ARTH MID-TERM (1-9)

The Fang (Gabon/Equatorial Guinea/Cameroon)

(Gabon/Equatorial Guinea/Cameroon) - ancestor worship manifest in the Byeri - Ngil secret society

Nkondi Tatu Oath Taking Figure (Minkisi), Yombe, D.R. Congo

- First function is moral deterrence and the swearing of oath; the practice of "nailing," to seal a moral contract, is still alive in the Congo - Aggressive stance with raised hand holding dagger, spear, or similar arms > assures client protection > while it sorts out a problem, he builds with his aggressive pose a "wall" between the client and the enemy so that the former is protected Materials: wood, iron, pigment

Male Figure with a Kola Nut Bowl, Bangwa, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Food bowls and calabashes were also prestige items found at the courts; multiple purposes, incl. sacrifices - Many vessels contained Kola nuts; some Kola nut receptacles always close to the king, so that he could offer the nuts to guests Materials: Terracotta

Hunting Whistles with Heads, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- Hunting whistles, worn as pendants, were used by hunters to send each other signals or to call their dogs, or during battle with enemy factions - Whistles were produced in large numbers until game became scarce by mid-20th century

Ndop Figure, Bushoong, Kuba, D. R. Congo

- Idealized representations of the Nyim, the supreme titled position in the Kuba kingdom > depicted cross-legged on a decorated plinth with an expression of utter calm, self-restraint and aloofness - Can be differentiated by objects placed in front of the monarch

Kipoko Mask, Eastern (Kasai) Pende, D. R. Congo

- Summarizes the benevolent, nuturing qualities of the chief, esp. his political power and ancestral authority - Large eyes, ears and nose = allegories that chief needs to known what goes on in his domain - Small/absent mouth = chief does not respond to everything that he hears; chief thinks before he speaks (lore of proverbs related to king expressed in sculptural form Materials: wood and polychrome pigment

Reliquary Figures, Kota-Mahongwe, Gabon

- like many other people of the Congo basin, the Kota reject the idea of a "natural" death, belief in the paranormal to cause deaths or misfortunes in the community that then bestow ancestor figures with powerful forces - some figures feature both brass and copper sheathing - numerous local sub-styles

Biteki, Teke, Congo

- live on both sides of river in northeastern Congo - known for their magical or power statues, which go by a variety of names - statues served as patrons for hunting and were supposed to protect against diseases and evil spirits - magical power was preserved in a cylindrical package, called Bilongo - the package was fixed at the abdomen because, for the Teke, magical wisdom can be swallowed and is then preserved in the stomach - 2 types

Ngil Secret Society Mask, Fang-Ntumu, Gabon

- most famous Ngil mask - nameless human bones used in struggle against witchcraft - as part of a rite of social regulation, was observed among the Ntumu, and more generally among the Fang in Gabon

Ngontang Mask, Fang-Fang or Ntumu, Equatorial Guinea

- most likely related to the helmet masks of the Fang, ngontang, which came to take the place of the Ngil masks after the supression of Ngil society in the colonial age - multi-faced helmet masks were supposed to strike fear in suspected witchdoctors with their multiple, all-seeing eyes

Olowe of Ise, Veranda Post of Enthroned King and Senior Wife (Opo Ogoga), Ikere, Ikere Palace, Yoruba, Nigeria, 1910-1914 wood and pigment 1910/14 on Veranda Post from Ikere Palace

Importance of women, bird crown (allusion to forces that women control

Material of the Byeri

wood with dark brown patina, brass, bark

Materials of the Kuk Masks

wood with kaolin and black pigment

Materials of the Kota-Mahongwe, Gabon

wood, brass, copper, iron

Staff with Bird of Prophecy, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 18th to 19th century, brass

• ... the Oba had the bird shot and Benin's army overpowered the army of the Attah of Idah after which he became the vassal of Benin • Defeat of Idah gave Benin greater control over the Niger River • Esigie proclaimed that the brass casters should model idiophones (clappers) of the bird to celebrate Benin's ability to overcome its oracle - At the annual Ugie Oro ceremony, chiefs clack the beak of the bird in honor of Benin victory and the king's power; one of several ritual events that commemorate a historical episode that nearly led to a devastating

Olowe of Ise, Door from the Ikere Palace, Ikere, Yoruba, Nigeria, 1910-1914, wood

• A lot of Yoruba art is center on the court and the king, 16th through 20th century • Olowe of Ise was a famous Yoruba court artist of the early 20th century ("leader of all carvers") • Between 1910 and 1914, Olowe worked at the palace of the king (ogoga) of Ikere, in northeastern Yorubaland > king had presumably seen his work for the palace at Ise, and wanted to have his own structure similarly enriched • Door depicts the ogoga's reception in 1897 of Captain Ambrose, the British Commissioner of the Ondo Province • King depicted in the second register from the top, to the left, Ambrose to the right; senior wife standing behind the king; below: commoners go about daily activities • (in 1924, at British Empire Exhibition, artwork was obtained in exchange against an English royal throne and a replacement door was carved)

Material of Nigil Masks

light wood and kaolin

Materials of Ngontang Masks

light wood with polychrome paint

Mwana Pwo Masks, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- A female mask, lacking the disc-like beard (yet, it is only performed by males) - Not royal masks, unlike the Chihongo, but are being danced anywhere in the Chokwe territoy and are owned by commoners - Two forms: Pwo, a mature, adult woman and Mwana Pwo, the younger female - Sacrification patterns symbolize tears below eyes (women's sorrows), cross tattoo chingelyengelye (Chokwe identity), phallic imagery (sexuality, fecundity) Materials: wood with patina, fiber, metal, cane sticks

Elephant mask, Bamileke, Cameroon Grassfields, Cameroon

- A great variety of zoomorphic masks appear together with the dignitary masks above - Iconic symbols of royal privileges and authority granted to certain groups Material: wood with light brown patina

Mukenga Mask, Kuba, D.R. Congo

- A regional variant of the Mwaash aMbooy from the northern and central Kuba region - The senior of the triad, it is similar in form and materials to the Mwaash aMbooy, but, instead of a fan of eagle feathers prominently placed on top of the Mwaash aMbooy mask, Mukenga displays a long projection that represents an elephant trunk

Nkisi Lumweno Medicine Figure, Kongo, D.R. Congo

- A reliquary for the soul, embedded in an object to guard and protect human beings and communities from illness and envy, and to wreak mystic revenge upon their enemies - Many forms: pottery vessel, woven bag or basket, musical instrument, or less frequently "the Nikisi is a statue" - Often include embedded mirrors > the statute/the "medicine" broadcasts its powers of clairvoyance through the mirror - Collar-like charm, wrapped around the neck of this example, recalls a kind of cast the Nganga might secure to heal the bones of a broken neck

Mask Suaga, Mambila, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Despite the vast variety of small kingdoms and distinct people, there is something like a coherent Cameroon Grasslands style, especially the bulging eyes in this example are typical - Suaga masks shows undefined zoomorphic creature: Elephant? Ram? Dog? - It is known that dogs were ritually killed in the context of the appearance of this mask type Materials: wood and dark patina

Tsekedi Mask, Southern Bandundu Region, Yaka, D. R. Congo

- All masks are made of wood - Initiates are allowed to wear masks during stay in circumcision camp, exit the camp with them > more relaxed attitude - Mask has two faces evocative of Yaka cosmology: the one in the foreground, covered in kaolin, refers to the moon (female principle), the one in the back, with red highlights, to the sun (male principle - allegory for the passage of initiation from the maternal womb (white, moon) to the paternal world of virility (sun, red color) Materials: wood, fiber, feathers, pigment, raffia

