Art History 1107: Chapter 4

Fig. 4.10: Potala Palace, the former summer palace of the Tibetan Buddhist leader, the Dalai Lama, Lhasa, Tibet

(SEE IMAGE)

Iconography

(eye-keh-NOG-reh-fee) The study of visual images and symbols within their cultural and historical contexts.

Formal Analysis (Part 1)

.Formal analysis is the integrated study of the elements and principles of art (see Chapter 2) and the way they are used in a specific artwork. Architecture can be formally analyzed as well. The arrangement of elements and the application of principles in an artwork comprise its Formal analysis is the integrated study of the elements and principles of art (see Chapter 2) and the way they are used in a specific artwork. Architecture can be formally analyzed as well. The arrangement of elements and the application of principles in an artwork comprise its composition. Consider, for example, the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. ( Fig. 4.1 ). Formally, it is very wide compared to its height. It is symmetrical in relation to the central vertical axis. Horizontally, it is divided into five parts. The first, third, and fifth parts stand out and have vertical columns, with cast shadows that create strong lights and darks. The second and fourth areas are recessed and flat and have low contrast. These are all formal elements, and they are arranged very intentionally to give a specific effect. The central section of the building is most emphasized because the dome creates a vertical emphasis and a strong focal point. The building is very large and sits up high, with many steps in front. The structure is entirely white, which stands out strongly against the background. Of course, formal analysis can be limited to just the elements and their organization, but actually it goes beyond that. The formal elements make clear that this is an important building.

Fig. 4.19: Judith and Holofernes — Artemisia Gentileschi

1612-1613 — Oil on canvas

Fig. 4.18: Wearing Blanket, Navajo, Arizona

1860-1870 — Wool

Fig. 4.12: Black Iris — Georgia O'Keeffe

1926 — Oil on canvas

Fig. 4.4: Nighthawks — Edward Hopper

1942 — Oil on canvas

Fig. 4.15: Tomorrow Is Never — Kay Sage

1955 — Oil on canvas

Fig. 4.14: Panel of the Independence—Father Hidalgo (Retablo de la Independencia—Hidalgo) — Juan O'Gorman

1960-1961 — Mural

Fig. 4.22: L&M cigarette billboard in Los Angeles circa 1970s

1970s — Billboard

Fig. 4.17: Untitled (Self-Portrait of Marilyn Monroe) — Cindy Sherman

1982 — Ektachrome photo

Fig. 4.16: October 18, 1977 — Gerhard Richter

1988 — One of fifteen paintings, oil on canvas; installation variable

Fig. 4.8: Speechless — Shirin Neshat

1996 — Pen and ink over gelatin silver print

Fig. 4.3: Setting Cycles — Dona Schlesier

2004 — Mixed media on paper (oil pastel, handmade paper, papyrus, and thread)

Fig. 4.5: Signs in an airport, Malaga, Andalusia, Spain, 2006

2006

Fig. 4.9: The New York City Waterfalls, installation along the East River — Olafur Eliasson

2008

Fig. 4.21: Untitled 2008 (the future will be chrome) — Rirkrit Tiravanija

2008 — Polished stainless steel Ping-Pong table, shown here with artists Jay Nelson, right, and Annie Wachmicki, obscured, playing Ping-Pong during a NADA preview at the Ice Palace in Miami, on December 2, 2008

deconstruction

A method for analyzing works of art developed in the late twentieth century, in which artworks are treated as texts that can have a variety of meanings, based on the person who perceives them, emphasizing subjectivity.

symbol

A visual element that represents something else, often an abstract concept like peace.

Abstract Expressionist

An art movement that emerged after World War II that emphasized spontaneous artistic self-expression, non-representational imagery, and distinct paint application; most abstract expressionist works were paintings.

Content

An artwork's themes or messages, conveyed through subject matter, symbols, or iconography.

Chapter Introduction

Art and architecture have meaning, but how do audiences understand the message? This chapter examines five basic areas in regard to meaning: (1) formal analysis; (2) content analysis; (3) the influence of historical context, physical surroundings, and method of encounter; (4) writings about art; and (5) you, the viewer, forming your own interpretation. PreviewArt communicates complex ideas and emotions, and this chapter looks at the ways this is achieved. We begin with formal analysis, which examines the artist's use of the elements and principles that we saw in Chapter 2. Next is content analysis, dealing with subject matter and systems of symbols.Historical context and physical surroundings are important in two ways. First, every work of art was created within its own cultural, historical, political, social, or religious context. Knowing about that context deepens our understanding of a work of art. Second, we now live in our own surroundings and historical context, and our situation today influences what we think about any art we see. Writings about art enrich our experience of it. We will look at several philosophical positions from which art has been analyzed. Sometimes the writers contradict or add to each other's arguments, showing that the meaning of art is not fixed. New interpretations develop over time. For your Art Experience, we ask you to develop your own interpretation of a work of art.

relational aesthetics

Art criticism that focuses on human relationships and social spaces, rather than emphasizing art objects in private galleries, homes, or museums.

