Cluny from 910 to 925. The monastery was created to be a reform order that strictly adhered to the Rule of Saint Benedict.* Cluny sought to reform monastic life by returning to the Western monastic traditions of previous centuries which focused on peace, solitude, prayer, and work Importantly, William I of Acquataine, endowed the abbey with something more than land—he gave it independence. As a result, the abbey answered directly to the pope and did not have to obey any other dictates, or taxation, from local lords. This would help Cluny to become a wealthy center of the arts. The first abbey at Cluny (Cluny I, which no longer exists aside from archaeological remains) developed quickly—becoming akin to small town, boasting over 200 monks. It was laid out in the style of the Saint Gall Plan—a large-scale architectural drawing of the "ideal" abbey that was created in Switzerland around 800 C.E. To our knowledge, no such abbey ever actually existed, but many abbeys appear to have been modeled on the plan—Cluny being one of them. The cloister (a quadrangular walkway where monks would stroll in meditation), is generally regarded as the spiritual center of an abbey. The Saint Gall plan places it literally in the center, and the other buildings, for example, workshops, domestic quarters, etc., surround it. Cluny II the first church at Cluny was likely not much more than a simple place of worship. However, as the order prospered, something larger and more illustrious was called for. Soon after the passing of Berno, a monk named Odo took over as his successor and continued to expand the abbey. The second incarnation of the church at Cluny (Cluny II) was begun just decades after the first. What we know of it is largely speculative—based on written records and excavations. This second iteration (plan, left) sported a narthex (an enclosed area at the entrance of a church) with two towers in the west, a choir (the area between the main body of church and the altar) with a tower and chapels in the east, in addition to the main basilica form. The choir had chapels in echelon, or stepped out one after the other—one of the first examples of an architectural form that would become extremely popular. It also had a projecting transept (which cuts perpendicularly across the main body of the basilica) The church consisted of an illuminated barrel vault, not unlike that still in existence at Saint Philibert at Tournus, Cluny's neighbor That abbey, and a few others in Burgundy, had been experimenting with the barrel vault. It is good to remember that the work of these builders was largely trial and error. From what we are given to understand, this was very much in keeping with the Romanesque style of the region. As Cluny I and II no longer exist, much of what we have to go on comes from extensive excavation studies Romanesque architecture is known for its regional styles—the look and feel of Romanesque churches could vary widely from region to region. Burgundy and the pilgrimage churches were particularly important influences on the style that would develop into Gothic. Gothic architecture began to take on a more "International," style, sharing characteristics from region to region where Romanesque churches varied largely depending on their location and the local building practices. The only thing that almost all Romanesque churches shared was the use of the rounded stone barrel vault. The nature of a barrel vault, which exerts continual lateral pressure, is not conducive to piercing the supporting walls with windows, so barrel vaulted structures tend to be poorly lit. At Tournus—and likely Cluny II—the builders tried to circumvent this by placing small windows above the arcade. This was the first example of an illuminated vaulted church. Cluny III Tower, Cluny Abbey (Cluny III), 12th-century, Saône-et-Loire, Burgundy, France Cluny had a series of strong abbots, and Hugh of Semur was one of that line. He waited until he had been in that position for 40 years before beginning construction on the monumental project that would be Cluny III. It is thought he was intent on observing the latest trends—seeing what worked and what didn't—before embarking on this great building project. Cluny III seems to have been built with the idea of plucking the best attributes from what had been created before and synthesizing them into a grandiose structure worthy of the prestigious order It was not completed until 1130 (Hugh the Great died in 1109,) and when it was complete it stood as the largest in Europe—with five aisles The structure was built from a combination of brick and ashlar (stone) which had hitherto been part of two separate traditions. In many ways, the church laid out was the same as its popular Pilgrimage Route cousins. In addition to the spacious basilica with five aisles, it had two transepts, an ambulatory, and radiating chapels at the east end. The crossings were surmounted by octagonal towers (above) with additional towers over the transept arms. Plan and elevation of the church of the abbey of Cluny III (Burgundy, France) from an engraving of 1754 While only the foundation and some other bits and pieces remain, scholars have reconstructed what the interior would have looked like as well (below). Composed of a three story elevation consisting of slim aisles with pointed arches, blind arcade with three arches in each bay and a triple clerestory In many ways Cluny III followed, at least in plan, that of a colossal pilgrimage church and there are those who speculate that in fact Cluny was intent upon trying to compete with those medieval moneymakers. The abbey was in fact paid for in large part by money seized from Spanish Muslims who had been conquered by their Christian counterparts. While William would help found many other monasteries, none would be so prosperous as Cluny. At its height Cluniac congregations numbered at over 1000. Berno was actually given the power to be the abbot of many abbeys, not just Cluny, and his successor, Odo, also began to gather more abbeys under Cluny's rule. As one might imagine, this idea was not popular given these other abbeys were used to their own systems of rule. But the situation did help expand Cluny into the powerful institution it would become; it would be from Cluny that a number of Popes would be plucked. However, despite the Cluniac movement being a reform movement itself, by late 11th century another breakaway group had formed—the Cistercian movement and, like Cluny, it would be highly successful At the time of the Cistercian schism, the Cluniac order was suffering from corruption and excess (too much interest in things of the material world). A far cry from its devout beginnings! *The foundation of the physical church of Cluny was the beginning of the Cluniac, or Benedictine Reforms. Theoretically, all Roman Catholic monks were meant to follow three simple rules set out hundreds of years earlier by Saint Benedict of Nursia. Essentially these precepts could be boiled down to peace, prayer and work. Cluniac monks also observed the traditional eight Benedictine hours of the Divine office: Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline. Some of the most delightful (and still intact), artwork of Cluny III are the capitals representing the tones of the Gregorian chant, or plainsong.

Charlemagne

800 AD crowned by the Pope as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from northern Spain to western Germany and northern Italy. His palace was at Aachen in central Europe ​Charlemagne, King of the Franks and later Holy Roman Emperor, instigated a cultural revival known as the Carolingian Renaissance. This revival used Constantine's Christian empire as its model, which flourished between 306 and 337. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and left behind an impressive legacy of military strength and artistic patronage. Charlemagne saw himself as the new Constantine and instigated this revival by writing his Admonitio generalis (789) and Epistola de litteris colendis (c.794-797). In the Admonitio generalis, Charlemagne legislates church reform, which he believes will make his subjects more moral In the Epistola de litteris colendis, a letter to Abbot Baugulf of Fulda, he outlines his intentions for cultural reform. Most importantly, he invited the greatest scholars from all over Europe to come to court and give advice for his renewal of politics, church, art and literature. Carolingian art survives in manuscripts, sculpture, architecture and other religious artifacts produced during the period 780-900. These artists worked exclusively for the emperor, members of his court, and the bishops and abbots associated with the court. Geographically, the revival extended through present-day France, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Charlemagne commissioned the architect Odo of Metz to construct a palace and chapel in Aachen, Germany. The chapel was consecrated in 805 and is known as the Palatine Chapel. This space served as the seat of Charlemagne's power and still houses his throne today. The Palatine Chapel is octagonal with a dome, recalling the shape of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy (completed in 548), but was built with barrel and groin vaults, which are distinctively late Roman methods of construction. Is perhaps the best surviving example of Carolingian architecture and probably influenced the design of later European palace chapels. Charlemagne had his own scriptorium, or center for copying and illuminating manuscripts, at Aachen. Under the direction of Alcuin of York, this scriptorium produced a new script known as Carolingian miniscule. Prior to this development, writing styles or scripts in Europe were localized and difficult to read. A book written in one part of Europe could not be easily read in another, even when the scribe and reader were both fluent in Latin. Knowledge of Carolingian miniscule spread from Aachen was universally adopted, allowing for clearer written communication within Charlemagne's empire. Carolingian miniscule was the most widely used script in Europe for about 400 years. Figurative art from this period is easy to recognize. Unlike the flat, two-dimensional work of Early Christian and Early Byzantine artists, Carolingian artists sought to restore the third dimension. They used classical drawings as their models and tried to create more convincing illusions of space.

Mosque

A Muslim place of worship

Clerestory

A row of windows in the upper part of a wall.

Gothic

A style of architecture developed in northern France that spread throughout Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries

Cult of the Virgin Mary

A surge in veneration of the mother of Jesus beginning in the twelfth century that seemed to portend a change in how women were regarded as religious and moral beings.

Matthew in the Coronation Gospels and Ebbo Gospels (800-810 and 816-35 CE) [Carolingian Empire]

According to legend, the Vienna Coronation Gospels (c. 795) were discovered in Charlemagne's tomb within the Palatine Chapel in the year 1000 by Otto III; the emperor had apparently been buried enthroned, that is, sitting up, with the Gospels in his lap. A gospel book is a book containing the books of the four evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, who each offer their story of Christ's life and death. The manuscript is clearly a luxury object, written in gold ink on purple-dyed vellum. Characteristic of the Carolingian Renaissance, the artists of the Coronation Gospels were interested in the revival of classical styles, which effectively linked Charlemagne's rule to that of the 4th century ancient Roman emperor Constantine. The classical style is evident in the poses and clothing of the four evangelists, or Gospel writers, who recall images of ancient Roman philosophers. Charlemagne probably had this Gospel book made before he was crowned emperor. It is such an impressive book that it was used in imperial coronation services from about the twelfth to the sixteenth century. Following the creation of the Coronation Gospels, the Ebbo Gospels (c. 816-35) are most famous for their distinctive style in contrast to contemporary Carolingian illuminated manuscripts. The Ebbo Gospels were made for Ebbo the Archbishop of Rheims, which was one of the major sites for manuscript production at the time. While the author portraits in the Ebbo Gospels (images of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) are consistent with the elements of classical revival (e.g., modeling of figures to make them appear three-dimensional, gradation of the sky, the architecture and furnishings), the style in which the images of the Ebbo Gospels are executed is a notable departure. The brushwork of the author portraits can be described as energetic, expressionistic, even frenzied. The artist remains attentive to the use of highlighting and shadow to create three-dimensional forms, but does so with textured rather than smooth modeling, which creates an effect of movement. This energy is conveyed not only in the brushwork, but also in the composition itself. In the Ebbo Gospels, Matthew is hunched over as if frantically writing on his (still blank) codex, while Matthew's posture in the Coronation Gospels is more upright and relaxed; his pen grazes his chin, as if he is pausing in thought. The furniture of the two portraits is very similar in appearance—though the seat in the Coronation Gospels seems to be a folding chair, while that of the Ebbo is a more-sturdy stool. However, the posture of the Coronation Matthew is stable in contrast to that of Ebbo. For example, his right foot rests on the frame of the miniature and his left is flat on the base of his book stand. This miniature is composed of several 45- and 90-degree angles that create a sense of stability and balance. In contrast, the lines in the Ebbo Gospels' Matthew are dynamic and lack the same sense of equilibrium. For instance, Matthew's right foot in particular is positioned on the steep, almost vertical, angle of his footrest. Furthermore the book stand is tipped at such a drastic angle that it seems his book will slide right into the viewer's lap. The energy is also expressed in Matthew's face, which is drawn up in a furrowed brow. While the Coronation Matthew seems to take a peaceful moment of reflection, the Ebbo Matthew appears to be in anguish over his writing (image below), which is directed by his evangelist symbol, the winged man, who instructs him from the upper right hand corner of the image. Lastly, it should be noted that the Ebbo Gospels bear some similarities to the infamous Utrecht Psalter which was also made in Rheims at the Benedictine abbey of Hautvillers around the same time (a psalter is a volume containing the Biblical Book of Psalms, often with other devotional material bound in). The images of the Utrecht Psalter are unpainted drawings in brown ink, which are also clearly meant to invoke the style of Late Antiquity. While the sketchy character of the Utrecht Psalter is not quite as dramatic as that of the Ebbo Gospels, the similarity in style can be seen especially in the classical architecture and the rendering of the winged man at the top of the evangelist's portrait. Left: Saint Matthew from the Coronation Gospels (Gospel Book of Charlemagne), c. 800-810, ink and tempera on vellum (Kaiserliche Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna); Right: Saint Matthew from the Ebbo Gospels (Gospel Book of the Archbishop of Reims), c. 816-35, ink and tempera on vellum (Bibliothèque Municipale, Épernay) What do these 2 images suggest about the prestige of the written word of the bible? How is the viewer supposed to understand that these portraits of St Matthew identify him as an author of a very special sort, as opposed to more ordinary scribes? Saint Matthew from the Coronation Gospels (Gospel Book of Charlemagne) Has halo, shows his divinity Is shown as an important figure and author of the text Saint Matthew from the Ebbo Gospels (Gospel Book of the Archbishop of Reims), Words are shown originated from heaven and are communicated by the angel in the corner Looks very concentrated Frazzled and exaggerated drapery, get a sense of physical intensity, that he is electrically charged, drapery is animated around his body Supernatural art CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAROLINGIAN PERIOD: Emphasis on material richness Emphasis on 3d Styles from ancient rome and greece

Hieratic scale

An artistic technique in which the importance of figures is indicated by size, so that the most important figure is depicted as the largest.