Kuba, D.R. Congo

- Also called the Bushoong - •Nme "Kuba" applied by neighboring Luba and Westerners; the Kuba call themselves "the children of Woot," after their founding ancestor - Centuries-old Kuba kingdom united under one paramount ruler - Economic backbone of Kuba prosperity was ivory trade

Nkisi Nkondi or Kozo Dog Sculpture, Kongo, Lower Congo, D.R. Congo

- Also exist in the form of animals - This example is Janus-faced; every thing is about duality > in the opposing row of menacing teeth, the doom of a felon is foretold: "Two worlds will fall upon you and crush you to death" - Red and white = danger to be caught and destroyed - Cluster of nails = heavy issues - Smallest objects have the heaviest burden of meaning

Atal or Akwanshi Ancestral Monolith, Bakor-Ejagham/Ekoi, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 16th century, carved basalt stone (similar to image presented)

- Although sculpture made of hard stone is rare in sub-Saharan Africa, about three hundred works have been documented from the forested region of the mid-Cross River, in Nigeria - The Bakor-Ejagham peoples, who live in this region, call them akwanshi (dead person in the ground); neighboring groups refer to monoliths such as this one as atal (the stone) - Perhaps intended to memorialize the dead, especially Ntoons (priestly leaders), their ovoid forms were carved from volcanic boulders by grinding or pecking with stone tools to create a human face and a simplified body - The secret society that produced these stones (Elabu) was in charge of carrying out death sentence against those who broke communal laws - Such stones are placed upright, buried up to the "navel" in the ground; they stand individually, or sometimes in circles - Faces consist of long nose, deeply-carved round mouth, and small eyes with multiple brow lines; faces framed by raised lines with smooth domed top and spirals and angular lines carved below.

Hemba Helmet Masks, Suku, D. R. Congo

- Are distinct in that they are all made out of wood and do not have the cloth/rattan superstructure of the Yaka - The Hemba mask was the first to be danced in the initiation camp when other important charms were brought out; a notable of the village had previously treated the mask with a concoction of powerful ingredients and the blood of a cock had been sprinkled over it - Depictions of animals are very common - Charmed Materials: wood, polychrome paint and raffia

Muyombo Mask, Central/ Western Pende, D. R. Congo

- Associated with initiation ceremonies with good harvest and good hunting; guarantee fertility and well-being of the community - The chin extension, a hallmark of this kind of mask, apparently represents am ancestral beard > called mwevu - Typical characteristics of Pende art: "snub nose," V-shaped brow, downcast eyes, protruding forehead and cheeks, and especially the abstract checkerboard/lozenge patterns - Apart of a cast of masks call Mbuya Materials: wood and polychrome paint, raffia

Slit Drum, Bamsoa, Bamileke, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Beaten when an enemy attack threatened, or to inform the people of some important event - At the death of a king, "his" drum was left to decay

Drinking horn, Cameroon Grassfields, Cameroon

- Belong to dignitaries of higher ranks and their families - Each extended tribal family owns such a "family drinking horn", which is handed down from one generation to the next, as a symbol for power and dignity - Plain or ornate, are a man's most important personal article, a tribute to the significance of palm wine, consumed for pleasure during social occasions and used for sacrificial libations Material: buffalo horn

Key Characteristics of Chihongo Masks

- Broad mouth and disc-shaped protruding beard, - Teeth files to point (as the real Chokwe would have) - Protruding, slit ("coffee bean") eyes (hinting at the fact that these spirits represent dead people, - Bulging forehead and typical cross tattoo, the chingelyengelye, hallmark of Chokwe art, sacrification pattern below eyes signifying tears - Fanciful crests with varied adornments

Tange (Prow Ornament), Duala, Cameroon Coastal Region

- Canoe and arts associated with it play central cultural role in life of Duala - Leading families compete in business and canoe races > up to 30 paddlers on each canoe - Iconography: large bird attacked by snake, leopard, family totem (people of rank, spirits; central figure here dressed in European clothing > Europeans associated with wealth and power; also struggle with animals, giving them supernatural abilities) Materials: wood and polychrome paint

Drum Nkak, Bamongong, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Drums with figurative decoration are the sole prerogative of the king and major secret societies - Considered female - Stands on four legs formed by two male and two female figures and the body of the drum is adorned with three snakes, two with one head and one with two heads Materials: wood and hide

Ebongo (Dance Club), Kuyu, Republic of Congo

- Ebongo, the divine serpent, appears in the so-called Kébé-Kébé snake dance, which was performed at the conclusion of the initiation of young boys - head sculptures were attached to staffs, which the dancers held with stretched-out arms high above their heads; their bodies were completely concealed by long costumes and the heads abundantly decorated with feathers; the face was whitened (alluding to death), while the scarification marks were painted with polychrome colors

Nkanu Initiation Wall Panels, Yaka, D. R. Congo

- Carved representations of domesticated and wild animals teach mutual respect, and regard for the authority of the traditional chief and the ancestral spirits > when two or more animals are depicted together, the message often concerns conflict and resolution - Ex. #1: a recurrent theme (viper-styled geometrical pattern abound; lower right), as in the wall panel below, is the Gabon viper (viper= Yaav in Lunga language; honorific term of supreme Lunda chief: Mwaant Yaav, "Sir Viper") capturing a small antelope > In Nkanu folktales, the latter is a cunning and rather cheeky character that usually manages to outsmart larger animals > allegory of Yaka chiefs outsmarting Lunga/Chokwe rulers? The initiates themselves (viper may also capture in some representations a small black stork; see below)? - Ex. #2 (top panels, extreme left): purple heron, a bird known to lead flocks of black storks (kumbi) > Nkanda initiates are often referred to as "black storks"; they darken their bodies and imitate the bird's behavior at certain stages of the rite; the Nkanda leader, identified with the purple heron, leads his "flock" outside the compound to wash in the river or to farm, before the group returns to the enclosure Materials: wood and polychrome earth-colored pigment on gesso

Mandu Yenu (Royal Throne) and Footstool of Nsangu, King of Bamum, Cameroon Grassland, Cameroon

- Central elements of royal treasuries - Custom made for king, in this case Nsangu, and thought to receive life from their owners - Figures behind the stool: twin-retainers > male twins could become servants or confidents of king; female twins could become king's wives - After the death of Nsangu, the stool was presented by his son, Njoya, to the German emperor Wilhelm II, Cameroon, until 1918, was a German colony Materials: wood textile, glass beads, cowrie shells

Chief's Chair, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- Chairs were unknown in Africa prior to contact with Europeans - Their carving mostly coincides with the "expansion period" of Chokwe - The artists added figure groups documenting the benevolent effects of the chief's rule on everyday life: fertility (erotic scenes), child bearing, music making, masquerades, initiations, throwing of pots, etc.