Structuralism

Art criticism that holds that the understanding a single work of art is based on the overall structure of art and the complex interrelationship of all its parts, because structure gives the meaning to an artwork like a sentence determines the meaning of individual words within it.

Ideological criticism

Art criticism that is rooted in the writings of Karl Marx and deals with the political underpinnings of art.

Writings about Art

Art writings help us understand the full meaning of artworks. There are four major groups who write about art: (1) art critics, who describe works of art (usually contemporary art) and then evaluate their significance; (2) art historians and academics, who primarily research art of the past and art of other cultures; (3) curators, who write catalog essays, wall labels, and educational material for museum and gallery exhibitions; and (4) artists, who write about their own work and the work of other artists. (Just read she has poetry)

Iconography (Part 1)

Artists can use metaphors or symbols to convey content. A visual metaphor is an image or element that is descriptive of something else. In Setting Cycles, the handmade paper is just paper, but it acts as a visual metaphor for the passage of time, as it is piled up one layer upon another and some areas seem to be disintegrating with age. A symbol is an image or element that stands for or represents some other entity or concept. Symbols are culturally determined and must be taught. For example, in the United States today, a dove is a symbol of peace. But people from other cultures would not know by observation alone to connect "dove" and "peace." However, as communications become more global, symbols can more often be understood across cultures. Graphic and environmental designers often use symbols for wayfinding, which is the means people use to orient themselves and navigate unfamiliar spaces. Certain symbols are understood by increasingly large numbers of people, as seen in airport signage ( Fig. 4.5 ). Indeed, contemporary airport signage contains so many symbols that it could be considered iconography.

Feminist criticism

Artwork or art criticism based on the idea that women should have political, economic, and social rights that are equal to those of men.

Fig. 4.2: Tlaloc Vessel

Aztec, c. 1440-1469 — Clay and pigment

Fig. 4.1: U.S. Capitol Building — Redesigned, expanded, and restored under architects William Thornton, Stephen H. Hallet, George Hadfield, James Hoban, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Charles Bulfinch, Thomas U. Walter, Edward Clark, and J. George Stewart; terracing by Frederick Law Olmstead.

Begun 1793, exterior last renovated in 1960.

Context

Consists of the external conditions that surround a work of art, such as historical events, religious attitudes, social norms, and so on.

Content Analysis

Content is an artwork's theme or message. Content is conveyed primarily through the artwork's subject matter and through its symbolic or iconographic references.

Context for The Creation of The Artwork (Part 1)

Context consists of the external conditions that surround a work of art. Context includes a host of factors, such as historical events, economic trends, contemporary cultural developments, religious attitudes, social norms, and other artworks of the time. Historical context and geographic location had an enormous influence on Rembrandt van Rijn as he worked on the large painting The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq ( Fig. 4.7 ), also popularly called The Night Watch. During Rembrandt's lifetime, almost all of the countries in Europe were ruled by powerful kings or nobles. All the large paintings were made for royal palaces or for majestic Catholic churches. Yet Rembrandt and other Dutch artists worked for middle-class clients in the Netherlands, a republic run by city-dwelling manufacturers and merchants made prosperous by trade. No king or saint is depicted—only middle-class citizens assembling for a civil guard parade. This subject matter on a large scale never would have been commissioned if Rembrandt had lived under a seventeenth-century monarch. The painting hung in a banquet room in an Amsterdam militia hall, where years of candle and fire soot darkened its varnish, resulting in the mistaken notion that this is a night scene.

metaphor

Definition: An image or visual element that is primarily descriptive of one thing, but is used to describe something else.

Fig. 4.11: Drum

Dong Son civilization, Thanh Hoa, Vietnam, 3rd-1st century BCE — Bronze

Method of Encounter (Part 2)

Even for artworks that we actually encounter in life, the way we come in contact with them affects how we perceive them. To the people of the first millennium bce Dong Son civilization (Vietnam), the bronze Drum ( Fig. 4.11 ) with a resonating top plate was widely used in rituals related to the community, fertility, and dead warriors. The entirety of the rituals, plus the appearance of the drum and the sound it makes, was part of the way the Dong Son people knew this artwork. Now, in a museum, we see only the isolated object, silent and removed from its ritual context. This is the same with every artwork we encounter. When we experience art as it is being used in life, we get a fuller and richer context for the work. In contrast, the museum preserves the work and removes it from the distracting environment.