Cathedral of Cologne, Germany (1248-1880) [Gothic]

Archbishop Reynald von docile brought an incredible treasure from italy The bones of the 3 wise men Relic required an extraordinary home of worship so they build on the cities most spiritual site Over 1800 years of church use in area 1880 was completed Gothic architecture Level of detail inside is overwhelming High ceiling Stained glass Provides setting to worship the golden reliquary of the 3 wisemen Flying buttresses supporting the enormous walls Spitting gargoyles at the edges of the cathedral that frightened the visitors in medieval times On the inside they see all the angel figures, gold and the paradise symbols Inside roof is supported by cutting edge technology, metal construction Still reconstruct the cathedral to maintain it, will never stop Extreme unpresidential scale and length of time taken to create Relic inside: Shrine of the three kings

Duccio di Buoninsegna, Madonna and child Enthroned (1285) [Gothic]

Artists in Italy looking back to the previous era's in the history of art, Gothic based on Byzantine MAJOR FEATURES OF GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: A greater influence of Roman antiquity in architecture and sculpture Limited influence of gothic architectural features seen elsewhere in Europe Newfound influence of byzantine icons in painting The development of the altarpiece as a major feature of churches Italo Byzantine Style Is this an Icon? Flatness, elongation of figures, stylization, gold >>directly influenced by Byzantine icons, Functions of the altarpiece repeat the functions of icons of the Byzantine Empire Religious images seen as ok because... Icons provide the images of the people to which you are praying, not praying to the representation of the person but the representation is a means by which you are able to access and pray to the divine A way of storytelling for illiterate people

Nicola Pisano, pulpit for the Baptistery, Pisa (1260) [Gothic]

Baptistry in Pisa, in famous location where the leaning Tower of Pisa is Baptistry is In front of the Cathedral of Pisa Where baptisms would be performed, a place where essentially the individual through baptism was welcomed into the christian community of that city Usually richly decorated places because of their importance Inside The Pulpit, where priest would stand to deliver sermons Multicolored columns with capitals Above capitals are these figures of virtues and above are relief shows narratives from the life of christ Reliefs are separated by small columnettes Figure of fortitude, one of the virtues representing the virtue of strength and fortitude. Doesn't look romanesque or gothic, is extremely influenced by classical antiquity both in how it looks and what it means. Is hercules shown by lion and classical stance. Stand in contrapposto, attention to human anatomy and naturalism of shifting twisting of the body and musculature. Classical figure and subject matter. Seeing a rediscovery of classical antiquity in various ways Moving strongly away from gothic and romanesque traditions Upper part of the pulpit, the relief representing the life and death of christ The adoration of the Magi, shows the three kings coming to visit the newly born christ and the Virgin Mary who sits in a chair Classicizing aesthetic moving away from romanesque and gothic style evident in reliefs Monumental heavy figure, big folds of drapery, although some stylization is found you can tell that it is influenced by classical antiquity Pisa influenced by classical antiquity, a part of their history, classical antiquity made up the fabric of Pisa itself More expressionist and emotional faces of figures, naturalistic in physical appearance and psychological aspects of the sculpture

Abbey Church of Saint-Denis (1140-1144 CE) [Gothic]

Basilica of San Denis Suger, the abbot in the first half of 12th century Burial place of royal family Chior is space behind church Ambulatory is the aisle that would take one behind the altar Had been a 9th century church that he felt was inadequate for the burial place of kings Wanted to create a architectural style that would express the growing power of the monarch Opened up the space allowing light to come in, opposed to the previous style Instead of looking like walls pieced by small windows, he figured out how to engineer this structure in stone...so that the walls could basically disappear and be replaced by glass, colored glass that lets luminous color into space How he did it Cultured web of interlocked vaulting above, pointed arch pointing up not needing heavy walls, instead thin walls Pull toward vertical Vaulting rests on columns Different from previous solid romanesque Heaven on earth How can one transport us to a more heavenly spiritual place, he believed light could do this Divinity of light, how it is connected to the divine, open up walls "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material. And, in seeing this light, is resurrected from is former submersion"--Abbot Suger Wanted to open up those walls and allow in the light that would allow a type of thinking on the part of the visitors where they would move. From the contemplation of the light to god Different from other theological theories being established by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, who's saying that we have to get rid of all the decorative, of everything that will distract us Suger is saying however that we can transport people, the visual is not a distraction but a way of transporting us to the divine What are the most significant similarities and differences between Gothic and Romanesque church architecture? Gothic church characteristics Use of stain glass windows Arches that instead of being rounded at the top, are pointed More elongated, taller structure Thinner walls Takes romanesque arch, gives it a point, makes it taller, and makes the columns that support it thinner Increase in size and number of windows A more open free flowing air and atmosphere A more luminous interior Romanesque is thicker, larger solid, fewer windows, darker, mysterious mood Emphasis on a intricate webbing of ribs Critics say... More concerned with its own wealth than serving the need of its people Worship of materiality rather than of the divine

San Clemente, Rome (1099-1119 CE) [Romanesque]

By 12th century Rome was a shadow of former imperial self Pilgrims still came through in recognition of Rome's status as the home of the pope and the burial place of apostles and the Early Christian martyrs, but the city itself had shrunk dramatically inside the old Roman walls. Rome was regularly sacked by invaders, including the Holy Roman Emperor, a northern noble supposedly appointed to protect Europe's Christians. It was also damaged by battles between the city's most powerful families. For parts of the twelfth century, two popes, each chosen by a rival faction, concurrently claimed to lead the Western Church. Nonetheless, the city was gripped by a spirit of religious renewal that led patrons to rebuild several of its important churches. Romans were so proud of their city's Christian past and current status as the capital of Western Christianity that these new buildings often closely copied the early churches they replaced. located in the heart of medieval Rome Ex of faithful copying Rebuilt in the early twelfth century on the site of an Early Christian house church, using the existing basilica church already on the site as its foundations. The builders mimicked the earlier church in almost every way, copying its nave, aisles, arcades (arches) with columns made from Roman spolia, clerestory windows, a simple apse, and an open wooden roof (now hidden by an ornately decorated ceiling). They departed from the earlier model only by making the new structure slightly narrower and inserting piers halfway down the nave. An old fashioned schola cantorum—the choir enclosure where the men or boys who sang the words of the services would sit—is located in the middle of the church. At one time every Roman church would also have had a similar set of raised ambos (lecterns), a towering pedestal for the paschal candle, and rows of seats facing each other so that the choir could sing in alternation between each prayer and reading. decoration of the church also looked back to earlier precedents. The artists of the apse mosaic adapted the pagan and Christian motifs found in Late Antique and Early Christian mosaics and sculptures still visible in Rome. On a field of gold, a luxuriant, leafy, flowering scroll springs from a base of acanthus leaves. Naked, winged cherubs ride dolphins or play instruments among the branches, baskets of fruit spring from their ends, and shepherds herd sheep and milk goats in the landscape below. Below the cherubs Early Christian church fathers teach and serve. Grafted onto this bucolic scene are explicitly Christian themes . Between the shepherds, peacocks, geese, ducks and deer lap up the healing waters from the four rivers of Paradise. At the center, Jesus hangs on a cross studded with twelve doves, symbolizing the apostles. At the base, twelve sheep walk from miniature depictions of the walled cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem towards an apocalyptic lamb with a crossed nimbus (below). An inscription at the bottom explains, "We liken the Church of Christ to this vine that the law causes to wither and the Cross causes to bloom." On the spandrels of the arch, the prophets Saint Clement and Saint Lawrence and the apostles associated with Rome, Peter and Paul, wear the anachronistic uniform found in medieval depictions of holy figures: the chiton, himation and sandals worn by ancient aristocrats. With the flanking figures, the mosaic argues that the Western Christian church, based in Rome, is more powerful than the secular forces that had recently sought to control it. And like the church of San Clemente itself, it demonstrates that, despite the precarious political situation in Rome during this time, its inhabitants looked to publicly display the city's status as the center of Western Christianity. Romanesque renewal of the structures and architecture of ancient rome. Decorations look early christian and roman as well. Is distinctly christian but is within ancient patterns seen in previous roman architecture

Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Catholic Church located on the site of Jesus' cruxifiction, burial, and resurrection. Jerusalem

Carolingian Empire

Charlemagne's empire; covered much of western and central Europe; largest empire until Napoleon in 19th century The Carolingian Empire- "Renovatio Romano Imperii" Founded by Charlemagne ("Charles the Great") in 768 CE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAROLINGIAN PERIOD: Emphasis on material richness Emphasis on 3d Styles from ancient rome and greece

Christ's Passion

Christ's Passion--the events leading up to his crucifixion and death

Virgin and Child of Jean d'Evroux (1324-39) [Gothic]

Commissioned by Charles IV, King of France, for his wife Jean d'Evroux Given to the Abbey of Saint Denis Reliquary; holds relics of the virgin Mary Cult of the Virgin Mary in the West How do you know this is a work of gothic sculpture? What specific features does it share with other works of art studied for today's class? Intense focus on rich materials S curve Rich evocation of drapery Graceful elegance of figures Reminds us of the gothic architecture Weightlessness S curve resolving into a kind of symmetry Pomegranate= symbol of Christ's resurrection Held by Jesus Prefiguring/foreshadowing the fact that when Jesus becomes an adult he will die and then be resurrected Whole narrative of life of Christ is here Box on which they are standing Includes distinct narrative images of mary and Christ Tells the story of the life of mary Starting with the annunciation and then going onto the life and death of Jesus christ ENAMEL technique of art I know that this is a work of gothic sculpture because of the many features it shares with the other works of art studied for today's class. This unknown work resembles the jamb figures on the Reims Cathedral as well as the scenes of Mary on the right portal of the Amiens Cathedral. Both the jamb figures and the ones in the unknown appear classical looking, showing realism seen in ancient Greece and Roman sculptures. Similar to the classical style of the parthenon sculptures, here we see clinging drapery and attention to the bodies below the drapery. This unknown is also similar to the jamb statues in the way that it includes the tell tale gothic feature of a figure having a sway in the hip. In addition, the Christ child in the unknown resembles the sculpture of gabriels seen in the annunciation sculpture on the Reims Cathedral in the way that both figures appear with delicate curls in the that were characteristic to Gothic sculpture at the time. Alike the depictions of Mary seen on the Amiens portal, the figure in this unknown is rendered as elegant and naturalistic, with the drapery falling naturally in folds that appear 3D

Devotion

Complete dedication to a cause or person

Cathedral of St. James, Santiago de Compostela, Spain. 1078-1122 [Romanesque]

Cross shaped plan Basilica plan Perfect symbolism Basilica plan with a cristian cross Romanesque churches have a more defined pathway around the perimeter because they are adapted to the function of pilgrimages coming through without interrupting the service

Miniature of Christ's side wound and instruments of the Passion, from the Prayer Book of Bonne of Luxembourg (before 1349)

Deluxe medieval devotional books used images and texts together to produce compelling, spiritual experiences for their readers. One particularly dramatic image confronts the reader from the pages of a book made for a woman, Bonne of Luxembourg, in the French royal family. In the center of the parchment page, on a blue field teeming with scrolling golden vines, the instruments used to torture Christ during the Passion stand arranged for the viewer's inspection. In the center, filling the composition from top to bottom, is a gaping, disembodied wound. Framed with an almond-shaped ring of white flesh, the bright orange-red tones of torn flesh deepen in color closer to the irregular, vertical brown gash in the center. This is the spear wound created in Christ's side after his death on the cross, isolated for the pious reader's contemplation. Shown at what medieval Christians believed to be actual size (about 2 inches), the wound dominates the composition while the miniature instruments of torture that surround it seem to fade into the background. Along with the text (a prayer describing Christ's suffering), and the manuscript's lively margins, this graphic painting worked to engage viewers in emotional contemplation of Jesus' sacrifice. In the Middle Ages, this powerful image was meant to orient pious readers' attention to Christ's body and the physical suffering he endured to ensure their salvation. This emphasis on Christ's body is part of a larger trend in late medieval devotion known as affective piety, in which compassion for Christ's suffering held the key to salvation. The change in the wound's orientation from a diagonal slit to a vertical opening and the isolation of the wound as an almond-shaped device transform it into an image strongly reminiscent of medieval representations of the vulva and the vaginal opening. This association of Christ's side wound with female reproductive organs has connections with mystical writings that eroticized the body of Christ and that emphasized its nurturing and generative qualities. The Manuscript Context Although we often think of paintings today as freestanding, portable objects, paintings in medieval books were not meant to be isolated from their manuscript context. When closed, Bonne's prayer book measures just over five inches high—smaller than an adult's hand. This small size distinguishes personal prayer books from books sized for display. Deluxe prayer books like Bonne's were status symbols, but they were also intimate, personal objects that facilitated direct communication with God. The image of Christ's side wound is one of fifteen miniatures distributed among the 334 folios of the prayer book. Each miniature introduces and illustrates the themes of the manuscript's most important texts. The miniature of the wound comes in the midst of the final text, focusing on Christ's experience on the cross. This text opens with a miniature of the crucified Christ showing his side wound to two kneeling figures: Bonne and her husband, the future French king John the Good. Viewed in sequence, the miniature with the crucified Christ instructed Bonne (personally!) where to focus her devotional attentions, while the miniature of the wound three folios later provided her direct, visual access to it. The wound provides a dramatic climax to the prayer and the book. Mysticism and Queer Readings Devotion to Christ's side wound emerges from late medieval Christian mysticism, writings by monastic men and especially women articulating their personal, visionary, and ecstatic experiences of the divine. In mystical writings, Christ's body often takes on feminine qualities, becoming permeable, generative, and nourishing. Catherine of Siena's biography records a vision in which Christ nourishes the mystic from his side wound, an encounter that is simultaneously maternal and erotic: "With that, he tenderly placed his right hand on her neck, and drew her towards the wound in his side. 'Drink, daughter, from my side,' he said, 'and by that draught your soul shall become enraptured with such delight that your very body, which for my sake you have denied, shall be inundated with its overflowing goodness.' Drawn close in this way, ... she fastened her lips upon that sacred wound, ... and there she slaked her thirst." Images of the side wound and the mystical tradition from which they emerge have provided fertile material for scholars engaged in "queering" the Middle Ages. Queering means questioning assumptions of heterosexual and cisgender normativity in the past, providing a critique of modern scholarship in the process. The image of the side wound, like Catherine's vision, grants feminine bodily attributes to Christ, destabilizing assumptions about his gender. In mystical images and texts, Christ's capacity to transcend the gender binary, like his capacity to transcend the binary of life and death, underscores his divinity. Christ is not the only figure within medieval culture to transgress the gender binary. Echoing the eroticism of Catherine's vision, medieval readers' interactions with their devotional books could be very intimate, including the touching or kissing of images, and other images of the wound of Christ show paint loss from readers' pious stroking of the paint. Such devotion to Christ's side wound further destabilizes presumptions of heterosexuality in medieval and much modern thought. With its focus on touch and penetration, the devotion of men and women alike to Christ's side wound had the capacity for queer connotations. The ragged, parted lips of Christ's wound carried many meanings for their medieval viewers, from the pleasures of being enveloped in divine love to protections in childbirth. we can see in this imagery a potential model for same-sex desire in the Middle Ages. Such models are crucial for the study of sexualities in a period when homosexual relationships, especially between women, were rarely acknowledged in mainstream texts or conversations. When references to homosexuality do appear in medieval art, it is often framed as a sin, as in the representations of "sodomy" in moralized bibles. Still, more subtle, positive references to homosexual identities may be found. Artists, Patrons, and Owners While the content of images and texts alike would have been planned by a devotional adviser, the paintings are attributed to Parisian illuminator Jean le Noir and his workshop, which by 1358 included his daughter, Bourgot, in a prominent role. The commercial book shops of the late Middle Ages were collaborative, often family enterprises, with men and women of different generations working side-by-side. Three artists' hands have been identified within the manuscript, though it is not possible to know which belonged to Jean, Bourgot, or other workshop members Jean le Noir's workshop specialized in the grisaille style of painting first popularized among the royal patrons of France during the previous generation by illuminator Jean Pucelle . The Prayer Book of Bonne of Luxembourg looks back both in style and in content to the miniature prayer book Pucelle made for an earlier queen of France, Jeanne d'Évreux, between about 1324 and 1328. While the imagery of Bonne's prayer book brought her into intimate contact with God, its style connected her with the royal French line. These connections were carried forward by Bonne's children, particularly Jean de Berry, who around 1371 commissioned a prayer book with the same Passion texts as his mother's from the now elderly Jean le Noir. These stylistic, thematic, and textual traditions across generations speak to the complex dynamics of transgression and normativity within medieval manuscript patronage at the highest levels. Image meant to inspire worship to Christ Wound itself tells us a lot about religious devotion at the time Just by having a wound shows that the focus was on the physical harm done to christ All of the corruptions of christ's body Also encouraged just from a single wound to reconstruct the entire full scale body of Jesus Idea is in your mind, when you reflect on Christs passion you can reimagine Christ's entire body