Chikunza Masks, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- Characterized as aggressive or quarrelsome - Serve as protectors of the initiation camp, keeping away intruders and negative influences - Hallmark is the cone-shaped superstructure > reference to antelope horn > much utilized by diviners because it is believed to be a potent "medicine" Materials: cane, fibers, resin, tissue, pigment

Kholuka Mask, Yaka/Nkanu, D. R. Congo

- Characterized by bulbous, protruding eyes and grouping of stuffed puppets of people and animals crowning the superstructure - Designed according to the character of the initiate and are frequently sexual in content - Mask reserved for the last to be circumcised in the group (generally the son of a chief, mbaala), hence mask is very popular and represents great honor - Upturned noses = elephant; sexual nature Materials: wood, rattan, fabric, kaolin, raffia - Exists in male (Ndeemba) and female (Makemba) variants (has tears) Materials: wood, rattan, fabric, kaolin, raffia

Characteristics of Chibinda Ilunga, Chokwe

- Chiefly headdress (mutwe wa kayanda) - Small figures to his feet or sitting on headdress represent auxiliary spirits (hamba) or ancestors

Key Characteristics of Kalelwa Masks

- Coated with red fabric and encrusted mass - Open worked eyes flanking a straight nose - A broad mouth underneath - Disc-shaped head crest - Spike-like protrusion in the center

Nkishi Power Figure, Songye, D.R. Congo

- Collaboration between carver and ritual specialist called nganga in the creation of the object; each nkishi responds to need of individual who commissioned it - Its primary purpose is to guard a secret; cowrie shells, tacks, etc. are considered materials of value and power, drawing attention to head - Two types of hidden, magical ingredients: those that metaphorically provide aggressive content (e.g. bits of fur, claws, or skins of aggressive animals), and secondly, hair or nail clippings of the "user" who identifies with the desired effect of the Nkishi

Mask Tsesah, Bandjoun, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Comes from small kingdom of Bandjoun - Associated with tso dance at the palace, in the context of enthronements or mourning festivities at death of king/queen or annual harvest rituals, performed by secret society called Msop - Exaggerated, towering brows, parallel striations, large, almond-shaped eyes, bulging cheeks, broad mouth, cup-shaped nostrils, carved cowrie shells on neck Material: wood

Door Frame, Baham, Cameroon Grasslands

- Decorated with human faces and animal figures are prerogatives of the palace and secret societies (esp. military ones) - Their human figures are very vivid and expressive - Illustrated door frame came from a remarkably large military house in the palace of Baham - Figures depict the king and his wives, as well as representations of leopards, crocodiles, spiders

Chibinda Ilunga Figure, Chokwe, Angola

- Depicts legendary hunter, cultural hero, and founder of the Lunda dynasty from which the Chokwe evolved - He introduced a number of hunting techniques (esp. elephants), new forms of magic, rituals and court manners, which greatly influenced Chokwe art - Today statues of the type seen here are described by the term "homeland" style of the Chokwe, since they pre-date the migration/expansion of the Chokwe into a northern/northeastern direction over the course of the 19th century - A variant of this type of ruler statue depicts a chief (Chibinda Ilunga?) on a stool - clapping his hands as a sign of welcome and •Large hands refer to qualities of skill and fortitude that serve him during his rule Materials: wood, cotton textile, hair, plant fiber

Elephant Mask, Duala, Cameroon Coastal Region

- Economic and spiritual life are defined by maritime environment - Subsequently, they specialized in trade with Europeans, whose ships in pre-colonial times anchored offshore > Duala used small vessels/canoes to bring ivory, palm oil, rubber and slaves to larger European ships; received in return European goods - A mixed artistic style, adopting European carpentry techniques and brightly colored imported paint - This mask, similar to Grassland zoomorphic masks except for the paint, presumably belonged to the Koso-Isango (society of slaves) - Losango (sig. Isango) were secret organizations that structured life of the Duala > they follow a division into free-born, half-free, and slave; every person's status is defined by one of these three categories Materials: wood and polychrome paint

Minkisi Eyes, Kongo/Vili/Yombe, D.R. Congo

- Enlarged pupils of the eyes of this...echo the mirror of clairvoyance embedded in the belly > mirror allows diviner to see witches approaching from any direction and served as a sort of compass to locate the source of evil - Wide open eyes, showing lots of white, signal anger and danger across western Africa (Pende: "Eyes of Danger," messo abala) - half-closed eyes signal serenity, are associated with sun set

Punu/Lumbu, Gabon

- Equatorial forest people who had to flee under pressure of the Fang to southern Gabon - famous for their white masks (white = death/spirits)

Male Dance Crest Aku Onu, Jukun, Nigeria

- Ethnic group of around 30.000 people, nowadays living in various enclaves in the area of the Upper Benue River (northeastern hinterland of Nigeria) - Jukun king "Aka Uku", considered a demigod, was the first priest; he was responsible for rain, fertility of the earth, security and well-being of the community and was the mediator between the clan ancestors and the living people as well - most iconic artwork - Supposed to represent a human head; the open worked part is supposed to represent the ringlet, which Jukun men used to wear on their clean-shaved head Materials: ., wood with patina, kaolin, abrus beans

Royal Basket and Royal Drum (Pelambish) , Bushoong, Prestige Objects, Kuba, D.R. Congo

- European-manufactured glass beads became an integral element in Kuba craft objects - Kept in the royal treasury (as it was the case for these two objects; ram's head as royal symbol), or were owned by one of the numerous title holders associated with the court - Each nyim had two ceremonial baskets > one handed down to his successor, the other one was buried with the king

Scepter, Moxico School, Chokwe, Angola

- Executed in the "homeland style" - Combines Chokwe decorative motifs with a curved cartouche incised with a patterned design inspired by Portuguese art - Moxico School is sub-group of "homeland-style" court art featuring nuanced and realistic facial features, use of real human hair, and small pieces of jewelry

Female Figure, Musamba School, Chokwe, Angola

- Female figures are rare - Works of Musamba School are stiffer and more stylized - Chokwe society is matrilinear > statue meant to emphasize the transmission of power through women? Materials: wood with patina, hair

What is typical for Bangwa art?

Puffed up cheeks

Toni Malau St. Anthony, ancient kingdom of Kongo, D.R. Congo (lower Congo)

- In 1491, the Kongo king Nzinga aNkuwa converted to Christianity and was baptized as Joao I; under his son and heir Afonso Mvemba aNzinga Christianity became state religion - The Christianization campaign of the Portuguese was promoted with utmost brutality and resulted in the creation with Christian artworks (Christ, saints) with African features, fusing European and African motifs - Christian objects has lost most of their meaning by the 19th century - Portuguese-born Anthony of Padua, one of the first disciples of St. Francis, was known in the KiKongo language as Toni Malau > miracle worker, patron saint of Portugal, protector of children, mothers > became popular in the Congo during the 17th century

Minkisi, Vili, D.R. Congo

- Individuals (real ones!) known as Banganga (sg.: Nganga) work as healers, diviners, and mediators who defend the living against witchcraft and provide them with remedies against diseases resulting either from witchcraft or the demands of Bakisi (spirits), emissaries from the land of the dead - Remedies against witchcraft or malevolence are called Nkandu or Bilongo, referring both to the actual "magical packages" (head, abdomen) and a sort of contract between the Nganga and spirits summoned during the preparation of the remedies and the sculpting of the Nkisi - Mirror has been wrapped mnemonically (what's that?) with raffia fiber > perhaps after he peered into the glass, the Nganga made the client take an oath, then permanently recorded what he saw and demanded, by tying cord around the mirror - Feathers command Nkisi to swoop down from above, like a hawk, and land on one's enemy or the roof of his house; a hunter's net is wrapped around the legs, and orders Nkisi to throw a similar obstacle around the legs of the hateful, etc.