Applying Theory

Everything we discussed in this chapter can be applied to visuals that you see around you. Let us deconstruct Figure 4.22 , the L&M Cigarette billboard. Formal analysis would point out the large log placed in the center of the composition. Content analysis will show that while the subject is selling cigarettes, the ad is associating masculinity and sexuality with smoking. Regarding context and method of encounter , cigarette billboards were normal in the 1970s, but are not familiar to younger people because cigarette billboards were banned in 1998. Ideological critics would ask who is paying for the ad and who is the target audience. Feminists might analyze the sexuality pervasive in this image and text. Finally, it is important that you are able to analyze works and determine their meaning for you. For more on evaluating art and visual culture, see the Analysis Guide at the end of Chapter 15.

Fig. 4.20: Giant Puppet Parade, street carnival in Olinda, Brazil, February 16, 2010

February 16, 2010

Postmodern Philosophical Positions (Part 2)

Feminists employ various strategies to achieve their goals. First, feminists have revised how we see historical artworks. For example, previous art historians treated nude women in paintings as simply part of the composition, whereas feminist writers analyze the work as having been made for the male gaze. (For more, see Chapter 6, "The Feminine Body and the Gaze".) Feminists pointed out the large number of artworks made by men that feature female nudes in museums, while historically there are practically no male nudes painted by women. Second, feminists have broken down the barriers encountered by women's artwork and the media they use. Modernist critics have denigrated pottery, weaving, and decorative work as minor arts. Now works such as the Navajo Wearing Blanket ( Fig. 4.18 ), woven by a woman, are studied and featured in museums.

Postmodern Philosophical Positions (Part 3)

Finally, feminist critics and art historians have researched and publicized women artists who have been ignored in the past, such as the seventeenth-century Italian artist Artemisia Gentileschi, one of the most important painters of her era. Determined and skilled, she executed large historical paintings that were considered beyond the ability of women. After her death, she sank into obscurity, and her works, like Judith and Holofernes ( Fig. 4.19 ), from 1612-1613, were attributed to her artist father. Herself a victim of rape and ill treatment from men, Gentileschi brought an immediacy to the beheading scene that is different from the idealized, sanitized way that male painters depicted the biblical event. Writings on visual culture discuss all visual components of contemporary culture, including art, film, advertisements, the Internet, television, social media, and so on. Writers examine how we receive and use the barrage of images. As Nicholas Mirzoeff wrote, "Visual culture ... is not just part of your everyday life, it is your everyday life" (Mirzoeff 1998:3). Visual culture is such a huge topic that some writers look for smaller subjects to exemplify trends. For example, the idea of carnival has been compared to artistic innovation. Vulgar, uninhibited, and wildly celebratory, carnivals gleefully undermine social order with costume transformations, fabulous decorations, and heavy partying. Carnivals are held throughout the world, often in February, such as Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the annual New Orleans Mardi Gras in the United States (Shohat and Stam 1998:34-37). Figure 4.20 shows carnival in Olinda, Brazil, known for representing local and international celebrities and politicians with 15-foot papier-maché puppets built and carried almost entirely by local people.

Iconography (Part 3)

Iconography can be embedded in architecture. We already saw the U.S. Capitol Building ( Fig. 4.1 ). Its design reflects Greek and Roman architecture, visually connecting the government of the United States to the ideas of democracy (Greece) and power (the Roman Empire). The building has two wings, instantly conveying the idea of the two houses of Congress and physically containing them. The central dome symbolizes unity.

Iconography (Part 2)

Iconography is a system of symbols that allow artists and designers to refer to complex ideas. It literally means "image" (icono-) and "to write" (- graphy). Some cultures and religions developed complex iconographic systems: for example, ancient Egypt, Byzantium, medieval Europe, Buddhism, and Hinduism, to name only a few. In medieval Christian symbolism, the unicorn stands for both Jesus Christ and a faithful husband in marriage (see Fig. 13.3 ). Mary, mother of Jesus, was often shown with flowers, symbolizing purity or sorrow. Figure 4.6 is Yama from Tibet and painted around the mid-seventeenth or early eighteenth century. It contains a complex set of symbols, and once we become familiar with this iconography, we know that Yama is the Indian god of death, who later became the protector of the adherents of the Buddhist religion. Dressed in leopard skin and wearing a headdress of human skulls, Yama holds a thunderbolt chopper and skull, while standing on black lotus petals in a sea of blood. This fierce god fights against the inner demons such as hatred and lust. He tramples an agonized creature beneath his feet. Four buffalo-headed Yamas are located near the corners, and various holy figures hover above, while many skulls occupy the space below.