Last Judgment, tympanum, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun (1130-46 CE) [Romanesque]

Doorway image of the Last Judgement, the most terrifying image. Shows the damned in hell and heaven. Christ sits as judge over those who will be divided into the Saved and the Damned. Made to make people fear hell One of the first monumental sculptures to be made in the medieval period Major pilgrimage routes to see relics Offer blessings Might shorten time in purgatory Church build specifically to house the remains of Saint Lazare Brother of Mary Magdalene About rebirth, life after death Economic prosperity that surrounded certain relics Image serves as text, a way of reading and telling story Christ is flat, linear, elongated, frontal, symmetrical, divine figure who stares out in judgement Sits on throne that is the city on heaven Full body halo surrounds christ representing his divinity Four angels surround him, assuring him forward. Their bodies are elongates and twisted, expressiveness On chris left are the damned going to hell, on right are the blessed who have been selected for heaven On christ's right at the top is the virgin mary enthroned in heaven, angel next to her blowing a trumpet to awaken the dead and to announce the coming of christ Concern with the decorative See the architecture of heaven itself, angels assisting the blessed into heaven Souls represented as nude figures Figure of St Michael is weighing souls and a demon trying to tip the scale trying to get more souls for hell Literal representation of weighing of souls---Morality has gravity in some way Figures to right being pulled up by hooks by demons who look ravenous and scary, images of horror Inscription below them: "may this terror terrify those whom earthly error binds for the horror of these images here in this manor truly depicts what will be" They have no doubt that this is what will happen Tympanum itself is the half circle itself Lintel below shows the people waiting for judgement, sarcophagus at their feet, emerging from their tombs. Incredibly expressive bodies and facial expression Inscription: "Gislebertus made this"--unusual referring to the sculptor himself? In medieval period artists were seen as craftsmen and not individual geniuses so object were not signed Perhaps is the name of a duke who brought the bones to the church

Mamluk glass oil lamp (c.1350-1355) [Islamic]

Figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects, artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts. The geometric patterns seen in this lamp are also seen in works studied for today's class such as the Mihrab from Isfahan and in decorations seen throughout The Alhambra. Another thing that these geometric decorations did is show the complex talent of Islamic scribes. This lamp also resembles the Folio from a Qur'an (9th century CE) in regard to the Arabic inscriptions seen on the lamp, the dimensions of the space seem to be precisely calculated and well thought out in an aesthetic way. Translation of inscription on upper part comes from Qur'an Reads "God is the light of the heavens and the earth. His light is as a niche wherein is a lamp, the lamp in a glass, the glass as a glimmering star" (Qur'an Surah 24:35) Includes writing and geometric patterning, the two fundamental aspects of islamic art Color blue has many associations in the islamic world, significance, geographic specificity to the eastern regions of the islamic world Three major aspects of art Writing Geometric patterning Figural representation In christian tradition there is a prohibition of the making of images, in islam they had the same rule but they were more strict No figural representation Prohibition of the making of figural imagery Not normal to see Text gives aesthetic quality, beautiful and visually pleasing The Qur'an is represented in such a beautiful fashion Why are these texts so important? Believed to be the direct word of god passed down to Mohammed, the text itself is holy Uncorrupted divine Directly holy Geometric patterning From high tech mathematics What is significant of it Geometry also comes down from god, looking at the edesign patterning that god uses to design heaven and the blueprint that god used when creating everything, reveals the existence and talent of god Shows god as the one force that created everything It too is divine Would have seen the lamp glowing, makes manifest God Dazzling and shimmering quality that becomes the presence of god Mystical thing that islamic art shares with the byzantine empire Mosaic decoration Use of light to create a divine experience

Dome of the Rock (691-92 CE) [Islamic]

Sitting atop the Haram al-Sharif, the highest point in old Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock's golden-color Dome and Turkish Faience tiles dominates the cityscape of Old Jerusalem and in the 7th century served as a testament to the power of the new faith of Islam. The Dome of the Rock is one of the earliest surviving buildings from the Islamic world. This remarkable building is not a mosque, as is commonly assumed and scholars still debate its original function and meaning. Between the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632 and 691/2, when the Dome of the Rock was completed, there was intermittent warfare in Arabia and Holy Land around Jerusalem. The first Arab armies who emerged from the Arabian peninsula were focused on conquering and establishing an empire—not building. The Dome of the Rock was one of the first Islamic buildings ever constructed. It was built between 685 and 691/2 by Abd al-Malik, arguably the most important Umayyad caliph, as a religious focal point for his supporters, while he was fighting a civil war against Ibn Zubayr. When Abd al-Malik began construction on the Dome of the Rock, he did not have control of the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in Islam, which is located in Mecca. The Dome is located on the Haram al-Sharif, an enormous open-air platform that now houses Al-Aqsa mosque, madrasas and several other religious buildings. Few places are as holy for Christians, Jews, and Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif. It is the Temple Mount, the site of the Jewish second temple, which the Roman Emperor Titus destroyed in 70 C.E. while subduing the Jewish revolt; a Roman temple was later built on the site. The Temple Mount was abandoned in Late Antiquity. At the center of the Dome of the Rock sits a large rock, which is believed to be the location where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Ismail (Isaac in the Judeo/Christian tradition). Today, Muslims believe that the Rock commemorates the night journey of Muhammad. One night the Angel Gabriel came to Muhammad while he slept near the Kaaba in Mecca and took him to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in Jerusalem. From the Rock, Muhammad journeyed to heaven, where he met other prophets, such as Moses and Christ, witnessed paradise and hell and finally saw God enthroned and circumambulated by angels. The Rock is enclosed by two ambulatories (in this case the aisles that circle the rock) and an octagonal exterior wall. The central colonnade (row of columns) was composed of four piers and twelve columns supporting a rounded drum that transitions into the two-layered dome more than 20 meters in diameter. The colonnades are clad in marble on their lower registers, and their upper registers are adorned with exceptional mosaics. The ethereal interior atmosphere is a result of light that pours in from grilled windows located in the drum and exterior walls. Golden mosaics depicting jewels shimmer in this glittering light. Byzantine and Sassanian crowns in the midst of vegetal motifs are also visible. The Byzantine Empire stood to the North and to the West of the new Islamic Empire until 1453, when its capital, Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Turks. To the East, the old Sasanian Empire of Persia imploded under pressure from the Arabs, but nevertheless provided winged crown motifs that can be found in the Dome of the Rock. Wall and ceiling mosaics became very popular in Late Antiquity and adorn many Byzantine churches, including San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Thus, the use of mosaics reflects an artistic tie to the world of Late Antiquity. Late Antiquity is a period from about 300-800, when the Classical world dissolves and the Medieval period emerges. The mosaics in the Dome of the Rock contain no human figures or animals. While Islam does not prohibit the use of figurative art per se, it seems that in religious buildings, this proscription was upheld. Instead, we see vegetative scrolls and motifs, as well as vessels and winged crowns, which were worn by Sasanian kings. Thus, the iconography of the Dome of the Rock also includes the other major pre-Islamic civilization of the region, the Sasanian Empire, which the Arab armies had defeated. Scholars used to think that the building enclosing the Rock derived its form from the imperial mausolea (the burial places) of Roman emperors, such as Augustus or Hadrian. However, its octagonal form and Dome more likely referenced earlier local churches. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem was built to enclose the tomb of Christ. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Dome of the Rock have domes that are almost identical in size; this suggests that the elevated position of the Dome of the Rock and the comparable size of its dome was a way that Muslims in the late 8th century proclaimed the superiority of their newly formed faith over Christians. Rather than looking to the monuments of Rome, which was now far less important than Constantinople and Jerusalem, these local buildings may have been more important models. The Dome of the Rock also contains an inscription, 240 meters long, that includes some of the earliest surviving examples of verses from the Qur'an - in an architectural context or otherwise. The bismillah (in the name of God, the merciful and compassionate), the phrase that starts each verse of the Qu'ran, and the shahada, the Islamic confession of faith, which states that there is only one God and Muhammad is his prophet, are also included in the inscription. The inscription also refers to Mary and Christ and proclaims that Christ was not divine but a prophet. Thus the inscription also proclaims some of the core values of the newly formed religion of Islam. It also demonstrates the importance of calligraphy as a decorative form in Islamic Art. Below the Rock is a small chamber, whose purpose is not fully understood even to this day. For those who are fortunate enough to be able to enter the Dome of the Rock, the experience is moving, regardless of one's faith. Grabar describes this symbolic function of the Dome of the Rock with respect to three key points: 1.) the land that it occupies (pages 49-54) (hint: the location of the Dome of the Rock was deliberately chosen because of its associations with other important events in Jewish history) Two explanations for it's construction 1 Since a counter caliph Ibn al-Zubayr was in possession of Mekkah, the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik built a sanctuary in Jeruselem in order to divert pilgrims from Arabia proper by establishing the Palestinian city as the religious center of Islan. The plan for the Dome of the Rock, with 2 ambulatories around the rock itself, originated with the liturgical requirements of the tawaf, the ritual of circumambulating the Kaaba seven times as part of the hajj in Mecca, one of the high points of Muslim pilgrimage. 2 Involved with the complex exegesis of 17.1 of the Koran "Glorified be He who carries His servant [Muhammad] by night from the masjid al-haram [Mekkah] to the masjid al-aqsa [the farthest place of worship]." As early as the middle of the 8th century, the biographer of the Prophet, Ibn Ishaq, connected this Night- Journey with the ascension of Muhammed, and claimed that the masjid al-aqsa was in fact Jerusalem and that it was from Jerusalem that the Prophet ascended into heaven. Ya'qubi mentions the fact that the Rock in the Haram al-Sharif is "the rock on which it is said that the Messenger of God put his foot when her ascended into heaven" It might be suggested that the Dome of the Rock was built as a sort of Martyrium to a specific incident in Muhammed's life. Arguments strengthened by the similarities of its architecture to Christian sanctuaries in or around Jerusalem, one of which commemorated the ascension of Christ Is little justification for assuming that the Koreanic reference to the majid al-aqua in its own time in any way meant Jerusalem. Many places are holy Next to Dome of the Rock is the qubbah al-mi'raj, the domed martyrium of the Ascension. Incomplete textual evidence, cannot provide us with an explanation for the purpose of being built, must turn to internal evidenceL its location, architecture, decoration and the 240 meter long inscription inside the building Shown that at the time of construction, the rock was not considered as the place from whence Muhammed ascended into heaven Why chosen as the center of the structure? Any evidence of interpretation of the Rock or its surroundings either then or between the conquest and the building of the Dome Exact function of the Rock is till a matter of conjecture While the Haram was without a doubt the site of the Solomonic Temple, no definite Biblical reference to the Rock exists Have not been able to find definite evidence of an important liturgical function of the Rock in the Jewish Tradition In Medieval times however, Mount Moriahin general and the Rock in particular were endowed in jewish legend with a complex mythology. In Jewish tradition, the Rock and the surrounding area acquired mystical significance as the site of the Holy of Holies and became associated with a series of legends involving major figures of Biblical tradition, especially Abraham and Issac. Such then appears to be the situation at th time of Muslim conquest: the jewish tradition considered the Haram area as the site of the Temple and the place of Abraha's sacrifice and Adam's creation and death, while the Christian tradition had moved the latter two to a new site In these texts then, the Rock, together with the Whole Haram area, appears primarily as a symbol of the Jewish Temple, by the Rock itself was not taken into any particular consideration by Umar. It may be the Umar was merely looking for a large area on which to build a mosque and that Sophronius used Haram's Jewish background to persuade the caliph to build the mosque in the empty space of the Haram. But it is perhaps more likely, in the face of the enormous impact of Jewish traditions on early Islam and specifically on Umar at the time of the conquest of jeruselem, that the caliph was genuinely interested in reviving the ancient Jewish holy site, inasmuch as it has been the first muslim qiblah. At any rate, the Muslims took over the Haram area with a definite knowledge and consciousness of its significance in Jewish tradition, but with very few clear Muslim associations In building anew on the Temple area, even though in primitive fashion, the Muslims committed a political act: taking possession for the new faith of one of the most sacred spots on earth and altering the pattern imposed on that spot by the Christian domination, without restoring it to its Jewish splendor. In all these undertakings the Rock itself played but a minor part 60 years after the conquest of Jerusalem, the rock became the center of the whole area, why? Consider location and other traditions associated with it, 2 possible solutions can be envisioned, since neither the Ascension of Muhammad nor the immitation of the Ka'bah can be accepted. Possibly Abd al-Malik decided to commemorate the Jewish Temple and therefore built a sort of ciborium over what was thought to be the only tangible remnant of the structure Muslims might have brought back to the Rock and to Mount Moriah in general the localization of some biblical event of significance to them, for instance the sacrifice of Abraham It is plausible that partly under the impact of the numerous Jewish converts who flocked to the new faith, there was an agreed association between the rock and Abraham To muslim eyes this would have emphasized the superiority of Islam, since in the Koran Abraham is neither Christian nor a Jew but a holy man and the first muslim, By granting abraham;s importance in early islamic thought and in the traditions associated witht he Rock, Abd al-Malik's building would have had an essentially polemic and political significance as a memorial to the Muslim ancestor of the three monotheistic faiths From consideration of the location of the Dome of the Rock, thin it would appear that although at the time of the conquest the main association was between the Jewish temple and the Haram area, this association does not in itself explain the fact of the building. It is only throught he person of Abraham that the ancient symbolism of the Rock could have been adapted to the new faith, since no strictly Muslim symbol seems to be connected with it at so early a date. No more than a suggestion, no clear cut indication of Abraham's association with the Rock of Jerusalem at the time Question remains whether the monument should be undersoof within a strictly Muslim context or within the wider context of the relationship between the new state and faith and the older religions of the near east. For jews thought it was the location of the temple of solomon/ the whaling wall Where jesus was crucified/entombed 2.) the depictions of jewels and crowns in the mosaic decoration (pages 55-58) (hint: these are not merely decorative) Decoration and architecture... The architecture confirms a symbolic quality of place of commemoration for the Dome of the Rock but does not provide any clue for its meaning at the time of Abd al-Malik. Dome is a ciborium or reliquary above a sacred place, a model daily common among Christian martyria throughout the christian world, and which was strikingly represented by the great churches of jerusalem itself Most of the decorative themes of the mosaics consist of vegetal motives interspersed with vases, cornucopias, and what have been called "jewels" Jewel decor appears almost exclusively on the inner face of the octagonal colonnade and of the drum. The difference between this part of the mosaic decoration and rest lies not in a jewellike effect but in the type of jewels used. It may be suggested that these actual crowns, bracelets and other jeweled ornaments were meant to surround the central holy place toward which they face, and it is in this sense that they contrast with the purely decorative gemlike fragments throughout the building These ornaments can all be identified either as royal and imperial ornaments of the Byzantine and persian princes, witht he former largely predominant, or as the ornaments worn by christ, the virgin, and saints in the religious art of Byzantium. They were all symbols of holiness, wealth, power, and sovereignty in the official art of the Byzantine and Persian empires. The Dome of the Rock witnesses a conscious use of symbols belonging to the subdued or to the still active opponents of the Muslim state Crowns and jewels served to emphasize the holiness or wealth of a sanctuary or personage by surrounding it with royal insignia perhaps under the influence of Chrisitian sanctuaries of jerusalem Concrete meaning as royal insignia DOES NOT account for the inclusion of a persian crown within the decorative scheme In islamic times a series of objects was brought to the holy place, the most important group of objects in terms of the Dome of the Rock are the ones sent by al-Ma'mun These objects in the Ka'bah can be divided into 3 categories, so expensive gifts whose purpose was to emphasize the holiness of the place and the piety of the donors; just as in Byzantinum these were preponderantly royal jewels. Another category need not concern us is the statement of oaths, which were put in the sanctuary not to enhance its holiness but to acquire holiness and sacredness from it. The thirds group of objects were used to symbolize the unbeliever's submission to Islam through the display of his Herrschaftszeichen, or symbols of power, in the cheif sanctuary of Islam, and as such had an uplifting value to the beholders One can argue that The crowns and jewels reflect an artistic theme of byzantine origin which in an Islamic context also used royal symbols in a religious sanctuary to emphasize the sanctuary holiness That the choice of byzantine and Sasanian royal symbols was dictated by the desire to demonstrate that the unbelievers had been defeated and brought into the fold of the true faith Mosaics Explanations occur on a series of parallel levels Internal, the islamic explanation Explaination that realtes the building to non muslim monuments and funtions Accidental level, at which mosaic decoration is simply meant to be beautiful (3) the inscriptions from the Koran on the inside (described on pages 58-62) (hint: the passages chosen have a particular audience in mind) Rich with inscriptions, each containing koreanic passage, word of god Invites us to pray East gate bears inscription dealing with faith and a long prayer for the prophet and his people 3 basic characteristics of these quotations The fundamental principles of islam are forcefull asserted, All 3 inscriptions point out the special position fo the prophet muhammad and the importance and universality of his mission The koreanic quotations define the position of Jesus and other prophets in the theology of the new faith, with emphasis on Jesus and mary The main inscription ends with an extortion, mingled witht he threat of divine punishment Inscriptions are unique of the Dome of the Rock Has double implication Has a missionary character...it is an invitation to submit to the new and final faith which accepts christ and the hebrew prophets as its forerunners An assertion of the superiority and strength of the new faith and of the state based on it From a Muslim pov, the Dome of the Rock was an answer to the attraction of Christianity and it's insripction provided the faithful with arguments to be used against Christian positions. 2 major themes had to be present in the construction It must have had a significance in relation to jewish and Chrisstian beliefs. The first major Muslim piece of architecture had to be meaning ul to the follower of the new faith Themes reoccur in the analysis of the 3 types of evidence provided by the building itself Its location can be explained as an attempt to emphasize an event of the life of Abrahan either in order to point to the Muslim character of a personage equally holy to Christians and jews or in order to strengthen the sacredness of Palestine against mekkan claims Th inscriptions are at the same time a statement of Muslim unitarianism and a proclaimation to Christians and jews, especially the former, of the final truth of islam It is in the inscriptions that we find the main ides of the building, the inscription forcefully asserts the power and strength of the new faith and of the state based on it. Wanted to affirm the superiority and victory of Islam The building should be related not so much to the monuments whose form ti took over, but to the more general practice of setting up a symbol of he conquering power of faith within he conquered pland The one purely islamic feature of the inscriptions were for the most prart in places that were hardly visible, the buildings main purpose was to be a monument for non muslims Demonstrate to the christian population that Islam was there to stay