Lukasa Mnemonic Plaque of Luba History, Luba, D.R. Congo

- Is the highest level of royal initiation among the Luba, attained only by a few members of the three principal branches of royal culture: kings, diviners, members of the Mbudye > "men of memory" - Also the term for a physical object owned by initiates; memory aids (or a system of recording information in the absence of writing), used during initiation ceremonies to recall a complex body of knowledge related to performances honoring the king and his retinue - Both color and configuration of pearls matter > myths of the origins of the royal lineage & genealogy, ghost capitals of former kings, rituals, celebrations, seating arrangements, shrines, events at court, etc - The tyrant Nkongolo Mwamba = red pearl and Mbidi Kiluwe = blue pearls

Court Art and Architecture, Bamum, Cameroon Grasslands

- Kings (Fon) were spiritual and secular leaders; hierarchies of titled nobility - Palaces manifestation of their power and influence: rows of tall, domed houses with thatched roofs - Key feature of palaces: carved pillars and door frames with multiple-figure designs

Key Characteristics of a Songye Nkishi Power Figure, D.R. Congo

- Large bulbous forehead that is tapering towards the chin - Elongated, ringed neck

Attributed to "Master of Buli," Luba Caryatid Stool, D.R. Congo

- Located in the eastern Congo basin and had a sophisticated court culture - Most famous for their caryatid stools which served as thrones > as in other parts of Africa, the right to sit during ceremonial and religious events is limited to high-ranking individuals; stools clarify the complex hierarchy of seating privileges - Used during investiture rights, oath swearing...not a functional seat, but a receptacle for a king's spirit

Mask Kifwebe, Luba, D. R. Congo

- Luba Bifwebe masks are generally round and have no references to gender, while those of the Songye are elongated and exist in male and female versions - Bifwebe masks are among the most iconic on the African continent: their hallmark is the striation pattern highlighted by polychrome paint, rectangular, box-like mouth - The grooves symbolize animals with striped skin, like porcupines, zebras or antelopes; the round masks of the Luba are said to have originated from the funerary ceremonies of important persons - Little is known about why these masks came about and how they were used materials: wood with red and black pigment

Kalelwa Masks, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- Main role is to protect the Mukanda initiation camp from both physical and supernatural dangers - When Kalelwa performs in the village during the Mukanda, it chases women to dramatize gender tensions; as the graduation ceremony of the initiates approaches, these tensions ease and Kalelwa accordingly relaxes its behavior to collaborate with women during the events that prepare for graduation Materials: cane, fibers, resin, tissue, pigment

Kakungu Mask, Nkanu/Yaka/Suku, D. R. Congo

- Masks are monumental and oversized (3 ft. high); their hallmark are puffed cheeks; there is little to no variation to this mask type - Originated with the small Tsaam people who inhabited the area before the other groups - Mask was used in the context of the Mukanda/Nkanda to scare the initiates and to prevent them from leaving the camp, as well as to instill in them respect of authority Materials: wood and raffia

Gitenga masks of the Minganji Set, Central/ Western Pende, D. R. Congo

- Masks of the western Pende are closely linked to the person of the king and his institution; those of the central and western Pende can be associated with initiation ceremonies like the Mukanda/Nkanda - Represent ancestral spirits and instill fear and respect in the initiates - Most powerful mask of the set is the Gitenga (chief if the Minganji), a typically red-colored disc with large tubular eyes Materials: fiber, cloth, feathers

Ikhoko Miniature Mask, Pende, D. R. Congo

- Miniature versions of Mbuya masks carved out of ivory were given to young initiates as good luck charms, protecting the healing process Materials: Ivory

Mask of a Dignitary, Bamileke, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Most Grasslands masks look like this Bamileke example: exaggerated features with open mouths, helmet-shaped, bulging eyes, and bulbous hairdo - Worn by title holders, esp. Kwifo society - Kwifo hears conflicts and mediates conflicts and pronounces sentences in both criminal and civil cases; alternatively, the king may hear complaints with counseling his people, and discharges Kwifo to act as police force, carrying - Each Kwifo society has a mask that functions as its spokesman or representative > Mask communicates the decrees of society to the community (Mabu) Material: wood with light brown patina

Mbuya Masks, Central/Western Pende, D. R. Congo, 20th century

- Most common Pende artifacts - Wide variety of styles - masks personify a range of different characters, such as the mad man Tundu, the prostitute Ngobo, the young flirt Gabuku, the diviner Nganga, the long-bearded man Kiwoyo-muyombo - When the Pumbu mask appeared, it was frequently accompanied by an assistant wearing a Tundu mask, whose task it was to find a good seat for the chief with the best possible view

Memorial Figure of a Priestess of the Earth ("Bangwa Queen"), Bangwa, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Most iconic work of Grasslands art - May represent a royal wife or mother of twins; attributes of both sexual and social maturity > collar of beads and leopard teeth, beaded loin cloth, armlets as sign of social distinction - A basketry rattle carried by the woman who leads the dance in honor of the earth > rendered in the act of singing praises to the earth

Panya Ngombe Mask, Eastern (Kasai) Pende, D. R. Congo

- Most prestigious and powerful masks; reserved for highest level of chieftancy; part of the outfit of king during supervision of circumcision ceremonies - Triangular shape, red color, almond-shaped eyes, distending ears, small mouth, lozenge-shaped patterns

Mask Akuma, Jukun, Nigeria, 19th/20th century

- Most...masks are much simpler; this type is associated with the Akuma cult - Mask was called upon for the healing of a sick person, or for thanking a deity during harvest ceremonies - performed at funerals, greeted important visitors, and promoted - Key characteristic of Akuma masks are tubular eyes; sometimes masks also sport a hair to short horns Materials:, wood with brown patina, kaolin and camwood powder

Spirit Statue, Mumuye, Nigeria, wood with patina, kaolin, fibers, pearls (similar to image presented)

- Mumuye live in northeastern Nigeria, near the border to Cameroon - •Statues do not represent ancestors, but incarnate tutelary spirits - •They reinforce the status and prestige of owner, who may even hold them in their arms, have dialogues with them, and generally assures their well-being - •Larger ones are used in divination, medicine (esp. smallpox epidemics), and trials when men engaged in disputes swear by the statue which they must kiss - •This example is exceptional because (for reasons unknown) one arm was omitted by the sculptor - •Principal characteristics of such statues are unique in African art: very elongated arms, openwork between body and arms, simplified facial features with very long earlobes - •Statues were also used in rain-making rituals, and some were kept in the rainmakers house - •Alternation of convex and concave shapes define the statues aesthetically

Bwoom Helmet Masks, Kuba, D.R. Congo,

- Mwaash aMbooy, king and husband of Ngaady aMwaash, and his brother Bwoom fought at one time over Ngaady aMwaash's favor - His heavy, blindfolded helmet mask (dancer looks through nostrils) is inferior of that of the king - Events in dance, when the two male masks (Bwoom and Mwaash aMbooy) interact, are said to refer to the origin myths of the Kuba kingdom and to episodes of Kuba history

Attributed to Yu, King of Kom, Male and Female Royal Figure, Kom, Cameroon Grassland, Cameroon