Modernist Criticisms (Part 2)

Ideological criticism, rooted in the writings of Karl Marx, deals with the political underpinnings of art. All art, according to this position, supports some particular political agenda, cultural structure, or economic/class hierarchy. Even artwork that may seem neutral is still political. For example, Serge Guilbaut researched the ways that the Central Intelligence Agency promoted Abstract Expressionist artists, like Morris Louis ( Fig. 4.13 ) and Jackson Pollock (see Fig. 11.38 ), in order to prove that the United States was culturally superior to Communist countries in the Cold War era after World War II. Other ideological theorists were Herbert Marcuse and Theodor Adorno. Of course, some ideological writings do deal with art that is overtly political, and some artwork functions as ideological criticism. For example, the well-documented Mexican Muralist movement of the mid-twentieth century promoted the rights and power of the indigenous Mexican people over the ruling class. The artist Juan O'Gorman produced murals that commemorated the struggle for Mexican Independence. Panel of the Independence—Father Hidalgo (Retablo de la Independencia—Hidalgo) ( Fig. 4.14 ), from 1960-1961, shows atrocities committed against the indigenous people and also portrays the church, the army, and major leaders in the struggle.

The Influence of Historical Context, Physical Surroundings, and Method of Encounter

In addition to analyzing form and content, it is important to know the context in which an artwork was made, especially the cultural, historical, political, religious, and social conditions of the day. We have already seen that Edward Hopper was likely influenced by the horrific events at the beginning of World War II when he painted the lonely and isolated figures in Nighthawks ( Fig. 4.4 ). Every artist and every artwork is similarly shaped by concurrent external circumstances. As we are viewing artwork today, we are also influenced by our own contemporary environment and society, which affect our ideas about artwork of the past, the present, and other cultures. In addition, the location and circumstances surrounding our encounter with art can change what we think about it.

Personal Interpretation

In the end, you may develop your own meaning for a work of art. Ultimately, when you interact with art, you produce your own intellectual and emotional response based on your judgment, personal tastes, experiences, and history. In studying art, you learn about yourself now and over time because, as you change, your reaction to an artwork may shift as well. This is related to phenomenology, which studies human consciousness and experiences such as judgment and perception.

Subject Matter (Part 2)

Many works of art also have a subtext, the underlying ideas or messages. In Edward Hopper's 1942 oil painting Nighthawks ( Fig. 4.4 ), the obvious subject matter is customers in a corner diner, late at night. Additionally, in many of his paintings, Hopper focused on the loneliness of city life, and, indeed, all four people in Nighthawks seem isolated from or unable to connect to others around them. The street outside is empty. A subtext in Nighthawks is a sense of impending doom or entrapment. There is no door shown to get in or out of the diner. Hopper's uncomfortable atmosphere in this painting may be suggesting the imminent future in the United States right after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor plunged the country into World War II.

Fig. 4.6: Yama, Tibet

Mid-seventeenth to early eighteenth century — Distemper (pigments mixed with egg yolk, egg white, and/or glue) on cloth

Modernist Criticisms (Part 1)

Modernist philosophical positions generally present master narratives that specify the correct way of analyzing any artwork. Inherent in Modernism is the notion of progress—and the belief that previous art styles are preludes to the next significant step forward in the growth of Western art. Modernist philosophers seek the relationship between art and truth. In this relationship, idealism and aesthetics are important, and as a result "fine art" is emphasized as being far superior to the art of "popular culture." The first modernist philosophical position, formalist criticism, emphasizes formal analysis. Specifically, it is the analysis and critique of an artwork based on the compositional arrangement of its elements (refer to Chapter 2). Formalism first appeared in England in the early twentieth century as a way to appreciate artworks from other cultures, in particular the imported Japanese prints and African sculptures. Although Europeans did not understand the subject matter and iconography of these artworks, they appreciated them as art from a formalist point of view. After World War II, formalist criticism was associated with Modernist art in the United States. The critic Clement Greenberg promoted works such as Morris Louis's Blue Veil ( Fig. 4.13 ), from 1958-1959, because they were "self-critical," focusing on what was "unique to the nature of [their] medium," so that "art would be rendered 'pure'" (Greenberg 1961:13). Blue Veil was "pure" painting because it eliminated brushstrokes and emphasized the flatness of the painting surface. Recognizable imagery, symbolism, and narrative were eliminated as detrimental distractions. Painting was the medium that most thoroughly represented the ideas of formalist critics in the late 1940s and 1950s.