Nicholas of Verdun and workshop, Shrine of the Three Kings, Cologne Cathedral, Germany (c.1190-1210) [Gothic]

Found in the choir of the Cologne cathedral, this shrine is made up of three sarcophaguses, two next to each other and one on top. All parts of the shrine are covered and create a basilica-like shape The shrine itself is made out of wood but is plated with precious metals such as silver, gold and countless precious jewels Work was begun in 1180 by Nicholas Verdun. The shrine is decorated to look like a roman basilica. Architectural features are seen throughout the entire object, including window-like looking jewels, arches, roofs and turmeaus. The shrine isn't just architectural, it also depicts several narrative scenes on its walls. On the east facing side, on the top sarcophagus is a depiction of Christ blessing the viewer. He is surrounded by two winged figures and two smaller figures in circles above him to his left and right. On the bottom two sarcophagus are two scenes, one of the Three Wise Men bringing offerings to Mary and her child in Bethlehem. The other scene to the right is Jesus being touched by a man while he gives him a blessing. On the sides of the sarcophaguses sit fourteen biblical characters, potentially saints, bishops, Jesus or the apostles. On the west side of the sarcophagus is a depiction of the crucifixion. In general, I believe the overall message of the narrative scenes on the sarcophagus is the theme of giving. Jesus was given gifts by the Magi and since they he was always seen giving back in the narrative scenes on the object. The Cologne cathedral was updated in order to house not only this object but the pilgrims who would eventually follow the object and travel to come see it. The shrine to the Three Kings is debatably the Cologne Cathedrals most prized relic (Huppertz, Andreas).

Allah

God of Islam

High Gothic

High gothic from earlier gothic... Exaggeration of all the features from earlier Taller, more elongated More exaggerated verticality Greater degree of ornateness, architectural detail Even more windows Emphasis on weightlessness Classic basilica plan--developed in a way that exaggerates their features Not a complete break of the Romanesque but more of an evolution of the Romanesque Pierced everywhere Weightlessness High gothic period characteristics Not far from Paris, the great gothic and high gothic churches form a circle around Paris This period in the 12th and 13th centuries was very different than France today The Capetian monarchy was founded in 987 by King Hugh Capet Expand their territory and increase their power One of the ways they do that is from cathedral building Desire to build roofing out of stone developed in the Romanesque reaches a kind of perfection during the gothic Developments in things like Flying Buttresses and the Groin vault that allows the gothic builder to build so tall and high, to piece the walls in the ways that he does, to allow light to enter the building All done in the service of the spiritual--to use light to create a space that represents heaven on earth Another feature typical of Gothic churches is located above the rose window-- the gallery of kings Interior elevation typical for a Gothic cathedral Nave arcade Pointed arches Above that a triforum Above that is the clerestory soaring with windows-- two tall lancet windows and above that a small rose shaped windows Idea of opening up as much of the wall as possible to the glass, which is difficult with stone vaulted ceiling weighing a lot Weight supported with standing piers and also exerted outside with the use of flying buttresses that allow for light to come into light unobstructed Ribbed groin vault HIGH GOTHIC Flamboyant gothic period

Cathedral, Bitonto, Italy (11th-12th century CE) [Romanesque]

How can you tell this is a Romanesque church in Italy? What distinguishes Romanesque architecture in Italy from those seen in the previous class period? Why do you think Italian Romanesque would look the way it does? Small windows Cross shaped plan Profusion of arches Heritage- romanesque structures tht emphasize to a greater degree, the sense of Romaness, the intensified use of roman columns and arches, exaggerated even What distinguishes this is that there is a closer connection between this and ancient roman architecture Paying closer attention to evoking those ancient roman architecture Acknowledgement of cultural heritage, carrying on tradition and keeping it alive Reused stones covered with inscriptions and sarcophagi imported from Rome are inserted seemingly at random: a testimony to the builders' desire to invent an ancient heritage for the building and demonstrate the wealth and power of Pisa.

Coppo da Marcovaldo, Crucifix (c.1250s-70s) [Gothic]

Stylized, simplification of features of the body Drapery seems patterned Flattened Gothic painting typical features Supposed to draw your devotional attention Make you moved Sense of devotion supposed to to heightened Adorn churches MAJOR FEATURES OF GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: A greater influence of Roman antiquity in architecture and sculpture Limited influence of gothic architectural features seen elsewhere in Europe Newfound influence of byzantine icons in painting The development of the altarpiece as a major feature of churches Italo Byzantine Style Is this an Icon? Flatness, elongation of figures, stylization, gold >>directly influenced by Byzantine icons, Functions of the altarpiece repeat the functions of icons of the Byzantine Empire Religious images seen as ok because... Icons provide the images of the people to which you are praying, not praying to the representation of the person but the representation is a means by which you are able to access and pray to the divine A way of storytelling for illiterate people

Chasse with Crucifixion and Christ in Majesty (ca. 1180-90) [Romanesque]

How do you know this is Romanesque? What do you think its function was? (In your response you must make specific connections to at least one of the works of art assigned to study for today's class.) Romanesque architecture is based on Roman architectural elements. It is the rounded Roman arch that is the literal basis for structures built in this style. Decoration uses geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers—squares or lozenges—and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches. The arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical—with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. These geometric patterns are seen in this unknown work of art as well as in the Church and reliquary of Sainte-Foy (12th century). Based on the fact that it is an object and not a building, I think that this object functioned as a Relic, a religious object that connected to a saint or some other venerated person. It resembles the Reliquary statue of Saint Foy in its gold and gem encrusted appearance. The figures depicted in this unknown object resemble those seen in the Last Judgment tympanum depicted in the Church of Sainte‐Foy. The figures in each are shown in a 3d, idolized, divine way that tells the story of the figures depicted. Material richness Like reliquary of Sainte-Foy Marriage of form and function Formal stylistic features of romanesque arches, meant to be the sites of pilgrimage Recognizes both the style and the function of the churches--for pilgrimages Depiction of arches on columns mimics romanesque architecture Bejeweled material richness signifies its own importance Function is to house pieces of the saint, this probably would have contained relics of Christ May have contained what was believed to be pieces of the cross of Jesus or other things like that Reliquaries take a variety of different forms

Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain. Begun 785 [Islamic]

Hypostyle floor plan of prayer mosque Southern Spain Meant to house large numbers of people Mihrab decorated with decorations and Koran inscriptions Also looks Byzantine Decorative motifs

Cathedral, Chartres (12th and 13th century) [Gothic]

In france Gothic architecture developed in the lle de France (historical province of france) Has the tunic that the Virgin Mary wore, when she gave birth to christ One part of a complex of buildings that included a school Early Gothic Stone vaulting The heavy stone exerts pressure down and outwards Tower on left and tower on right Top is the kings gallery, below a rose window-plate tracery, below are three large windows, portals below them Gothic portal parts: Top are sculptures within the archvolts Archway framed is called a tympanum Below that supporting the typana, is a lintel, a cross beam of stone Supported by small engaged columns, known as colonettes, that line each side of the three doors, jam figures attached Angled inward inviting us to enter Porch is shallow Doorways are funnels to the inside Tympanum Left: Christ before the incarnation and birth (before christ enters human time) Middle: Second coming of Christ (end of time) Right: Birth of Christ and presentation in the temple (christ enters human time) Figures abstracted, absurd, meant to look transcendent, very little sense of mass, emphasis on the linear, divine, sense of isolation from the figures beside it Cathedral long space based on the basilica plan West front is early gothic After fire the rest was rebuild Later gothic Interior elevation 3 part elevation Nave arcade Above is a triforium Above is a clerestory Collonetted soar up, interest in linearity typical of gothic architecture Divide into ribs that form the 4 part rib groin vaults One of the primary goals was to open up the building with windows and light giving a sense of the divine, weight Colorful windows making you feel like you are inside a jewel Transcendent experience to enter

Italo-Byzantine style

Italo Byzantine Style Is this an Icon? Flatness, elongation of figures, stylization, gold >>directly influenced by Byzantine icons, Functions of the altarpiece repeat the functions of icons of the Byzantine Empire Religious images seen as ok because... Icons provide the images of the people to which you are praying, not praying to the representation of the person but the representation is a means by which you are able to access and pray to the divine A way of storytelling for illiterate people

Gero Crucifix (965-970 CE) [Ottonian Empire]

Jesus looks more human than in the Lindau Gospels cover, he is painted, Tension in his body Closer connection to the physical suffering of Christ

Santo Stefano, Bologna (once believed to date to 5th century; actually from 11th and 12th centuries)

Medieval complex of churches in Bologna italy Supposed to replace jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem Has a round plan, has a replica of the burial place tomb of jesus Christ Allows pilgrims to go to Jerusalem without having to actually go, this is a replica, Part of the medieval pilgrimage industry

Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (1239-1248) [Gothic]

Once a part of the royal palace Royal chapel attached for the use of the king and his household Lower chapel used by the kings household Upper chapel used by the king, the queen and the court Niches on either side for the king and queen On the far end was a reliquary This was the whole point of the Sainte Chapelle The king Saint Louis had obtained one of the great relics of Chirisendom, the Crown of Thorns Part of the passion of christ The passion: Christ's suffering and the events leading to the crucifixion Saint Louis delivers the Crown of Thorns to Sainte Chapelle Relics incredibly important in medieveal culture Brings christ into our immediate experience Performed miracles Entire chapel functions metaphorically as a reliquary for the Crown of Thorns More than ¾ of building made of glass Lancet windows sour up point our eye to heaven Ribbed groin vaults Bundled colonettes (small columns, grouped together) that make the masonry feel more delicate Masonry has been reduced to almost nothing, mullions: vertical bars between glass In 13th century, beyond the high gothic in a period called the Rayonnat Emphasis on thin line and the total opening up of the walls to windows Goals of gothic architecture taken to an extreme Over west door is a huge rose window--typical feature of gothic architecture but stone tracery is now thinner and more attenuated and complex Windows tell stories, each window refers to either an old or new testament story or a story referring to the acquisition of the relic Window representing the moment when christ has the crown of thorns placed on his head Dense with imagery Have sculptures of the apostles that stand between the windows Are quatrefoils(four lobed shape) that depict scenes of martyrdom Angels in the spandrels, some holding crowns, some swing censors Mystical space Imager So much of surface is painted We forget that it is made of stone A testament to the sophistication of gothic architecture during this late period Tall and thin building Being held up Buttresses are responsible for bearing the weight of the stone building All weight brough outside Buttresses kept small though in order to ensure the entrance of enough light LAteral force of roof is pushing outward and these buttresses would not have been enough on their own Added structural element to help support the building: iron rods that act like a kind of girdle to counter the thrust of the vaulting down and out Exterior of the building looks rather like a crown Looking up you see gables and buttresses and gables that alternate Style and ornateness of architecture is a direct reflection of its function as a place to house the reliquary: housing the crown of thorns reliquary