- Nearly life-size figures originate from Kom, a kingdom in the Grasslands of Cameroon with about 100,000 people - Male figure holds a drinking horn, indispensable for ceremonies in honor of ancestors (use of horns reserved for distinguished personalities) - Female figure holds staff of the type used by women walking or working in the fields - Animal figures supporting the stools typical also indicates royal ownership; as does the sheet copper used for the faces Materials: wood and copper

Nkisi Nkondi Healing and Oath Taking Figure, Minkisi, Kongo/Vili, D.R. Congo

- Nkisi Nkondi and Nkondi Tatu (for Yombe) are the famous "nail fetishes" (Note: sg. Nkondi; pl. Zinkondi) - Studded with trapezoidal metal blades (baaku), used to cut away foliage...they cut through conflicting arguments to get to the truth - Some...stick their tongues out to warn the viewer of his ability to punish and destroy; others coils (mfuumfu) and rope here and there among the blades > ability...to find, size, and tie up anyone who is guilty - Statues are about social healing/reconciliation and the curing of disease

Figural Pot, Mangbetu, D. R. Congo

- Numerous figurative pots made by the Mangbetu and neighboring Azande feature prominently the deformed skulls and elaborate coiffure - The deformed skulls, the Mangbetu believed, also had a "practical" function in that it protected against sorcery - Lower part of pot, patterns crafted by women; upper part with the head crafted by man Materials: ceramic

Kibulu Ritual House, Eastern (Kasai) Pende, Mukanzo, Mbellenge, D. R. Congo

- Pende originated in Angola, but were displaced presumably by the Chokwe during their expansion; settled eventually in the Kwango River region, to the west of the Yaka; they became incorporated into the Lunda political structure - Pende split up into three sub-groups (eastern, central, and western) Pende, each with its own distinctive artistic styles > more abstract, geometric style in the east (Kasai region) and a more naturalistic style in the center and west > our emphasis will be primarily on the eastern Pende - Pende are governed by great chiefs, who live in ritual houses called Kibulu, used to store sacred objects for rituals they perform - Has to be built in a single day and may not be repaired > reminder of chief's temporary rule - Inner enclosure protected by poles, delineating the royal/ancestral sphere from that of everyday village life

Wooden Gong, Mangbetu, D. R. Congo

- Played in royal orchestras that also included drums, irons bells, and horns - Performed during formal, ceremonial occasions, but were also used during military expeditions Materials: wood and tacks

Mwaash aMbooy Mask, Kuba, D.R. Congo

- Quintessential royal royal mask > key emblem of the nyim in Nsheng, as well as the kum apoong in other Kuba chiefdoms - Worn by the chief at dances before the assembled community on the day he is installed - Never appears by itself; rather, it is part of whole-body outfit comprising a fan composed of eagle feathers, and laden with beads and shells

Chihongo Face Masks, Chokwe, Angola/D. R. Congo

- Reveal important aspects of Chokwe cosmology and are believed to incarnate spirits of illustrious, deceased ancestors - They are called akishi (sg. mukishi) in Angola (in Zambia: Makishi/sg. Likishi - The most powerful and prestigious mask of the Chokwe; it is the archetype of all male ancestors, emanating "the spirit of wealth and power" - Performed at the Mukanda of a son or male relative of a chief, as well as during annual ceremonies that commemorate the royal lineage Materials: wood with dark brown shining patina, camwood powder, fiber, feathers, caning, glass beads, coins, metal tags

Idangani Mask, Salampasu, D. R. Congo

- Salampasu are a fierce and independent people of about 60,000 - The neighbors of the Salampasu regarded them as cannibals, and some do so to the present day - As an individual rose through the hierarchy of Mugongo, they gained esoteric knowledge and were allowed to wear masks - Less "powerful" than the Mukinka - Characterized by a large, padded forehead and nose formed out of dark cloth made from plant fiber Materials: fibers, raffia, feathers

Nkangi Kiditu Crucifix, Kongo (lower Congo)

- Several examples of metal crosses by native artists are known; one of the few artworks that can be unambiguously attributed to the old kingdom of Congo - Became symbols for meeting places of the living and the dead

Galukoshi Divination Instrument, Pende, Kwilu-Loange region, D. R. Congo

- Specific to the Pende - Used in the context of healing, to identify sorcerers and criminals and (supposedly) works like a lie detector

Pumbu Mask, Eastern (Kasai) Pende, D. R. Congo

- Stands for the power of the chief, but it is an angry mask, which is brought out in times of crisis - Danced with weapons and dancer needs to be restrained with cords; before the end of the dance, a chicken or goat must be sacrificed - Elongated with a "beard" consisting of patterns drawn various southern Congo traditions: lozenges (cf. Kuba), wave-like knots (cf. Chokwe-Portuguese designs), etc Materials: wood and polychrome pigment

Standing male figure, Jukun, Nigeria, 20th century

- Statues were brought out for rain and harvest ceremonies - Given the geographic and cultural proximity to the neighboring Mumuye, the close stylistic similarity to the Mumuye spirit statues is not surprising Material: wood with dark patina

Royal Stool/Largw Stool (Babinki), Cameroon Grassland, Cameroon, 19th century, wood and glass beads

- Stools are not intended for daily use, but reserved for ceremonies and festivals; kings are buried on stools like this - Not all stools are reserved for royal household (ex. below), but they are reserved for dignitaries - Seat is supported by human figure(s) meant to represent a servant

Harp, Mangbetu, D.R. Congo

- The Azande and Mangbetu, in the north-western corner of what is today the D.R. Congo, formed centralized kingdoms with rich court cultures - The elongated head is a reference to the former Mangbetu practice of skull elongation - Variety of animal skins were used to cover the resonator, including pangolin scales, okapi and leopard pelts, and snake and lizard skins - Over time, the importance of the harp as a musical instrument was replaced by its importance as an art object > this evolution led to instruments that were completely unplayable—with strings too close together, unusable tuning pegs, flattened sound boxes, etc.

Minkisi, Kongo, D.R. Congo

- The Kongo people are best known for the Minkisi (sg. Nkisi) power figures and "nail fetishes" (note: not all Minkisi are "nail fetishes" but Minkisi may be "nail fetishes"), which exist in an endless variety of forms and configurations - Nkisi = "medicine of God" falls into two main categories > objects made for traditional therapists/ healers (Nganga Mbuki) or diviners (Nganga Ngombo) - Shell on the back refers to water from which the empowering spirit comes; shells and nuts together command the spirit to look into the future; kunda bell "invokes" the spirit - Fukama mooka va bunda gesture...Nganga objects operate in mode of humility (nlembami), in a position of invocation (fuka kia bindookila), addressing mystery (ndombolo), and voicing prayer (nsambudulu

Mukinka Mask, Salampasu, D. R. Congo

- The highest-ranking Salampasu mask, worn at war ceremonies, celebrating brave "headhunters" - Wooden mask covered with copper plates - The Salampasu are warriors - The little balls made of rattan strips that are suspended from a long beard typical for the presence of an elder appear to symbolize masculinity - Coiffure out of fiber balls is also very typical for Salampasu art

Isikimanji Figure, Ndengese, D.R. Congo

- The only type of art known from them that represent the power of kingship, passed to a new king upon his ascension - The protective gesture of the hands framing center of his body implies guardianship, alludes to common origin of his subjects from whom he anticipates cooperation - The conical headdress is a sign of the highest status, thought to signify power and secrecy; it can be compared to palm wine cups and the headdress of some Bwoom masks of the Kuba