Context for The Creation of The Artwork (Part 2)

Of course, context is just as important in artwork produced today. In the 1990s, Shirin Neshat produced a series of photographs called Women of Allah, one of which is Speechless ( Fig. 4.8 ). Neshat was born in Iran and immigrated to the United States as a teenager, just as Iran was being transformed into an Islamic state led by clerics. Her subject is Islamic women and femininity in a country where women's actions and rights are limited by religious law. In her photographs, women's hands or faces emerge from beneath veils, often framed by guns or flowers. On the photos, Neshat wrote religious quotes or poetry in Farsi, the language of Iran. The context for Neshat's poignant photos is the political and social climate in a fundamentalist Islamic culture, along with the associated Western reactions.

Postmodern Philosophical Positions (Part 1)

One Post-structuralist, Jacques Derrida, introduced the idea of deconstruction, which holds that, from the inside, any system looks natural and coherent but that it is, in fact, filled with unseen contradictions, myths, or stereotypes. The collective self-portraits of Cindy Sherman seek to deconstruct stereotypes of woman in Western cultures. One self-portrait is Untitled (Self-Portrait of Marilyn Monroe) ( Fig. 4.17 ), from 1982; another is Figure 11.12 . Sherman produced many more self-portraits, and in them she photographed herself in stereotypical roles, often from movies, such as the girl next door, the seductress, the trapped housewife, and the vulnerable hitchhiker. However, there is no "self"in these self-portraits. As the critic Douglas Crimp wrote, (READ TEXTBOOK) Post-structuralist artists and critics in the late twentieth century often focused on the medium of photography, which easily copies existing things and can be produced in multiples for wide distribution. This fits the Postmodernist idea that there is no original, no "real," only copies. In contrast, Modernist critics valued the original art object, a unique creation of a gifted artist. Feminist criticism is concerned with the oppression of groups (especially women) in a given society, along with the oppression of their belief systems. Feminism advocates equal social, political, and economic rights for all women and men. Some prominent feminist writers include Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock.

Postmodern Philosophical Positions

Postmodernism is not a continuation of Modernism but rather a set of philosophical positions that question Modernism. Whereas Modernist philosophies stated certainties, Postmodernism deals with subjectivity, nuances, and ambiguity. The following is a summary of several postmodern points of view. Post-structuralism is a range of reactions against Structuralism, but it is not a homogeneous set of ideas. Although structure is important to study, Post-structuralists believe that this will result not in one single meaning to an artwork but rather in multiple meanings because every viewer approaches the work with varying perspectives. Major Post-structuralist writers include Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Julia Kristeva. The work of artist Gerhard Richter reflects many Post-structuralist ideas. His black-and-white painting in Figure 4.16 is one of a group of fifteen collectively titled October 18, 1977, referring to the deaths of three leaders of the radical Baader-Meinhof group. Like an unclear news photo, Richter's painting is a blurred image of Gudrun Ensslin, who planned bombings and kidnappings to protest latent Nazism in the German government. On October 18, she and two others were found dead in prison. Authorities declared the deaths suicides, but many factions suspected that the protestors were murdered by authorities. Richter's paintings represent a perfect Post-structuralist moment. The unclear image evokes a young woman who appears open and friendly, totally discordant with the crimes she apparently planned. The blur also indicates the lack of closure and continuing controversy concerning what exactly happened to her and her cohorts.

Modernist Criticisms (Part 3)

Psychoanalytic criticism holds that art should be studied as the product of individuals who are shaped by their pasts, their unconscious urges, and their social histories. Sigmund Freud wrote the first psychoanalytic criticism when he examined Leonardo da Vinci's work in light of Leonardo's presumed homosexuality and episodes from his early childhood. Psychoanalytic criticism seems appropriate for work that deals with strong emotional content, intuition, dream imagery, or fantasy, such as the 1955 painting Tomorrow Is Never ( Fig. 4.15 ). The work of Kay Sage alludes to hallucination, fantasy, or dream, with a sense of motionlessness and impending doom. Structuralism holds that in order to understand a work of art, one must study the structure of art and the complex interrelationship of all its parts. Structure gives meaning to an artwork, like a sentence determines the meaning of individual words within it. Structuralism was originally applied to the study of language, as was semiotics, the study of signs in verbal or written communication. Its systems of analysis were then applied to fields such as anthropology, architecture, and art. Although Structuralism is a modernist position, it influenced Post-structuralist philosophies in the Postmodern era, which we will see next.