Dome in front of the mihrab, Great Mosque, Cordoba (965 CE) [Islamic]

Organic geometric shape Plant like motifs made into geometric pattern Qur'an script shown

Pilgrimage

Our religious European counterparts who, prior to the year 1000, believed the Second Coming of Christ was imminent, and the end was nigh. When the apocalypse failed to materialize in 1000, it was decided that the correct year must be 1033, a thousand years from the death of Jesus Christ, but then that year also passed without any cataclysmic event. Just how extreme the millennial panic was, remains debated. It is certain that from the year 950 onwards, there was a significant increase in building activity, particularly of religious structures. There were many reasons for this construction boom beside millennial panic, and the building of monumental religious structures continued even as fears of the immediate end of time faded. This period also witnessed a surge in the popularity of religious pilgrimage. A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place. These are acts of piety and may have been undertaken in gratitude for the fact that doomsday had not arrived, and to ensure salvation, whenever the end did come. The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela For the average European in the 12th Century, a pilgrimage to the Holy Land of Jerusalem was out of the question—travel to the Middle East was too far, too dangerous and too expensive. Santiago de Compostela in Spain offered a much more convenient option. To this day, hundreds of thousands of faithful travel the "Way of Saint James" to the Spanish city of Santiago de Compostela. They go on foot across Europe to a holy shrine where bones, believed to belong to Saint James, were unearthed. The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela now stands on this site. The pious of the Middle Ages wanted to pay homage to holy relics, and pilgrimage churches sprang up along the route to Spain. Pilgrims commonly walked barefoot and wore a scalloped shell, the symbol of Saint James (the shell's grooves symbolize the many roads of the pilgrimage). In France alone there were four main routes toward Spain. Le Puy, Arles, Paris and Vézelay are the cities on these roads and each contains a church that was an important pilgrimage site in its own right. Why make a pilgrimage? A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela was an expression of Christian devotion and it was believed that it could purify the soul and perhaps even produce miraculous healing benefits. A criminal could travel the "Way of Saint James" as an act of penance For the everyday person, a pilgrimage was also one of the only opportunities to travel and see some of the world. It was a chance to meet people, perhaps even those outside one's own class. The purpose of pilgrimage may not have been entirely devotional.

Bonaventura Berlinghieri, St. Francis Altarpiece (1235) [Gothic]

Painting on panel in Western Europe To place on or behind an altar Beginning in the 12th and 13th century Life size altarpiece Focus of religious meditation and prayer Depiction of the figure of Francis is a common height but is not a naturalist depiction Part of the purpose of this image is for his followers to show his saintliness, the miracles that he performed, to depict his as a person who is blessed by God Francis had been born into a prosperous family but as a young man he had had some kind of intense religious vision and he renounced his worldly possessions What was important for Francis and his followers was to live a life of poverty, to follow the example of Christ The order that follower by Fracis's teachings was a mendicant order, they lived by begging and lived in the relatively new cities that existed in Italy A moment of transition between the middle ages and what would eventually become the Renaissance In new cities of italy and elsewhere in europe, we have the beginning of the merchant class, the beginning of an accumulation of wealth which will help to power the Renaissance Convinced of Francis's spirituality Gold background--light of heaven Elongated Weightlessness Drapery hides the body Barefoot Symbols of his humbleness in the world, the way he renounces the worlds pleasures to live a life that was as close to christ as possible without possessions When he raises his hand and exposes his palm, you see the stigmata The wounds that christ received on the christ, miraculously appearing on Francis Apron scenes surrounding Francis Upper left he is kneeling in the wilderness, medieval style, praying to seraphim, has vision and receives stigmata in this moment Below is a moment of Francis preaching to the birds, preaching to the lowliest creatures resonated with Francis's message of preaching to the poor. The Franciscans and and other Mendicant orders would often build churches on the outskirts of the cities in order to reach the poor that lived at the cities edges Four remaining apron scenes are all representation of posthumous miracles, associated with francis after his death, have to do largely with healing the disabled or of a exorcism over moving demons. Scenes of him healing are meant to help identify him with Chrsit and the apostles and thereby also to convince us of his saintliness Painting that expresses a divine authority Byzantine Empire influence seen Italo Byzantine Style Is this an Icon? Flatness, elongation of figures, stylization, gold >>directly influenced by Byzantine icons, Functions of the altarpiece repeat the functions of icons of the Byzantine Empire Religious images seen as ok because... Icons provide the images of the people to which you are praying, not praying to the representation of the person but the representation is a means by which you are able to access and pray to the divine A way of storytelling for illiterate people

Church and reliquary of Sainte-Foy (12th century) [Romanesque]

People in the Middle Ages took pilgrimages for many reasons. Visiting a holy site meant being closer to God. And if you were closer to God in this life, you would also be closer to God in the next. Located in Conques, the Church of Saint-Foy (Saint Faith) is an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. It is also an abbey, meaning that the church was part of a monastery where monks lived, prayed and worked. Only small parts of the monastery have survived but the church remains largely intact. Although smaller churches stood on the site from the seventh century, the Church of Saint-Foy was begun in the eleventh century and completed in the mid-twelfth century. As a Romanesque church, it has a barrel-vaulted nave lined with arches on the interior. It is known as a pilgrimage church because many of the large churches along the route to Santiago de Compostela took a similar shape. The main feature of these churches was the cruciform plan. Not only did this plan take the symbolic form of the cross but it also helped control the crowds of pilgrims. In most cases, pilgrims could enter the western portal and then circulate around the church towards the apse at the eastern end. The apse usually contained smaller chapels, known as radiating chapels, where pilgrims could visit saint's shrines, especially the sanctuary of Saint Foy. They could then circulate around the ambulatory and out the transept, or crossing. This design helped to regulate the flow of traffic throughout the church Before they got inside, an important message awaited them on the portals: the Last Judgment. This scene is depicted on the tympanum, the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal. In the center sits Christ as Judge, and he means business! He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Immediately on Christ's right are Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other saints. Below these saints, a small arcade is covered by a pediment, meant to represent the House of Paradise. These are the blessed, those have been saved by Christ and who will remain in Paradise with him for eternity. At the center, we find Abraham and above him notice the outstretched hand of God, who beckons a kneeling Saint Faith On the other side of the pediment, a row of angels opens the graves of the dead. As the dead rise from their tombs, their souls will be weighed and they will be admitted to heaven or hell. This is the scene that we see right under Christ's feet—you can see the clear division between a large doorway leading to Paradise and a terrifying mouth that leads the way to Hell. Inside Hell, things aren't looking very good. It is a chaotic, disorderly scene—notice how different it looks from the right-hand side of the tympanum. There is also a small pediment in the lower register of Hell, where the Devil, just opposite to Abraham, reigns over his terrifying kingdom. The devil, like Christ, is also an enthroned judge, determining the punishments that await the damned according to the severity of their sins. In particular, to the devil's left is a hanged man. This man is a reference to Judas, who hanged himself after betraying Christ. Just beyond Judas, a knight is tossed into the fires of Hell and above him, a gluttonous man is hung by his legs for his sins. Each of these sinners represents a type of sin to avoid, from adultery, to arrogance, even to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy who lived in Conques as well. Arches were structurally sound and also associates it with the pinnacle of western civilization of ancient rome, not letting ancient rome entirely die The reliquary The reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy, a young Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century. At the age of twelve, she was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods, she is therefore revered as a martyr, as someone who dies for their faith. Saint Foy was a very popular saint in Southern France and her relic was extremely important to the church; bringing pilgrims and wealth to the small, isolated town of Conques. While the date of the reliquary is unknown, Bernard of Angers first spoke it about in 1010. At first, Bernard was frightened that the statue was too beautiful stating, "Brother, what do you think of this idol? Would Jupiter or Mars consider himself unworthy of such a statue?" He was concerned about idolatry—that pilgrims would begin to worship the jewel-encrusted reliquary rather than what that reliquary contained and represented, the holy figure of Saint Foy. Indeed, the gold and gem encrusted statue would been quite a sight for the pilgrims. Over time, travelers paid homage to Saint Foy by donating gemstones for the reliquary so that her dress is covered with agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, garnets, hematite, jade, onyx, opals, pearls, rubies, sapphires, topazes, antique cameos and intaglios. Her face, which stares boldly at the viewer, is thought to have originally been the head of a Roman statue of a child. The reuse of older materials in new forms of art is known as spolia. Using spolia was not only practical but it made the object more important by associating it with the past riches of the Roman Empire. The Church of Saint Foy at Conques provides an excellent example of Romanesque art and architecture. Although the monastery no longer survives, the church and treasury stand as a reminder of the rituals of medieval faith, especially for pilgrims. Even today, people make the long trek to Conques to pay respect to Saint Foy. Every October, a great celebration and procession is held for Saint Foy, continuing a medieval tradition into present day devotion.

Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Reims, France (begun 1211) [Gothic]

Pierced everywhere Weightlessness High gothic period characteristics Not far from Paris, the great gothic and high gothic churches form a circle around Paris This period in the 12th and 13th centuries was very different than France today The Capetian monarchy was founded in 987 by King Hugh Capet Expand their territory and increase their power One of the ways they do that is from cathedral building Desire to build roofing out of stone developed in the Romanesque reaches a kind of perfection during the gothic Developments in things like Flying Buttresses and the Groin vault that allows the gothic builder to build so tall and high, to piece the walls in the ways that he does, to allow light to enter the building All done in the service of the spiritual--to use light to create a space that represents heaven on earth For both romanesque and gothic churches we have a west front which has three entrances generally that reflects the interior of the church, called portals Reflects the interior bc the central doors enter into the largest part of the building--the nave, while each of the side doors open up into the side aisles Beginning in the Romanesque period we see figures on either side of the doorway and above the doorway in a space called a tympanum The figures on either side are called jamb figures because they are attached to the door jams Surrounding the tympana, almost like amplification of the shape are archivolts radiating out, funnel that draws the visitor in At Reims, instead of sculpture, we have stained glass in the tympana---The sculpture that we would expect to see in the tympanum is now above that in the gambled spaces above the archivolts Reduced the stone that holds the glass windows in place to very fine tracery Glass has even been added around the stone itself allowing even more light in On either side of the rose widow are two enormous towers, pierced throughout them so that light pours through them and they seem delicate Another feature typical of Gothic churches is located above the rose window-- the gallery of kings A row of Old testament kings who are understood as the ancestors of Christ According to the new testament, Christ traced his lineage back to the house of King David, the Tree of Jesse At center of the kings is Clovis being baptized, crowned in 481, consolidated the Frankish kingdom Is a cathedral where the coronation ceremonies took place, Where the kings of france received their divine inspiration and power Animated jamb figures, tilt head, move bodies, seem alive, realism Larger than lifesize Sculptures are stylistically different All would have been painted The visitation Some classical looking, ancient greece and rome inspiration, clinging drapery, like parthenon sculptures, attention to bodies below the drapery, contrapposto, sway in hip though is a tell tale sign that it is gothic In early gothic sculpture when we had jam sculptures, there was a very close association between the figures and the columns behind them. But here the figures seem to have nothing to do with the columns behind them, they are independent from them, a sense of freedom from the architecture so that we almost read these as freestanding sculptures The annunciation Pair contrasts with the classicism of the visitation Figures different from each other Mary seems simple, earlier gothic style little sense of body under drapery, calm facial expression Gabriel to mary's right, other worldly anatomy, the head is small, body is lyrical, carving is delicate, mary seems earthly in comparison, very elongated, angelic smile, puffing of the skin around eyes, delicate curls of hair are things seen in other sculptures during this time period Joseph carved in style similar to the angel Figure in center on the trumeau which supports the lintel, Very typically gothic sculpture of mary holding the christ child, supporting him on her hips with that sway of drapery, as a reminder that this church was closely associated with the capetian monarchy she wears a crown--is an immediate association between temporal and divine power. On interior Interior elevation typical for a Gothic cathedral Nave arcade Pointed arches Above that a triforum Above that is the clerestory soaring with windows-- two tall lancet windows and above that a small rose shaped windows Idea of opening up as much of the wall as possible to the glass, which is difficult with stone vaulted ceiling weighing a lot Weight supported with standing piers and also exerted outside with the use of flying buttresses that allow for light to come into light unobstructed Ribbed groin vault At bottom are large piers visually made lighter by the addition of the engaged columns called collenettes that rise up for the entire length of elevation to the center of the vaulting Groin vault in the intersection of 2 barrel vaults, Romanesque was in love with taking a Roman arch and extending it in space to create a barrel vault. When you intersect two barrel vaults you get a groin vault, curved egg shape, allows weight to come down on two points instead of continuous walls that allows one to open up the space Here the vaulting is 4 part and at the intersection of those 4 parts is ribbing that was an important architectural innovation that allows for much of the work of holding up the building to be taken by that ribbing rather than that webbing in between Ribbing created linear decorative pattern The linear is seen everywhere in the interior Beautiful decorative passages that are foliate Foliage is a reminder of how important the natural world was becoming during the Gothic period. A time of renewed interest in nature, focused moments of naturalism in medieval sculpture Architecture is purposefully using light as a symbolic expression of the divine, architects are weaving light into the very fabric of the building to give us a sense of the heavenly What distinguishes this cathedral from others during this period if that we are missing so much of the original stained glass due to WW1 Walking back toward the entrance Sculpted wall with dozens of figures in small niches that surround the rose window, screen frames each of the 3 portals Subjects on the interior west front reflect the subjects on the exterior portals Figures show the complex relationship between the spiritual and temporal power, between the church and the king King coming here to be crowned by the archbishop, sense in which the archbishop is empowering the king, but the king once he's anointed during the coronation ceremony becomes god's vehicle on earth to protect and care for his kingdom Do have this almost co equal powers during the middle ages Shown in figures of Melchizedek and Abraham Vehicle of the church for our salvation

Mihrab from Isfahan (1354-55 CE) [Islamic]