Male Kifwebe Mask, Songye, D. R. Congo

- The political organization of the Songye rests on the authority of the chief, a sacred and benevolent figure, who lives in Kabinda, in a residence called Epata: chief enjoys great magical-religious powers; linked to two secret societies, one practicing witchcraft (buci) and sorcery (masende), and the other, which comes under the control of the first, is based on the control of Bifwebe masks - Protect against evil spirits and to encourage female fertility, accompany the investiture and death of important titled individuals as well as the initiation rituals of the masking society itself - Masks and their manufacture were controlled by the bwadi bwa kifwebe, a dominant "educational" society which helped to maintain control through the use of these masks (particularly if powerbase of chief was instable, or if power was shared/rotated among influential men) - Male Bifwebe masks can be distinguished from female masks by the presence of pronounced comb or crest - Symbolic meaning of color: white = purity and peace, moon and light; red = blood, fire, courage, power, but also danger and magic - Female Kikashi masks signal positive forces; they typically appear at nightly dances, such as at lunar ceremonies, the establishment of a new chief, or funeral of a dignitary materials: wood and pigment

Buffalo mask, Bamenda, Cameroon Grassfields, Cameroon, 20th century

- The skull of a buffalo is associated with chiefly authority - Danger of mask "running wild" and causing damage > bound with ropes during public performance, accompanied by medicine man, sprinkling water to calm it down, to "cool it down" Materials: wood and polychrome paint

Cloth and Royal Dress Tcaka, Kuba-Shoowa

- Their geometric weavings and embroidery combining raffia, bark cloth, and European cloth... - Most pieces of cloth are sown together from several patches; production a collective undertaking > men cultivate palm trees that provide inner bark; weaving by men, embroidery by women; final assembly by both > very time intensive process, involving multiple techniques (embroidery, applique, patchwork, dyeing)

Reliquary Statue, Kongo-Solongo, D.R. Congo

- This statue marks the transition, geographically and stylistically, between Congo and Angola - The face with its angular/triangular features and the helmet-like coiffure recalls the art of the Chokwe in Angola - Figure holds small amount of "magic materials" between its hands

Mask of an Ancestor Spirit, Yombe or Kongo, village of Kasadi, Central Kongo province, D.R. Congo

- Typical example of a mask reserved for diviners and persons administering rituals - Mostly dark, but coated with white kaolin (luvemba) when they are supposed to represent the spirits of (deceased ancestors) - Most of the masks of this type belonged to two types of initiation societies, the nganga a ngongo (diviners) and nganga a mpemba dimpombo (healers) - Become one with the soul and the spirit of the ancestor during their ceremonies

Ngaady aMwaash Mask, Kuba, D.R. Congo

- Unique tradition of polychrome masks that is closely tied to court culture, chiefs, title holders, etc - Represents the ideal of (female) beauty - Daughter of the great God Woot, and the incestuous sister-wife of the first king from whom all Kuba royalty trace their lineage - Diagonal lines below the eyes represent tears and refer to the hardships of women as well as the funerary context in which this mask also performs - Strip of beadwork that covers her mouth command silence or suffering in silence - Lozenge patterns

Monumental Mask, Banyang (?), Cameroon Grassland, Cameroon

- Very large, anthropomorphic masks play a central role in the mask tradition of the Cameroon Grasslands - Some groups consider them "mothers" of other masks and treat them with great respect - The "puffed up" cheeks are supposed to allude to age, dignity and wisdom Material: wood

Tabacco Pipe, Bamum, Cameroon Grasslands, Cameroon

- Very popular among men and women in the Grasslands - Pipes adorned with animal and human figures are among the king's most important possessions > publicly displayed at major ceremonies and festivities, along with other objects from the treasury > not meant for daily use; ceremonial function - the open-worked bands and knobs > known as "spider motif" > found on many Grasslands decorative items, the spider motif alludes to large earth spider, which lives in a burrow below ground > connects the realm of humans (above ground) with that of the ancestors (below ground) > spider is symbol of supernatural wisdom and auspicious power and evocative of ancestral spirits Materials: clay, wood, pewter, beads

Drummers, Nkanu, D. R. Congo

- Whitened faces set in a heart-shaped "cut out" designates a native Nkanu/Yaka (not Europeans) > whitened faces suggest a distinctive facial decoration (n'ganzi) that was worn by many Nkanu/Yaka men and women; Westerners were defined by attire - colonial helmets, vests with buttons, trousers, shoes - along with pink, yellow and ochre skin tones - In 1903, the Nkanu drummer on top was famously given by the Nkanu community to the Belgian King Leopold II, and subsequently became an icon of Nkanu/Yaka art in general Materials: wood and polychrome earth-colored pigment

So Mask; Fang-Ntumu

- anthropozoomorphic masks are identifiable by their curved horns (presumably referencing antelopes), b/w paint - the role of these masked on the lowest level of So initiation for boys aged five to eight (Alu rite)

Kuyu, Republic of Congo

- can be divided into to two "totemic clans": that of the panther in the west and that of the snake in the east - each has their own secret society (ottote)

Mbumba, Sangu, Gabon

- closely related to the Kota reliquary figures, just less brass

The Kota (Gabon, Congo)

- consists of heavily wooded areas - famous for their reliquary figures; most copied - villagers were very "discrete" about these objects; especially after the French began to suppress the ancestor cult

Key Characteristics for all Ngil Masks

- elongated facial features - esp. nose, small nose - curving eyebrows - large forehead - prognathic mouths - scarification on masks mirror scarification on the fang; geometric and zig-zag patterns

Okuyi (Mokudj), Punu/Lumbu, Gabon

- faces are more diamond-shaped or triangular with large one eyes - there are black versions as well - represent either men or old women - Ikwara (night masks) - training masks

Key Characteristics for all Byeri

- hairline across the top of the heart-shaped head - broad forehead - wig-like headdress (ekuma) often with stylized plaits (worn by Fang warriors) - large mouth (often w/pointy teeth) - short nose narrow chin - frontal pose w/arms separated from body - often holding a stylized cup for offerings; rounded - shortened calves/muscles - protruding navel

Key Characteristics of Ngontang Masks

- hear-shaped faces - geometric scarification patterns - narrow incised eyes - pouting mouths - white faces

Key Characteristics of Kuk Masks

- heart-shaped head - horn-like projections - typical to have horns be incised with further masks

Kuk Mask, Kwele, Gabon/Congo

- originated in southern Cameroon, but after the Fang obtained rifles, they started to harass their neighbors, forcing them to migrate further south - make appearances in the Bwete rituals which focus on driving out sorcerers and preventing malicious acts - initially, Bwete referred to drawing on the powers of the relics of the dead for the benefit of the living - modeled after the moon, evocative of light, life, even resurrection in another world, where one is free from the fear of sorcerers and spirits eating human souls

Key Characteristics of the Kota-Mahongwe Reliquary Figures

- oval form - concave, shovel-shaped face with slightly protruding button eyes - extensive use of thin metal strips

Ekekek Mask, Fang, N. Gabon

- owes its origins to the contact with Europeans - suppose to represent Europeans as terrifying beings Materials: light wood with polychrome paint, raffia, plant/animal fibers

M'bete/Ambete, Gabon/Congo

- practice ancestor worship, but don't use reliquary boxes - the figures are the containers - arms are usually attached to the body, faces are flattened, some covered with brass sheets Materials: wood, kaolin, pearls, shells, cowries, fiber, metal