Subject Matter (Part 1)

Subject matter is the substance of a work of art, in contrast to its form. Some aspects of subject matter are obvious just by looking at an artwork: for example, the Tlaloc Vessel is a ceramic pot that has a face on it. Other aspects must be learned: for example, Tlaloc was the Aztec god of rain. The Aztecs, rulers of large areas of Mexico from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries, believed that Tlaloc sent rain to farmlands, and, thus, this deity's image often appears on drinking and water-carrying vessels. Tlaloc vessels were also used in Aztec religious rituals, when they would be filled with water and broken in the temple, symbolically spilling the life-giving water onto the earth. All works of art have subject matter, even abstract and nonobjective works (recall from Chapter 1 that abstract works are distortions or simplifications of some real-world entity, whereas nonobjective works have no real-world reference). In Dona Schlesier's 2004 mixed-media piece Setting Cycles ( Fig. 4.3 ), the subject matter is in the organization of the materials themselves, in which their dichotomies are explored: smooth versus rough, organic versus mechanical, circular versus rectangular, colorful versus neutral, empty versus dense, and so on. The round form may suggest the setting moon or the movements of planets, giving the viewer the option to interpret the work based on that title. Second, feminists have broken down the barriers encountered by women's artwork and the media they use. Modernist critics have denigrated pottery, weaving, and decorative work as minor arts. Now works such as the Navajo Wearing Blanket ( Fig. 4.18 ), woven by a woman, are studied and featured in museums.

TEXTBOOK

TEXTBOOK

formalist criticism

The analysis and critique of an artwork based on its composition and the arrangement of its elements and principles.

Postmodern Philosophical Positions (Part 4)

The final Postmodernist philosophical position is relational aesthetics, which focuses on ways that art can augment human relationships in social spaces rather than emphasizing the collection of art objects. French art critic Nicolas Bourriaud has written about relational aesthetics, and perhaps its most famous practitioner is the Brazilian-born Thai artist Rirkrit Tiravanija. Instead of displaying objects, Tiravanija's work in galleries often consists of cooking and serving Thai meals for gallery goers to foster interaction between the artist and the viewers. Tiravanija also created a stainless steel Ping-Pong table called Untitled 2008 (the future will be chrome); rather than being a hands-off work of art, gallery goers play on it ( Fig. 4.21 ). He has also created communal land projects for living, farming, and building in Thailand.

Formal Analysis (Part 2)

The formal qualities of any other artwork could be similarly analyzed. Consider, for example, the Tlaloc Vessel ( Fig. 4.2 ), from Mexico, c. 1440-1469. Without knowing anything about the work, we can see that it is frontal and symmetrical, the most formal of all compositions. The features of the face have been abstracted into simple geometric shapes. The emphasis in the vessel is more on the vertical than the horizontal, but there are some strong horizontal elements: (1) the red band near the top; (2) the two handles, which align with the twisted braid; and (3) the large square earrings, which align with the mouth. There are very few diagonal elements in this composition. The most prominent colors are blue and gray-brown. Formal qualities add to an artwork because they are aesthetically satisfying. The elements in the U.S. Capitol Building are balanced. The size and relationship of one part to another have been carefully considered. In the Tlaloc Vessel, the integration of the face shape into the overall shape of the vessel is interesting, and the way the face has been simplified and made geometric is interesting to see as well. Looking at art is a very different experience from looking at the general environment, which is disjointed and disorganized. The formal qualities of artworks make them organized and satisfying visual experiences, adding considerably to the power of art.

Physical Surroundings

The location of an artwork also affects its meaning. Many works of art can be moved physically from one location to another, but the location change might have a profound impact on the work. Historical events at a location can also change the meaning of an artwork. An example of an artwork that takes its meaning from its site is The New York City Waterfalls ( Fig. 4.9 ), on view for four months during 2008 along the East River near Lower Manhattan. With the assistance of the Public Art Fund in New York, the artist Olafur Eliasson executed the four artificial "waterfalls," constructed of scaffolding and pumps and ranging from 90 to 120 feet high. Technically, these "waterfalls" could have been built almost anywhere. But Eliasson purposely chose these sites for these works. New York City seems like an enormous and dense urban mass, but in reality it is situated in a mesh of waterways where fresh water meets salt water, an ideal habitat for wildlife. Eliasson wanted to dramatically integrate nature (the falling water) into the city space (the scaffolding) and to draw people back to the New York City waterfronts. New York is also the site of the World Trade Center (see Fig. 8.30 ), which was destroyed in the September 11, 2001, attacks. Those historic events will always be attached to the World Trade Center and can deeply affect people who see pictures of the old site or visit the new structures.

composition

The organization of the elements of an artwork in such a way that harmony, balance, unity, and variety are achieved.