Prayer niche Direction pointer indicating where you are supposed to be praying to In islamic faith you are supposed to pray five times a day and pray towards Mecca All mosques in the world are set up to do this Have this Mihrab in a wall which is known as the Qibla Wall and that faces towards mecca, oriented towards it...not religious edifice that stands before it unlike a church Would pray not pray towards this niche but instead to the direct that this niche was set Mecca was the home of prophet Muhammed, lived there until 620 when he was forced out and he went to Medina, had a courtyard oriented towards Mecca in Medina May have been based off an archway of the courtyard in his Medina home His house was the civic center, moscs are too not just religious spaces but also cultural centers of social activity Moscs hold a political and social place in the islamic world This particular Mihrab From city of Isfahan Brilliant blues distinct to the entire city that would have shimmered Would have been a part of a school, people enrolled in theology would come to pray and hear a sermon...sermon not needed because it is written into the tile itself Quran is word of god Outer frame script is fluid and beautiful appearing to almost be an abstraction Outer part of the Mihrab has a much harder edged script, more geometric, Kuthic script, one of the most well known scripts in the islamic world. Stands out bc of blue on white as opposed to white on blue like the rest of the niche Lists the 5 pillars of islam Confession of faith Zakah (alms) Salah (prayer) Hajj (pilgrimage) Ramadan (fasting) Constant reminder of what you must achieve Third area in niche, low, visible when one was praying, reminder that you should be contemplative but also invoking Muhammad tha he is the kind of beakon to which all muslims should be looking to live their lives "The prophet, peace be upon him, the Mosque is the dwelling place of the pious"

Romanesque

Romanesque architecture is based on Roman architectural elements. It is the rounded Roman arch that is the literal basis for structures built in this style. When Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 C.E., Europe began to take its first steps out of the "Dark Ages" since the fall of Rome in the fifth century. When Charlemagne wanted to unite his empire and validate his reign, he began building churches in the Roman style-particularly the style of Christian Rome in the days of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor. architects of Charlemagne's day looked to the arched, or arcaded, system seen in Christian Roman edifices as a model. These early examples may be referred to as pre-Romanesque because, after a brief spurt of growth, the development of architecture again lapsed. As a body of knowledge was eventually re-developed, buildings became larger and more imposing. Examples of Romanesque cathedrals from the early Middle Ages (roughly 1000-1200) are solid, massive, impressive churches that are often still the largest structure in many towns. In Britain, the Romanesque style became known as "Norman" because the major building scheme in the 11th and 12th centuries was instigated by William the Conqueror, who invaded Britain in 1066 from Normandy in northern France. The arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical—with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. There is a large arcade on the ground level made up of bulky piers or columns. The piers may have been filled with rubble rather than being solid, carved stone. Above this arcade is a second level of smaller arches, often in pairs with a column between the two. The next higher level was again proportionately smaller, creating a rational diminution of structural elements as the mass of the building is reduced. Decoration is often quite simple, using geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers—squares or lozenges—and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches. Early Romanesque ceilings and roofs were often made of wood, as if the architects had not quite understood how to span the two sides of the building using stone, which created outward thrust and stresses on the side walls. This development, of course, didn't take long to manifest, and led from barrel vaulting (simple, semicircular roof vaults) to cross vaulting, which became ever more adventurous and ornate in the Gothic. The cult of the relic Pilgrims, though traveling light, would spend money in the towns that possessed important sacred relics. The cult of relic was at its peak during the Romanesque period (c. 1000 - 1200). Relics are religious objects generally connected to a saint, or some other venerated person. A relic might be a body part, a saint's finger, a cloth worn by the Virgin Mary, or a piece of the True Cross. Relics are often housed in a protective container called a reliquary. Reliquaries are often quite opulent and can be encrusted with precious metals and gemstones given by the faithful. A large pilgrimage church might be home to one major relic, and dozens of lesser-known relics. Because of their sacred and economic value, every church wanted an important relic and a black market boomed with fake and stolen goods. Accommodating crowds Pilgrimage churches were constructed with some special features to make them particularly accessible to visitors. The goal was to get large numbers of people to the relics and out again without disturbing the Mass in the center of the church. A large portal that could accommodate the pious throngs was a prerequisite. Generally, these portals would also have an elaborate sculptural program, often portraying the Second Coming—a good way to remind the weary pilgrim why they made the trip! A pilgrimage church generally consisted of a double aisle on either side of the nave (the wide hall that runs down the center of a church). In this way, the visitor could move easily around the outer edges of the church until reaching the smaller apsidioles or radiating chapels. These are small rooms generally located off the back of the church behind the altar where relics were often displayed. The faithful would move from chapel to chapel venerating each relic in turn. Thick walls, small windows Romanesque churches were dark. This was in large part because of the use of stone barrel-vault construction. This system provided excellent acoustics and reduced fire danger. However, a barrel vault exerts continuous lateral (outward pressure) all along the walls that support the vault. This meant the outer walls of the church had to be extra thick. It also meant that windows had to be small and few. When builders dared to pierce walls with additional or larger windows they risked structural failure. Churches did collapse. Later, the masons of the Gothic period replaced the barrel vault with the groin vault which carries weight down to its four corners, concentrating the pressure of the vaulting, and allowing for much larger windows.

Cathedral, Siena, Italy (1284-99) [Gothic]

Rounded arches like ancient rome Lace like delicate quality, lightness quality of gothic, ornate pointy detail adorned with precious metals like some of the reliquaries, it looks like the doors are bronze or gold MAJOR FEATURES OF GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: A greater influence of Roman antiquity in architecture and sculpture Limited influence of gothic architectural features seen elsewhere in Europe Newfound influence of byzantine icons in painting The development of the altarpiece as a major feature of churches

Shroud of Turin (probably manufactured in 13th or early 14th century)

Shroud of Turin still surrounded with mystery and passion "shroudies" -- people who believe that the 14'5'' x 3'7'' linen cloth, which bears an image of what appears to be the body of a man, is in fact the burial cloth of Jesus of Nazareth. At first glance, the rust-colored image of the man on the world's most famous strip of linen is faint, and almost cartoonish. It was this strange sight that drew pilgrims from the 14th century, when the "burial cloth of Jesus" first came to light in France. It was moved to Turin, Italy, in 1578, and has been attracting visitors to the northern Italian city ever since. The global Shroud phenomenon really took off in 1898 when amateur photographer Secondo Pia became the first person to photograph it. While developing the pictures, Pia realized that the photographic plate showed what appeared to be a perfect negative image of a bloodied and bruised man -- an image that could not be seen with the naked eye. Even before Pia's discovery, the Shroud was controversial. In 1390, Pierre d'Arcis, the bishop of Troyes, wrote to the Pope, declaring it a fake, designed to attract gullible tourists. Believers and skeptics have tussled over its origins ever since -- as the crowds continue to line up in Turin. With the discovery of the negative image, the stakes became even higher. Proponents of the Shroud still insist that the man in the image -- face swollen and bruised, hands and feet punctured by nails, and back scourged by Roman whips -- is Jesus Christ. Skeptics, however, say it's a clever medieval fake. Both sides claim they have evidence that backs them up and discount the research that points to the opposing view. Science should have had its final say in 1988, when radiocarbon dating established that the fabric of the shroud originated from 1260-1390AD. That should be case closed. But not only does the research into the Shroud continue; Christians and non-Christians alike continue to pile into Turin Cathedral to see the artifact. Not that they can see the Shroud itself. Instead, visitors can pay their respects at the dedicated chapel, the last on the left in Turin Cathedral, where the Shroud is kept hidden away. Because of its fragility, it's not generally on show to the public. Instead, it's laid out flat (to avoid damaging the material by folding it) in a custom-made glass case, which is itself inside a casket, draped in swathes of red material, and divided from visitors by bullet-proof glass. The Shroud is brought out for irregular "ostensioni," or showings, at the discretion of the Pope. On an average year when the Shroud is not on display, around 200,000 people visit the chapel annually, says the cathedral, although it's hard to be precise with numbers. Its popularity shows no sign of waning, despite the radiocarbon dating -- and despite the Catholic Church's refusal to pronounce officially on the Shroud. "Relics" are artifacts that the Church believes to be real, but the Shroud is not classed as a relic. Pope Francis has instead called it an "icon of a man scourged and crucified." So what is it that attracts pilgrims in vast numbers to the Shroud? After all, sandwiched between the Alps and the mountains behind Genoa, Turin isn't on any major tourist routes, and it has never been one of Italy's big-hitter destinations. In 2017, it was Italy's 13th most visited city Christopher French, a professor of psychology at Goldsmiths University in London and an expert in paranormal beliefs, calls the Shroud "a really interesting object" -- and he thinks its enduring appeal is partly down to the centuries that passed, its reputation growing, before it was radiocarbon dated. "Today the evidence is stacked up on the side of those who've long argued that it was a fake, but up until that point it was a genuine mystery, and for many it still retains that air of mystery," he says. "It's intriguing to look at -- it does look like a photo negative of a human form. And if you believe this is the shroud-wrapped body of Christ it has tremendous religious significance." French also points to the theory of "contagion" -- the idea that an object that has been in contact with a particular person can take on elements of their character. It's why we pay hundreds of dollars for an item owned by a pop star, and why nobody wants to live in the house of a murderer. By being close to something that might have touched the son of God is, for believers, a way of getting closer to divinity. French also says that "the strongest cognitive bias is confirmation bias. We find it much easier to find evidence that supports what we want to be true." So seeing the Shroud, which appears to match wound for wound the descriptions of Jesus' crucifixion, it's human nature to want to believe. He wrote that, of the 58 pollen specimens on the fabric, three quarters were from plants indigenous to the region of Palestine. Only 17 were from plants that are also found in France and Italy -- where the Shroud had been since its 14th-century "discovery." (Frei-Sulzer's research has been disputed by other experts, as all Shroud-related studies tend to be.) "The only plausible explanation is that the Shroud was in Jerusalem before it came to Europe," says Marinelli, who has seen it six times. For her, "the Shroud shows in a striking way the suffering endured by Jesus in his last hours of mortal life. "But it doesn't leave us sad. The image of serene composure... speaks to us of the resurrection, of a body that was not vanquished by death." Those who believe in its authenticity say that the carbon dating was wrong; that perhaps the samples were taken from a section of the cloth that had been reworked in the medieval period, or that a first-century earthquake in Jerusalem may have warped the results. (The carbon dating process destroys the sample, so retesting is impossible.) Opposing researchers bat studies back and forth. Some claim they've found traces of what might be 10th or 11th-century Byzantine coins on the material. Others insist the bloodstains aren't at the correct angle for a real crucifixion. There are claims the threads actually date from 300BC-400AD. Some say it was daubed in pigment and baked in an oven. Others claim it was made by a burst of UV light, since lasers are the only thing to come close to replicating it. "Science asks the questions: who, what, when, where, how. Religion asks, why? As long as people don't start confusing those questions and the appropriate evidence, you don't have a problem," In 1976, a colleague put the image of the shroud under a VP8 scanner, which converts image intensity into three-dimensional relief. "I was stunned, because the image of that body looked like a 3D realistic body shape -- normally images don't do that," he said. "Normally it would look distorted." In other words, 3D information is encoded in the shroud -- and when you put that information in a code-reader, it displays a 3D version of the Shroud -- a figure of a man. The VP8 pictures were, says Jackson, "the catalyst that triggered the scientific interest in the Shroud." Within two years, he'd put together a 30-strong team of scientists to study it -- and, astonishingly, the authorities in Turin gave them access to it. He says they had "absolute academic freedom to do the science we wanted to do." They spent five days collecting samples from the cloth, and spent the next three years testing them. In 1981, they published their report. They had found no pigments, paints, dyes or stains on the fibers. The image had 3D coding within it. There was no evidence of oils, spices or biochemicals. It was "clear" that the material had been in direct contact with a body -- but there was no explanation for the seemingly perfect image of the face. "The answer to the question of how the image was produced or what produced the image remains now, as it has in the past, a mystery," they concluded. "We can conclude for now that the Shroud image is that of a real human form of a scourged, crucified man. It is not the product of an artist... The image is an ongoing mystery." Indeed, the Shroud believers have their theories. David Rolfe's best bet is that over the years it's been grabbed, kissed and sweated on by the faithful, forming a bacterial sheen that dated the Shroud incorrectly. John Jackson says: "Take away the radiocarbon date and it looks like it could be first century. So is there anything unique giving us that 14th-century brief?" His "hypotheses" include carbon monoxide contamination -- just 2% of contamination could make a first-century shroud carbon date as a 14th-century one, he says. Shroudie Emanuela Marinelli believes that the carbon dating distracted people who would otherwise have believed in the Shroud's authenticity. Christians who don't believe it, she says, are acting "out of ignorance or because they've taken sides -- not for valid reasons." In 2018, along with Italian skeptic Luigi Garlaschelli, he did a Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) on the Shroud. Their results showed that the bloodflows shown on the material came from different angles -- in other words, it was not produced by a single body, either being taken from the cross or being laid out. "Looking at the bloodstains on the Shroud I don't see any sequence," Borrini tells CNN. "[My Christian] faith is not based on relics -- [it is] based on the Gospel where you believe without seeing," he says. "And don't forget the Church does not recognize the Shroud as a relic." Yet -- call it the lure of the Shroud -- despite his disbelief, Borrini has traveled to Turin to see it no fewer than three times. "Even though I know that it is an artifact, it's a very powerful one. There are lots of other artistic representations -- think of Michelangelo's Pietà [in the Vatican]. The Shroud isn't beautiful, but it's the meaning. I approached it, saw it as an archeological piece, but at the same time I was also thinking about what Christ's Passion and resurrection means for me." "The Shroud is a very powerful, shocking image, and it represents a very crucial aspect of the Christian faith -- the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. "I think people go [to Turin and Lourdes] with the same faith, but they're maybe pushed by different things." "It's absolutely not a question of saying [believers] are gullible," Christopher French is at pains to say. "If you believe this is the shroud-wrapped body of Christ, it has tremendous religious significance." So will the mystery of the Shroud ever be resolved? For Borrini, it already has -- it's conclusively a fake. But the believers and those on the fence say that until there's proof of how it was made, it's still up for discussion. Either way, the faithful will still flock to Turin. How the Black Plague turned the Shroud of Turin into a beloved relic Like sacraments, relics convene deeply personal encounters, wherein adherents touch Jesus and one another and connect to saints who lived many centuries ago While millions of believers hold the linen Shroud of Turin to be Jesus' actual burial cloth retaining his bodily imprint, Vikan sees it as "the greatest deception in the history of Christianity," he writes. But that doesn't matter. It's still a work of "artistic genius," said Vikan, capturing the impression of a body in the round in a single piece of cloth. Medieval Christians living through England's and France's 100 Years War and the Black Death, which may have killed a third of Europe's population from 1347 to 1351, saw death and corpses everywhere they turned. They were primed, Vikan writes, to receive and venerate images of their savior, and their art had already become gorier to reflect their dire circumstances. When the dean of a church in Lirey, France, associated with the famous knight Geoffroi de Charny, began displaying what he called the sudarium (sweat cloth) that had wrapped Jesus' face, he was able to market the relic successfully to an eager public. The church, Vikan writes, "had suddenly struck the pilgrimage jackpot." The Lirey Collegiate Church dean and canons "fueled rumors among the gullible that this was indeed the true Shroud of Jesus," Vikan said. The officials knew it wasn't a relic, but they displayed it "to the faithful with all the pomp and ceremony reserved for relics, and then let its charisma go to work." Custodians of the shroud exhibited it for public veneration despite the fact that Pope Clement VII (who reigned 1523 to 1534) had only permitted the shroud's display as a "representation" of the burial cloth. Even those who don't believe in the saintly nature of those whom relics touched can draw inspiration from them, as they would a family heirloom. "If they're convinced that this particular piece of wood in fact is from that first and only cross, then it creates that same kind of connection that holding on to a lock of hair of your loved one does," he said. "You don't believe that the lock of hair is your loved one, but it certainly is of your loved one. You've got that with that relic of the true cross or any other relic." Important because it has the true image Jesus Christs body, not an artistic representation and it also has physical remnants of christ's body as well--blood