Ngil Secret Society; Fang

- purpose of the Ngil rite was above all to frighten - through spectacular apparition of the Ngil mask - those who might have had evil intentions or were hiding forbidden fetishes (Face of Ngil) - •Ngil maskers went from village to village...when an unexplained death had occurred or witchcraft was suspected - banned by the colonial administration around 1910-1920

Bellows, Punu, Gabon

- somewhat generic among the ethnic groups of the Congo Basin - assoc. with blacksmith; implement to blow air into glowing coals, fan fire > most commonly produced objects are nails and arms - fraught with sexual symbolism taught during initiations: the opening through which the air compressed suggested a woman's vulva; the skin pockets of the air compartments, a man's testicles; lastly, the stick(s) used to operate the instrument represented a penis

Tsogho, South-Central Gabon

- southern neighbors of the Fang, their art synthesizes influences from several neighboring groups: Fang (byeri), M'bete/Ambete(reliquaries), Punu & Lumbo (use of kaolin for white complexion) - represent the primordial woman Disumba - Bwiti society Materials: light wood and kaolin

Ndzebi and Tsengi

- sub-group of the Punu - asiatic features w/o scale scarification that was replaced by linear scarification - large domes forehead

Kidumu Masks, Teke-tsaayi, Congo

- territory consisted of hierarchically organized kingdoms, mostly with a blacksmith as a chief - only the Tsaayi sub-group of the Teke has masks associated with the Kidumu society - patterns/symbols can also contain esoteric references to the sky, earth, water, rainbows, python, crocodile, Tsaayi migration, links between the stars, nature spirits, and the hidden presence of the ancestors, the encounter of Pygmies (indigenous population) during Tsaayi migration, woman as intermediary of nature, the flux of metallurgy Materials: wood, patina, kaolin, feathers, fibers, fabric

Mbulu-Ngulu, Kota-Obamba, Gabon

- the "classical" examples - reliquary figures only used in the context in the southern region Materials: wood, brass, copper, iron

Key Characteristics of the Okuyi (Mokudj)

- the scale scarification/decoration on the forehead and the temples (most commonly 9 or 12 scales on forehead) believed to symbolize the number of the primordial Punu clans - slit eyes - high-arched brows - fleshy and one/or several chignons

Okuyi (Mokudj), Punu, Gabon

- the term refers both to the typical white masks of the people and the secret society that organizes the masquerades of the type shown here - masks are considered female and convey the ideal of female beauty - male performers may be sabotage (sorcery) during their performance; requires vigilance and assistants

Masks, Kota-Obamba, Gabon

- their masks are less well-known than their reliquaries - brass was used to make it

Ngbe Society Emblem Mkpa-Bekundi, Ejagham/Ekoi, Nigeria, 20th century, loose rattan plait, on cane framing, rope, adorned with a small drum, various animal skulls, tortoise shell, horn-shaped wooden stick wrapped up in leather, scrolled animal skin, brush-like objects, the rim framed with plant fiber

- •Ejagham/Ekoi share many characteristics with neighboring people, for instance "Leopard Society," called Ngbe (=Ekpe) •All society gatherings were held in a special room called Achamgbe > the Mkpa-Bekundi was attached to the wall opposite of the entrance door to the sacred room in the center •Each item on the board had a certain meaning > the animal skulls, remains of animals eaten in ritual meals, remind the community that it depends on animals for food > each member has to sacrifice, when it is his turn, a goat or a similar animal •Brooms used for sweeping away hostile magic substances •Sticks are memory aids during Ngbe deliberations •Rope coils symbolically evoke the captured/constrained leopard spirit

Female mask "Wife of Va," Mumuye, Nigeria, wood, patina, kaolin, red paint, abrus beans

- •Masked ceremonies closed Mumuye initiation ceremonies; age-group organization, where each cohort is responsible for defending the village in case of outside attack and communal agricultural (cultivation of millet, sorghum, yams) and hunting activities - First manifestation of this spirit of solidarity within the group was the pooling of resources to have a mask produced to symbolize collective identity - •Initiates called themselves "Sons of Va" - •Their masks represented animals (buffalo, monkey, elephant, leopard, etc.) and were called Va or Vabong, "mother of Va," etc. - •They appeared most frequently in connection with harvest rites > when the corn had ripened, the maskers would perform during visits to neighboring farmsteads - •The type of mask shown here is the female partner of the buffalo mask appearing at the Vabong masquerade

Head Crest, Ejagham/Ekoi, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 1960s or earlier, wood covered with remains of paint, hair, basketry cap

- •forehead with raised spiral scarification mark ("drum of Ngbe"), almond-shaped eyes studded with sheet-metal elements; open mouth with individually worked death also typical characteristic of Ejagham/Ekoi art •Originally, these dance crests were real human skulls of killed enemies; they were exhibited in special trophy parades, worn by young men as a sign of manliness Later on, the real skulls were replaced by wooden replicas, while their meaning changed from being a trophy to representing an ancestor skull; from that point on, they were danced at initiation and funeral celebrations

Buffalo mask, Chamba, Nigeria, before 1972-1974, wood with dark brown patina (private coll.)

- •remarkably uniform: large, hemispherical helmet masks, carved with a huge, rectangular snout - •Only about 20,000 Chamba; chief with divine rights and power over life and death - •Besides celebrating ancestors, it appears in the context of the Vara cult celebrated the first mala, the paternal aunt of the chief - •"She" appeared in public at the masked kaa celebration, as well as at funerals of the members of the lineage > "she" would dress in the guise of a masked man in a fiber costume that represented a buffalo head, which was hollow on the inside, with jaws in the form of planks and horns curved toward the back - •This mask type came to being in the 16th/17th century, during the heyday of the Jukun, who ruled over the Chamba people at that time - •Buffalo masks also appeared at transitional rites, when a new chief was introduced - myth: one day an ancestor heard a buffalo herd approaching a watering place. The buffalos slipped off their hides, thus transforming into human beings, and took a bath in the river. The ancestor took the hide of one of the buffalo girls, who could not manage to re-transform and married her

What material has symbolic meaning on Minkisi?

All of it

Byeri

Fang - reliquary guardian figure - a wandering entity that moves around a lot - an ossuary: the bones are contained in a basket, a package, or cylinder made of bark - Strictly speaking, these ossuaries are Nesk Byeri, since the term Byeri itself refers to a hallucinogenic plant, Alan (pl. Melan), consumed during highest-level initiation - initiate had to drink a Melan concoction and spend the night next to a Byeri reliquary > under the stupefying effects of the plant, they "saw" their dead kinsmen, who gave them their true names, nicknames and personal taboos - foremost an ancestry cult, practiced in the context of extended families, clans, or specific lineages - lack original bone containers

Large helmet mask Epa, Nigeria, Yoruba, 20th century, wood, red pigment and paint (similar to presented picture)