Subject matter

The specific idea of an artwork.

Formal analysis

The study of artwork that focuses on the elements of the language of art and the principles of composition.

phenomenology

The study of phenomena, such as art, from the point of view of a conscious and perceiving subject.

semiotics

The study of signs and symbols in written and verbal communication.

subtext

The underlying ideas or messages in an artwork.

VOCABULARY

VOCABULARY

Post-structuralism

Various branches of art criticism that are a reaction against Structuralism and hold that there is not one single meaning in an artwork, but rather multiple meanings.

10. What prominent feature do these artworks share? a. A central panel that is surrounded by borders with repeating patterns b. A monochrome color scheme c. A central panel divided horizontally into three sections d. Representations of curling orange and red flames

a. A central panel that is surrounded by borders with repeating patterns

1. What geometrical shape is repeated in this image? a. A circle b. A rectangle c. A triangle d. A square

a. A circle

9. Which of the following choices best describes these two artworks? a. Both artworks share a rectangular format. b. Both artworks are totally abstract with no recognizable figures. c. Both artworks are both filled with figures. d. Both artworks share a circular format.

a. Both artworks share a rectangular format.

Who were the primary patrons for Rembrandt and other Dutch artists working in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century? a. Middle-class clients b. Church officials c. The Royal Academy d. The monarchy

a. Middle-class clients

What elements are in Dona Schlesier's Setting Cycles? a. Papyrus and thread b. Intense cool colors c. A meaning that derives from the novel quoted in the work's title d. Dominant use of triangular forms

a. Papyrus and thread

Which type of criticism holds that art should be studied as the product of individuals who are shaped by their pasts, their unconscious urges, and their social histories? a. Psychoanalytic criticism b. Iconography c. Formalist criticism d. Semiotics

a. Psychoanalytic criticism

8. Which of the following best describes the setting of these paintings? a. The background of one scene is too dark to clearly determine the setting. b. Both scenes include a bright rising or setting sun in the background. c. Both scenes include a prominent landscape with hills and mountains. d. One scene is set against a bustling cityscape with modern skyscrapers.

a. The background of one scene is too dark to clearly determine the setting.

Which statement best describes the collective self-portraits of Cindy Sherman? a. They deconstruct stereotypes of women in Western culture. b. They affirm the high status of women in Western culture. c. They promote the equality of women in all cultures. d. They challenge the abuse of women.

a. They deconstruct stereotypes of women in Western culture.

What kind of critical approach considers the interrelated historical, social, and political conditions that surround a work of art? a. Deconstruction b. Context c. Semiotics d. Content

b. Context

Which philosophy, introduced by Jacques Derrida, holds that systems appear natural and coherent seen from the inside, but are actually filled with unseen contradictions, myths, or stereotypes? a. Semiotics b. Deconstruction c. Structuralism d. Phenomenology

b. Deconstruction

Why is psychoanalytic criticism particularly appropriate for Kay Sage's painting Tomorrow Is Never? a. It was painted by a woman. b. It alludes to hallucination, fantasy, or dreams. c. Its theme is the American civil rights movement. d. It is abstract

b. It alludes to hallucination, fantasy, or dreams.

3. Which of the following choices best describes mood of the scene in this painting? a. Tragically catastrophic b. Lonely and isolated c. Festive and energetic d. Bustling and frenetic

b. Lonely and isolated

Which critical approach is based on the analysis of signs and symbols in written and verbal language? a. Ideological criticism b. Semiotics c. Psychoanalytic criticism d. Formalist criticism

b. Semiotics

What is the primary subject of Shirin Neshat's Speechless? a. Stereotypes of women in contemporary Western culture b. The experience of women in a contemporary fundamentalist Islamic culture c. Lack of religious freedom d. Discrimination against Muslims in the United States after 9/11

b. The experience of women in a contemporary fundamentalist Islamic culture

Which of the following is true for the symbols in the painting Yama? a. The symbols themselves demonstrate the universal nature of symbols. b. The flames from the center god indicate his role as a fiery judge. c. Symbols render demons of the inner self in this painting. d. Symbols let the viewer know that Yama is the god of regeneration.

b. The flames from the center god indicate his role as a fiery judge. Incorrect. The flames from the center god indicate his role not as a fiery judge, but instead more generally show his power. Symbols render demons of the inner self.

Which statements are true of the meaning of Artemisia Gentileschi painting's Judith and Holofernes? a. Its meaning is found in the skillful way she uses oil painting techniques to convey Judith beheading the Assyrian general Holofernes. b. The meaning can be deduced both from an Old Testament story and life experiences of the artist. c. Its meaning can be found by doing a formal analysis of the composition and use of color. d. The meaning comes from both Gentileschi's stature as a successful artist and her skillful use of oil paint.

b. The meaning can be deduced both from an Old Testament story and life experiences of the artist.