Christ in Majesty, apse of San Clemente in Taüll, Spain (c. 1123 CE) [Romanesque]

Terms: hieratic scale halo/ mandorla/ stylization Based on the works of romanesque sculpture studied for today's class, what impact is this image supposed to have on its viewers? What does this tell us about the role of religion in people's lives at this time? Is this different than the way people today think of Christianity Mandorla shows that jesus In full body and spirit is holy See all the figures that would exist in heaven See jesus surrounded by the heavenly hosts of holy figures Christ is blessing the viewer, holding up two fingers Elongated body proportions, folds of drapery Hieratic scale, christ is bigger than all other figures showing him as more important Images that adorn romanesque architecture do not reflect the roman art, more stylized than roman art Supposed to be intimidated by jesus, fear of going into hell Today however, the role of religion is more hopeful, and jesus is benevolent Back then religion was more scary and trying to make you aware of your actions to get you to wanna get into heaven and avoid hell Tympanum: the semi circle flat wall space under the arch of the doorway

The Alhambra (1232-1492 CE) [Islamic]

The Alhambra, an abbreviation of the Arabic: Qal'at al-Hamra, or red fort Built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492)—the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (known as Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty and secured this region in 1237. He began construction of his court complex, the Alhambra, on Sabika hill the following year. Plan of the Alhambra and Generalife 1,730 meters (1 mile) of walls and thirty towers of varying size enclose this city within a city. Access was restricted to four main gates. The Alhambra's nearly 26 acres include structures with three distinct purposes, a residence for the ruler and close family, the citadel, Alcazaba—barracks for the elite guard who were responsible for the safety of the complex, and an area called medina (or city), near the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate), where court officials lived and worked. The different parts of the complex are connected by paths, gardens and gates but each part of the complex could be blocked in the event of a threat. The exquisitely detailed structures with their highly ornate interior spaces and patios contrast with the plain walls of the fortress exterior. Three palaces The Alhambra's most celebrated structures are the three original royal palaces. These are the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace, each of which was built during 14th century. A large fourth palace was later begun by the Christian ruler, Carlos V. El Mexuar is an audience chamber near the Comares tower at the northern edge of the complex. It was built by Ismail I as a throne room, but became a reception and meeting hall when the palaces were expanded in the 1330s. The room has complex geometric tile dadoes (lower wall panels distinct from the area above) and carved stucco panels that give it a formality suitable for receiving dignitaries (above). The Comares Palace Behind El Mexuar stands the formal and elaborate Comares façade set back from a courtyard and fountain. The façade is built on a raised three-stepped platform that might have served as a kind of outdoor stage for the ruler. The carved stucco façade was once painted in brilliant colors, though only traces remain. A dark winding passage beyond the Comares façade leads to a covered patio surrounding a large courtyard with a pool, now known as the Court of the Myrtles. This was the focal point of the Comares Palace. The Alhambra's largest tower, the Comares Tower, contains the Salón de Comares (Hall of the Ambassadors), a throne room built by Yusuf I (1333-1354). This room exhibits the most diverse decorative and architectural arts contained in the Alhambra. The double arched windows illuminate the room and provide breathtaking views. Additional light is provided by arched grille (lattice) windows set high in the walls. At eye level, the walls are lavishly decorated with tiles laid in intricate geometric patterns. The remaining surfaces are covered with intricately carved stucco motifs organized in bands and panels of curvilinear patterns and calligraphy. Palace of the Lions The Palacio de los Leones (Palace of the Lions) stands next to the Comares Palace but should be considered an independent building. The two structures were connected after Granada fell to the Christians. Muhammad V built the Palace of the Lions' most celebrated feature in the 14th century, a fountain with a complex hydraulic system consisting of a marble basin on the backs of twelve carved stone lions situated at the intersection of two water channels that form a cross in the rectilinear courtyard. An arched covered patio encircles the courtyard and displays fine stucco carvings held up by a series of slender columns. Two decorative pavilions protrude into the courtyard on an East-West axis (at the narrow sides of the courtyard), accentuating the royal spaces behind them. To the West, the Sala de los Mocárabes (Muqarnas Chamber), may have functioned as an antechamber and was near the original entrance to the palace. It takes its name from the intricately carved system of brackets called "muqarnas" that hold up the vaulted ceiling. Across the courtyard, to the East, is the Sala de los Reyes (Hall of the Kings), an elongated space divided into sections using a series of arches leading up to a vaulted muqarnas ceiling; the room has multiple alcoves, some with an unobstructed view of the courtyard, but with no known function. This room contains paintings on the ceiling representing courtly life. The images were first painted on tanned sheepskins, in the tradition of miniature painting. They use brilliant colors and fine details and are attached to the ceiling rather than painted on it. There are two other halls in the Palace of the Lions on the northern and southern ends; they are the Sala de las Dos Hermanas (the Hall of the Two Sisters) and the Hall of Abencerrajas (Hall of the Ambassadors). Both were residential apartments with rooms on the second floor. Each also have a large domed room sumptuously decorated with carved and painted stucco in muqarnas forms with elaborate and varying star motifs. The Partal Palace The Palacio del Partal (Partal Palace) was built in the early 14th century and is also known as del Pórtico (Portico Palace) because of the portico formed by a five-arched arcade at one end of a large pool. It is one of the oldest palace structures in the Alhambra complex. Generalife The Nasrid rulers did not limit themselves to building within the wall of the Alhambra. One of the best preserved Nasrid estates, just beyond the walls, is called Generalife (from the Arabic, Jannat al-arifa). The word jannat means paradise and by association, garden, or a place of cultivation which Generalife has in abundance. Its water channels, fountains and greenery can be understood in relation to passage 2:25 in the Koran, "...gardens, underneath which running waters flow...." In one of the most spectacular Generalife gardens, a long narrow patio is ornamented with a water channel and two rows of water fountains. Generalife also contains a palace built in the same decorative manner as those within the Alhambra but its elaborate vegetable and ornamental gardens made this lush complex a welcome retreat for the rulers of Granada. Interior and exterior re-imagined To be sure, gardens and water fountains, canals, and pools are a recurring theme in construction across the Muslim dominion. Water is both practical and beautiful in architecture and in this respect the Alhambra and Generalife are no exception. But the Nasrid rulers of Granada made water integral. They brought the sound, sight and cooling qualities of water into close proximity, in gardens, courtyards, marble canals, and even directly indoors. The Alhambra's architecture shares many characteristics with other examples of Islamic architecture, but is singular in the way it complicates the relationship between interior and exterior. Its buildings feature shaded patios and covered walkways that pass from well-lit interior spaces onto shaded courtyards and sun-filled gardens all enlivened by the reflection of water and intricately carved stucco decoration. More profoundly however, this is a place to reflect. Given the beauty, care and detail found at the Alhambra, it is tempting to imagine that the Nasrids planned to remain here forever; it is ironic then to see throughout the complex in the carved stucco, the words, "...no conqueror, but God" left by those that had once conquered Granada, and would themselves be conquered. It is a testament to the Alhambra that the Catholic monarchs who besieged and ultimately took the city left this complex largely intact. One of the greatest examples of islamic art/architecture multifunctional , multiple complexes What is evoked here is a multisensory phenomenon that incorporates multiple things Court of the lions, shows complex geometric designs above arches, fountains that gurgle water, plants that evoke sensory smell All comes together to create a divine experience Muqarnas Dome, kind of dome with the specific decoration, looks like a honeycomb, porous convey surface, star shaped complex pattern, evoke sensation of the heavens, glittering sensation of light creating divine experience

Cathedral, Pisa (11th-12th century) [Romanesque]

The Arno, the river that flows through Florence, eventually reaches the city of Pisa on its way to the Mediterranean Sea. In the Middle Ages, before the river's silt deposits pushed the sea away, Pisa was located very near the coast. It was an important port city from Roman times onwards, and by the eleventh century it became a maritime republic (a city-state whose economic base was maritime trade), competing with the other Italian naval powerhouses like Genoa, Venice, and Amalfi to dominate Mediterranean trade. Pisa warred constantly with rival maritime powers in Corsica, Sicily, North Africa and on the Italian mainland. The cathedral for which it is now famous was built starting in 1063, in the wake of, and using booty from, Pisa's naval victory over Palermo. Like most cathedrals on the Italian peninsula, Pisa's was built as an assemblage of freestanding buildings, including a baptistery and bell tower (campanile) in addition to the church. Open air collonade is characteristic as distinctly roman The Pisa cathedral complex was unusual, however, in that it was situated well outside the city walls in a grassy precinct that incorporated an ancient cemetery. Surrounded by the marshes of the Arno, the precinct's damp soil contributed to unstable ground under the complex's key structures, most noticeable in the campanile, which began to lean even while it was still being built in the twelfth century. Pisa Cathedral, like San Miniato, borrows heavily from the architectural past. It has a basilica footprint with double aisles separated from the nave by colossal Corinthian columns, a trussed timber roof, and a single semicircular apse, all perhaps intended to recall Old St. Peter's in Rome. Each of the arms of the transept repeats this basic formula on a smaller scale, with single aisles flanking a central space that leads to a smaller apse, creating a four-armed ground plan. This and the substantial galleries below clerestory windows recall the basilicas of the early Byzantine east. The builders also added new features. Above the arcade and galleries and between the clerestory windows one finds expanses of cream and green striped wall. Although the pattern here is different from that found on the walls of San Miniato in Florence, both share the same complexity and conspicuous display of expensive materials. Although they probably originally planned a simpler wooden covering for the crossing, by the end of the eleventh century the builders had begun to construct a dome, perhaps to keep pace with contemporary domes built north of Tuscany in Lombardy, or even by Pisa's economic rival, Venice. The unusual and complicated elliptical shape was dictated by the rectangular outline of the crossing created by the meeting of the nave, choir and transepts. The builders bridged the corners of this opening under the dome's base with Byzantine-inspired squinches that resemble those built at Hosios Loukas in Greece just a few years before. Above the squinches, subtlely incised blind arcades can be seen. The colorful fresco depicting the Assumption of the Virgin was added in the 17th century. The simple geometry of the façade immediately recalls San Miniato's stack of rectangles and triangles, all resting on a shallow arcade with Corinthian capitals that frame three doors. At Pisa, though, above the ground floor, the façade becomes dramatically three-dimensional, with open arcades that screen a wall decorated with grey and white stripes. On the church's sides, transept, and apse, the grey and white stone has been embellished with blind arcades and colonnades (rows of columns). Lozenges, roundels, and rectangles of multicolored stone inlay dot the exterior. Reused stones covered with inscriptions and sarcophagi imported from Rome are inserted seemingly at random: a testimony to the builders' desire to invent an ancient heritage for the building and demonstrate the wealth and power of Pisa. The other buildings in the complex, built starting in the twelfth century after the Pisan navy participated in the First Crusade, complete this sumptuous display. The centrally-planned, domed baptistery may have been intended to imitate the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. It and the leaning campanile are completely encased in stacked arcades, mirroring those on the cathedral. The "Camposanto," an enclosed cemetery, was filled with earth imported from the Holy Land in the holds of Pisan ships. Pisans may have imagined this collection of buildings, with its many references to ancient Christian sites, as a virtual Holy Land, a site they were then trying to reconquer. Each a product of its particular region, San Miniato and Pisa Cathedral speak to the ways that medieval builders sought to express their cities' unique identities through both ancient allusions and innovative forms.

Palatine Chapel, Aachen (792-805 CE) [Carolingian Empire]

The Palatine Chapel at Aachen is the most well-known and best-preserved Carolingian building. excellent example of the classical revival style that characterized the architecture of Charlemagne's reign. The exact dates of the chapel's construction are unclear, but we do know that this palace chapel was dedicated to Christ and the Virgin Mary by Pope Leo III in a ceremony in 805, five years after Leo promoted Charlemagne from king to Holy Roman Emperor. The dedication took place about twenty years after Charlemagne moved the capital of the Frankish kingdom from Ravenna, in what is now Italy, to Aachen, in what is now Germany. In the construction of his chapel, Charlemagne made several strategic choices that linked his building to the legacies of ancient Rome and the fourth-century emperor Constantine. The Emperor Constantine was important because he was the first Christian emperor of Rome. The location for the new building was selected because it was an historic Roman site with hot springs that were used for bathing. The materials used for the chapel also invoked Rome; among them were columns and marble stones that Pope Hadrian permitted Charlemagne to transfer from Rome and Ravenna to Aachen around the year 798. A relic of the cloak of St. Martin was installed in the church at its consecration—the choice of a fourth-century Roman soldier who had a vision of Jesus after sharing his cloak with a beggar was another way to reinforce the link of Charlemagne's rule with Rome. The chapel's classical style also referenced its Roman imperial lineage, particularly in its imitation of two significant Christian buildings: the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and San Vitale in Ravenna. The Holy Sepulchre's building program was started in 325 C.E. by Constantine's mother, Saint Helena, and completed in 335. The centralized plan and surrounding ambulatory and upper gallery is echoed in the plan of the Palatine Chapel. However, the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is composed of two main buildings—in addition to the rotunda that covers the tomb is a similar structure over the traditionally-accepted location of the crucifixion. The Holy Sepulchre may also have been the inspiration for the lion-head knockers of the chapel's bronze doors (below) Because it didn't receive extensive additions like the Holy Sepulchre, the San Vitale Chapel at Ravenna is probably the best comparison for what the Palatine Chapel would have looked like before its Gothic renovations. San Vitale is a small octagonal church, with a centralized plan and a two-story ambulatory (below) . The octagonal plan of the Palatine Chapel (see plans above) not only recalled that of its two most significant models, but also participated in the tradition of early Christian mausoleums and baptisteries, where the eight sides were understood to be symbolic of regeneration—referencing Christ's resurrection eight days after Palm Sunday. Its original dome was also based on classical models and bore an apocalyptic mosaic program, consisting of the agnus dei, or Lamb of God (which is, symbolically, Jesus Christ), surrounded by the tetramorph (symbols of the four Gospel writers) and the twenty-four elders described in Revelation 4:4. The agnus dei image was later obstructed by the installation of a chandelier. By presenting his capital at Aachen as a new Rome and himself as a new Constantine through the careful appropriation of late antique artwork and architecture, Charlemagne was not simply making a positive assertion about himself as ruler; he was also implicitly contrasting his reign with that of the Eastern Empire (the Byzantines), a negative stance that was also expressed around the same time in the Opus Caroli Regis contra Synodum (i.e., "The Work of King Charles against the Synod), a detailed response to the Second Council of Nicaea, written on his behalf by Theodulf of Orléans. Charlemagne's body was interred in the Palatine Chapel after his death in 814. The building would continue to be used for coronation ceremonies for another 700 years—well into the sixteenth century. Major additions to the chapel began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, significantly changing the building's profile and footprint with exterior chapels. After several fires in the seventeenth century, the dome was rebuilt and heightened.

Folio from a Qur'an (9th century CE) [Islamic]

The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic. Over the course of the first century and a half of Islam, the form of the manuscript was adapted the 114 suras (or chapters) of the Qur'an were compiled into a textual format, organized from longest to shortest, only after the death of Muhammad, The main text of the mushaf (pronounced muss-hoff), as manuscripts of the Qur'an are known, is written in brown ink. Arabic is read from right to left. Several consonants share the same basic letterform, and these are usually distinguished from each other by lines or dots placed above or below the letter. Short vowels are not normally written in Arabic, but in order to avoid misreadings of such an important text it quickly became standard to include vowels in the Qur'an. In this manuscript, these short vowels are marked with red circles positioned above, next to, or below the consonants, depending on the vowel. The text of each sura is further divided into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles located at the end of each verse The title of each sura is written in gold ink, and surrounded by a rectangle, filled here with an undulating golden vine (below). Combined with a rounded palmette extending into the margin of the folio, it allows readers to quickly locate the beginning of each sura. Figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects, artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts. Vines and palmettes like the ones that surround the sura heading here appear alone in sacred contexts, but they also accompanied animal and human forms in the secular decoration of palaces and textiles. The dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut, and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages. Each page of costly parchment (or vellum) in this Qur'an is larger than a standard sheet of printer paper, and contains only nine lines of calligraphy. These materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron, who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite. In addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used, the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains. As in many of the mushafs produced between 750 and 1000 C.E., the pages of this manuscript are wider than they are tall. The text-block of this manuscript has a height-to-width ratio of 2:3, and the width of the text-block is approximately equal to the height of the page. Each line was further divided into a set number of "interlines," which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters. letters of the alphabet were written differently by Qur'anic scribes, professional secretaries, and other copyists. The calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the Qur'an is known today as Kufic. Only two or three of the more than 1300 fragments and manuscripts written in Kufic that survive contain non-Qur'anic content. Kufic is not so much a single type of handwriting as it is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles, including a preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness, short straight vertical lines and long horizontal lines, and a straight, horizontal baseline. Various types of kufic were popular from the seventh century C.E. until the late tenth century C.E. Scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write. In some letters the angle of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even thickness throughout the entire letterform, but in others the angle could be held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines individual letters were often formed using multiple strokes. Scribes also had some freedom in composing a page. They could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally (a technique known as mashq). They could also adjust spacing between words and letters, and even split words between two lines, in order to balance positive and negative space across the page.

Sculptures in south portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac (1115 CE) [Romanesque]

The church of Ste. Pierre (St. Peter) in Moissac, France, dating from 1115-30, has one of the most impressive and elaborate Romanesque portals of the twelfth century. Carved images occupy the walls of the extended porch leading to the door, the door itself, and even the space over the door. The church of Ste. Pierre was on one of the pilgrimage roads through France that led to Santiago de Campostela, in Spain. As it was home to the remains of St. James Major, that Spanish church was one of the most important pilgrimage sites in Western Europe. Ste. Pierre in Moissac was a popular stop for those making the long and arduous journey to Spain. The term portal refers to a doorway or entry into a building, and Romanesque portals have distinct architectural elements which were oftentimes carved with a variety of ornament and subject matter. In the case of Ste. Pierre, the portal is divided in half vertically by the trumeau, which is decorated on three of its four sides. On the front, the viewer is faced with three pairs of intertwined lions and lionesses who are there to symbolically guard the entry into the sacred space of the church. Such symbolism comes from Early Christian imagery where the doors to Christ's tomb are often shown with lion's heads on them. On the east side of the trumeau is a representation of the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah (some scholars suggest it is Isaiah), who holds a scroll in his hands. On the west side is a figure identified as St. Paul, from the New Testament. The placement of these two figures on the sides of the trumeau was no doubt deliberate as they face two other figures on the door jambs (the outer walls of the portal where the doors are attached). Across from St. Paul is a representation of St. Peter, also a New Testament saint (and the namesake of the church), and across from Jeremiah, is the Old Testament prophet Isaiah. The pairing of Old and New Testament figures was common during this period as a means of suggesting the fulfillment of Mosaic law (the law coming Moses) in the new Christian law under Christ. The trumeau has more than just a decorative function though as it also supports the horizontal beam of stone above called the lintel. The lintel is decorated with ten rosettes that are bound together by a carved rope and have a repeated floral pattern at both the upper and lower spaces between each rosette. On both the left and right ends of the lintel, the rope and rosette design is coming from the mouth of a fantastical animal of some sort. Details such as these, with imaginative, hybrid animals are a common characteristic in Romanesque art from illuminated manuscripts to sculpture. Just above the lintel is the lunette-shaped (semi-circular) tympanum, which has the majority of the sculpted decoration (and this is true in most Romanesque and Gothic portals). In this case, the tympanum is surrounded by three decorative archivolts (arches), which have various foliate patterns carved into the individual blocks of stone, known as the voussoirs, which make them up. During the Romanesque and Gothic periods, there were two subjects which were popular for tympanum decoration. One was the subject of the Last Judgment, when Christ sits as judge over those who will be divided into the Saved and the Damned. The other oft-represented subject is known as the Maiestas Domini (Christ in Majesty) here at Moissac we are presented with a very literal depiction of a passage from the Book of Revelation (4:2-7),The moment described in this passage, and represented here, is not a narrative in the sense that the Last Judgment is, but it is rather a more esoteric concept of the Second Coming of Christ and the End of Time. which reads: And immediately I was in the Spirit, and behold a throne was set in heaven, and one sat on the throne...And round the throne were four and twenty seats; and upon the seats I saw four and twenty elders sitting, clothed in white raiment; and they had on their heads crowns of gold...And before the throne there was a sea of glass like unto a crystal; and in the midst of the throne, and round about the throne, were four beasts...And the first beast was like a lion, and the second beast like a calf, and third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like a flying eagle. In the very center of the composition is the figure of Christ, seated on a throne, with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing. In his left hand he balances a book on his knee, perhaps a reference to the Book of Revelation. His circular halo is inscribed with a cross (known as a cruciform halo), and we can just make out the suggestion of a larger, almond-shaped body halo just visible as the pointed arch behind Christ's haloed head. Immediately to the left and right of the seated figure of Christ are the Evangelical Beasts, three animals and one human figure, who represent the four Evangelists who wrote the New Testament Gospels. Matthew, in the upper left, is represented by the winged man, Mark just below is shown as the lion, Luke on the bottom right is seen as the ox, and John the Evangelist is represented as the eagle. The representation of the four Evangelists as a tetramorph was common in sculpture, painting, and illuminated manuscripts. On either side of the Evangelical Beasts are two tall, elegant angels holding scrolls, as well as the twenty-four elders mentioned in the text from Revelations. They are arranged on three levels, two of which are divided by wavy lines, reminding us of the "sea of glass." Each elder holds a small musical instrument in one hand and a chalice in the other (some of these have broken off over time). Very clearly all of the figures—man and beast—are turned toward the central figure of Christ, who stares serenely out toward the viewer. The twenty-four elders crane their necks and twist their bodies as do the Evangelical beasts. Even the lines of the drapery seem to be directing our attention toward the center. A brief comparison between the style of the sculptures in this tympanum and that employed on the Early Gothic portal of Chartres Cathedral (above), which is also a Maiestas Domini, clearly illustrates the very lively, almost agitated sense of the figures at Moissac. At Chartres, the twenty-four elders are now the voussoirs in the archivolts and the figure of Christ, seated frontally and surrounded by the mandorla, is flanked by the four evangelical beasts. Here, however, is a sense of clarity and three-dimensionality that is markedly different from the style seen at Moissac. And as the road weary pilgrims would have approached the portal of the church Saint-Pierre, they were met with spectacular imagery that warned against sin, and reminded them of Christ's sacrifice and his final coming. The portal at Moissac would have been a veritable feast for the Romanesque viewer's eyes and souls.

San Miniato al Monte, Florence (begun 1013 CE) [Romanesque]

The church of the Benedictine monastery of San Miniato al Monte lies outside the early medieval walls and across the Arno from Florence. It hovers over the city on the crest of a hill, or "monte," where Florentines believed the cell of Saint Minias, an Armenian Christian hermit who was allegedly martyred by the Roman Emperor Decius in the third century, once stood. By 1018, the bishop of Florence had ordered the construction of a church and installed a community of Benedictine monks there, following a familiar medieval pattern of locating monasteries outside, but within a short distance of, a city so that the monks could minister to the spiritual needs of the city's inhabitants. designed the church so that it could accommodate visitors to the tomb of Minias. Adapting a basilica-style structure with its single apse and a trussed timber roof, the builders incorporated an innovative raised chancel. Central stairways allow visitors to see and visit the crypt housing Minias's relics, while flanking stairways lead to an elevated platform holding the altar and choir used by the monks. ancient, Early Christian, and medieval forms are visible in the church's walls. An arcade of polished stone columns supporting Corinthian capitals along the nave, above which colorful stone inlay brightens the surface—all reminiscent of Early Christian basilicas like Santa Sabina in Rome. Many of the capitals are Roman spolia, noticeable because they are much narrower than the columns they crown. Yet onto this traditional framework the builders grafted imposing diaphragm arches that divide the nave into three massive bays, marked on the walls with attached columns and compound piers. The green and white stone inlay familiar from some Early Christian interiors clads the surfaces of the façade and the interior (though in some places, after money ran out, artists imitated the decorative stone in paint). This style of construction, joining modified basilican architecture with colorful, two-dimensional stone inlay, would become typical of the Florentine region. The façade also references the Roman past. Although the component parts are flattened and rendered in pink, green and white stone, we can still identify an orderly row of columns topped by Corinthian capitals, crowned by a set of four Corinthian pilasters holding a triangular pediment that recalls a Roman temple front. Incorporates the appearance of a temple, like the front of a classical ancient temple on the front of the structure in order to maintain close legacy of ancient Rome How does the plan of this church differ from others in it's accommodation for pilgrims visiting holy relics? Is a underground cript, subterranean section, that houses the relics of the saint meanwhile the church ceremonies occur on the raised platform

Koran / Qur'an

The holy book of the Islam faith as revealed to Mohammed by the angel Gabriel.

The Vision of St. Bernard (1300s)

This is an image found in a religious text. Its owner would have used it to stimulate prayers and meditations on Christ's Passion--the events leading up to his crucifixion and death Based on what you see here and on what you learned about in preparation for today's class, what does this tell you about religious devotion to christ's passion at this time? Jesus died for the benefit of mankind, relieving mankind of sin We get to go to heaven because of this sacrifice Focus on blood and suffering Emphatic emphasis on the physical suffering of Christ Praying so hard that they have hallucinations of Christ's suffering Believed that if you prayed hard enough you would see christ's crucifixion before your eyes, would have a supernatural vision

Annunciation (c.1240-50) and Visitation (c.1230), central portal, right side, Reims Cathedral [Gothic]

What are the distinctive features of these sculptures? What do the sculptors do to emphasize the sense of realism? What makes them classical, but also what makes it gothic? Able to see the coherence of an anatomical body underneath drapery Contrapposto of body Animated jamb figures, tilt head, move bodies, seem alive, realism Larger than lifesize Sculptures are stylistically different All would have been painted The annunciation Pair contrasts with the classicism of the visitation Figures different from each other Mary seems simple, earlier gothic style little sense of body under drapery, calm facial expression Gabriel to mary's right, other worldly anatomy, the head is small, body is lyrical, carving is delicate, mary seems earthly in comparison, very elongated, angelic smile, puffing of the skin around eyes, delicate curls of hair are things seen in other sculptures during this time period

Lindau Gospels cover (870-880 CE) [Carolingian Empire]

What similarities to the works of art studied for today's class allow us to identify this as a work from the Carolingian period? It shows this kind of looking backwards to classical models (ancient Rome). Influenced by it, emphasis on three dimensionality, accurate depiction of three dimensional bodies, looks like sculpture from ancient rome. Trying to renew the artistic legacy of ancient rome What is this image intended to communicate to pious worshipers? Jesus looks divine Classisim

Flying buttress

a buttress slanting from a separate pier, typically forming an arch with the wall it supports.

Triforium

a gallery or arcade above the arches of the nave, choir, and transepts of a church.

Altarpiece

a panel, painted or sculpted, situated above and behind an altar Functions of the altarpiece repeat the functions of icons of the Byzantine Empire

Mandorla

an almond-shaped nimbus surrounding the figure of christ or other sacred figure

The Great Mosque, Kairouan, Tunisia. 836-75 [Islamic]

hypostyle mosque The Great Mosque of Kairouan was a public structure, set along roads that served a city with a vibrant commercial, educational, and religious life. As such, it assumed the important function of representing a cosmopolitan and urbane Kairouan, one of the first cities organized under Muslim rule in North Africa. Even today, the Great Mosque of Kairouan reflects the time and place in which it was built.

Hypostyle Plan

hypostyle mosque, meaning "many columns." Most mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for centuries.

Stylization

represented in a non-naturalistic conventional form

Muqarnas

stucco decorations of Islamic buildings in which stalactite-like forms break a structure's solidity

Muhammad

the Arab prophet who founded Islam (570-632)

Qibla

the direction of the Kaaba (the sacred building at Mecca), to which Muslims turn at prayer.

Nave arcade

the series of arches supported by piers seperating the nave from the side aisles

Relics

valued holy objects from the past