What was the historical context for Edward Hopper's Nighthawks? a. The Harlem Renaissance b. World War II c. The Great Depression d. The Vietnam Era

b. World War II

Fig. 4.7: The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, or The Night Watch — Rembrandt van Rijn

c. 1642 — Oil on canvas

Fig. 4.13: Blue Veil — Morris Louis

c. 1958-1959 — Acrylic resin paint on canvas

7. Which statement best describes the scenes in these paintings? a. All the figures in both scenes stand in rigid, frontal positions of attention. b. Nude or semi-nude figures appear in the foreground of both paintings. c. Both show multiple people assembled, with some carrying flags and weapons. d. Both contain a crucified figure on the extreme left of the scene.

c. Both show multiple people assembled, with some carrying flags and weapons.

Which statement best describes Juan O' Gorman's mural Panel of the Independence-Father Hidalgo (Retablo de la Independencia-Hidalgo)? a. It is a work of purely formalist interest. b. It is an Abstract Expressionist work. c. It is an overtly political work and functions as ideological criticism. d. It is detached from any specific cultural or historical context.

c. It is an overtly political work and functions as ideological criticism.

5. Which statement best describes the formal elements and composition of this vessel? a. All of the lines in the vessel are diagonal. b. The vessel is asymmetrical. c. The composition is frontal and symmetrical. d. Circles predominate, and there are no straight lines in the vessel.

c. The composition is frontal and symmetrical.

Which of the following best describes the subject matter of Dona Schlesier's abstract mixed-media work Setting Cycles? a. There is no subject matter; the work is abstract. b. It is a portrait of the artist, Dona Schlesier. c. The subject matter is best described by the organization of the materials themselves and the various dichotomies and cycles they suggest. d. It shows the history of paper-making.

c. The subject matter is best described by the organization of the materials themselves and the various dichotomies and cycles they suggest.

2. Which choice best describes how the written text is featured in this photograph? a. The text is arranged in vertical lines that form a border around the image. b. The text appears below the image, like a caption. c. The text is arranged in horizontal lines that cover the woman's face like a veil. d. Lines of text cover all parts of the image.

c. The text is arranged in horizontal lines that cover the woman's face like a veil.

Which belief system is the iconography of Yama related to? a. Confucianism b. Islam c. Christianity d. Buddhism

d. Buddhism

Which type of criticism does Morris Louis's Blue Veil strongly lend itself to? a. Religious b. Feminist c. Structural d. Formalist

d. Formalist

What is the critical approach that analyzes and critiques an artwork based on the compositional arrangement of its elements? a. Context b. Iconography c. Composition d. Formalist criticism

d. Formalist criticism

What is studied when an analyst evaluates the symbolic images within a work of art? a. Composition b. Context c. Formal elements d. Iconography

d. Iconography

6. Which statement best describes employment of color in this vessel? a. It is predominantly brown. b. The colors on the right side are different from those on the left side. c. The vessel is decorated in the primary colors red, yellow, and blue. d. It is predominantly blue, with bands of gray and brown.

d. It is predominantly blue, with bands of gray and brown.

4. Which statement best describes the viewpoint from which this scene is depicted? a. The viewpoint of someone outside on the street, looking into the diner b. The viewpoint of someone in a high rise, looking down on the diner c. A "bird's-eye" viewpoint d. The viewpoint of someone standing inside the diner

d. The viewpoint of someone standing inside the diner

Method of Encounter (Part 1)

g.We encounter art in all kinds of places—in newspapers, in museums, out on the street, at religious sites, in public parks, in government or corporate buildings, in schools, at festivals, and in malls, along with many others. The nature of our encounter adds meaning to the artwork. We know most works of art through photographs, which communicate only a fraction of the total experience of actually being in the presence of the art. The Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet ( Fig. 4.10 ), begun in the seventeenth century, is an enormous structure situated high in the Himalaya Mountains. It is the home of the Dalai Lama, the traditional spiritual and political leader of Tibet, although the current Dalai Lama has lived in exile since the Chinese invaded in the 1950s. Looking at photographs at your leisure, you can study the entire palace, seeing it framed against majestic peaks or reflected in a nearby lake. Were you to actually approach and enter the palace, your experience would be quite different: physical exertion while climbing steep stairways, brisk mountain weather, partial glimpses of buildings rather than "the perfect shot," encounters with other pilgrims, and tour buses at the base of the mountain.