• A special type of Yoruba mask is the Epa, with its abundant superstructure and contracted, pot-shaped mask properly speaking • Found in the northeastern region of Yorubaland (among the Igbo and Ekiti Yoruba) > celebration/enactment of social roles, and historical events • Figure group composed of equestrian statue with beard and dignitary staff in the center, accompanied by 8 smaller figures (among others a female bowl bearer, maternité, depiction of Eshu) • Epa celebrations, which last for several days; young men demonstrate their skills and strength by carrying such tapering and heavy masks on their heads, while they are dancing and jumping • Strict order of appearance of different mask types: the first mask to arrive from the forest is Oloko - the "lord of the farm" • Features leopard attacking an antelope, a theme also treated in songs and dance, where man's mastery of nature in hunting and farming is dramatized • The second and third masks usually portray a hunter or warrior on horseback, often called Jagun-Jagun or Ogun, as well as the herbalist priest Osanyin • These displays emphasize the stability of communal life attained through bloodshed in war and the preparation of healing medicines • Finally, in the company of a mask depicting a woman with children, the great mask Orangun appears • In these masks, the mysterious power of women in bearing children and the power of men in organizing society through chieftaincy and kingship is affirmed • This mask presumably depicts Jagun-Jagun, who successfully repelled an attack against the town of Efon Alaiye in 1880

Saltcellar, Bini-Portuguese, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th century, ivory (similar to the presented photo)

• Among the coveted items Portuguese traders brought back to Europe were Bini-Portuguese ivories, i.e. ivory carvings by Benin artists made according to specifications and taste of the foreigners • Range of object type similar to Sapi-Portuguese ivories from Sierra Leone: saltcellars, spoons, oliphants • Yet, stylistic difference Bini-P.: two (or more) spherical containers placed on top of each other (not known in Nigerian art, rare in European); standing figures, riders • Objects of this type were mentioned for the first time in 1588 travel description by James Welsh

Three Benin Traders, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Believed to represent men who, in Benin, possessed the privilege of trading with Europeans > enviable privilege, accorded by the Oba during the first period of exchange between Portugal and Benin • Trade relations repeatedly challenged by powerful oppositional forces within Benin and by traders from the outside • Lateral figures hold manillas in their hands, the "money rings" that, at the court of Benin, became a symbol for overseas trade with Europe • Figure in the center holds a staff adorned with a crocodile holding a fish in its mouth > sign of power and control over the ocean > appears in context of European trade > "guardians of the water" that punish trading activity not officially sanctioned

Three Painted Youth, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Body paint, two types of adornment: odigba, bead collar of nobility, and eguen, bead leg adornment of 14 rows of beads on each leg • Both are worn together during ceremonial occasions when the chief is expected to come out in full regalia • Central figure on this plaque is probably crown prince Odogbo, who ascended to the throne in about 1606 with the titular name Oba Ohuan (ruled for 35 years); his father and predecessor was Oba Ehengbuda (ca. 1578-1608), the last of the five warrior kings • Ehengbuda was a great scholar of herbs of the forest, but avoided sexual contact with women (had large harem); finally, a daughter was born; a native doctor told the Oba he could transform a girl into boy > Odogbo > but rumors persisted about gender, girlish features of crown prince > at young adulthood, Ehengbuda asked the crown prince to march with a large retinue of his mates, all naked, from Uselu to Benin City > demonstration that Odogbo was male and eligible to ascend to Benin throne

Interior of a Palace Courtyard, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Can be compared with renderings of the court of Benin published by Olfert Dapper • Confirms details such as pointed tower crowned by a bronze-cast bird with outstretched wings (only claws are visible) • Snake winds itself from turret • Towers of this type marked a gate to the palace , or a passage from one courtyard to another • Palace: immense complex separated from the rest of the city by a wall; living quarters of Oba, enormous assembly hall, ceremonial rooms, extensive buildings for courtiers, dignitaries, members of palace societies, segregated space for king's harem

Portuguese with Five Manillas, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Depictions of Africans engaging in traded are rare, but there are surprisingly many Europeans/Portuguese • Europeans depicted as providers of wealth, with staff and sword > brought metal, coral and glass beads, participated in the war raids of Benin, e.g. war with Kingdom of Idah > match pike to ignite canon rounds • Manillas become attributes of Europeans > manillas were intended as armlets or anklets, but became standardizes units of exchange, rather than jewelry > used as currency with trade up north or melted down in Benin Like many other plaques, this one, too, exists as a pair

Gelede Mask in Colon style, Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, wood with greyish brown patina (

• Gelede masks can be very diverse; this one is caricature of a Westerner/colonial official (possibly French) • Central feature of all Gelede masks: protruding chin, receding forehead, three sacrification marks on cheeks • Gelede and Epa ceremonies (discussed below) are very similar in their choreography and purpose, but use different masks

Divination bowl Agere Ifa, Nigeria, Yoruba, 20th century, wood with brown patina (similar to image presented)

• Ifa oracles required a lot paraphernalia, a lot of which was stored in shrines • Containers of this type were used to store the palm or kola nuts used for the Ifa oracle - Bowls can vary in terms of size, design, motif, according to specifications of the babalawo

Two Portuguese with Manillas, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Manillas provided raw material for the brass casters in Benin, made growth and refinement of court art possible • Manillas did not necessarily come from Euope; most of them were brought to West Africa from Congo and Angola regions, with Europeans acting as middlemen

Oba in Military Garb and Entourage, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Oba in center as commander-in-chief during war: cap helmet with feathers, necklace of leopard teeth, bell-shaped pendant on breast • Holding ceremonial sword (eben) and staff, both royal insignia • Members of entourage carry typical Benin shields • Small figures in background: sword carriers and horn blowers • Top background: Portuguese soldiers who fought side-by-side the Edo against Muslim invaders from up north

Olowe of Ise, Olumeye (Altar bowl), Yoruba, Nigeria, ca. 1925, wood

• Over the course of his career, he produced doors, posts, chairs, stools, tables, bowls, drums, and ritual objects for palaces and shrines • Olumeye = "one who knows the honor," in reference to female mother figure supporting the bowl • Mother serves as a messenger to the orisha (god(s)), offering the bowl and its contents (kola nuts, etc.) to the god to whom it is dedicated • Notice the crested hairdo of the figures in this object, which is typical for Yoruba art • Standing male nudes on the base challenged conventions of Yoruba art

Oba with Four Attendants, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Plaques were attached in symmetrical pairs to the onto pillars and verandas of the old Benin palace building • Iconography of plaques is very varied, but court life plays center role • This example shows an Oba (probably Oba Esigie) and his retainers (protect Oba's head with raised shields; others with swords), presumably during a ritual at a palace ceremony, such as the Igue (rite dedicated to the blessing of the Oba's head, thus renewing his spiritual power) or Ugie Erha Oba • Retainer in the left background holds a spool-shaped ekpokin box

Oshe Shango staff of the Ogboni society, Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, brass (similar to presented image)

• Shango (legendary, tyrannical 4th king of Oyo, western Yorubaland), the god of thunder, is said to be able to kill enemies by throwing thunderbolts; his favorite wife Oya represents the river of Niger; she is associated with tempest, which goes along with thunder and lightening - Double-ax form above head represents a stylized thunderbolt; ax is related to the head, symbol for inner being, oriinu

Battle Scene, possibly from Idah War, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Six plaques are known that document war motifs; this one contains the largest number of figures • Large figure in the center: a Benin war chief, seizing one of the enemies, stabbed and dragged off a horse; other battle scenes off the sides • Oba Orhogebua commissioned a certain Ahammangiwa (allegedly a white man) to capture his exploits in battle

Archer, Tsoede, Nigeria, Tada, Late 14th to 15th century, bronze with tin

•As many as four different styles are represented by the nine works, suggesting the idea that they originated from areas different from the one where they were found •Archer clad in armor, carrying a quiver of arrows on his back, mounted on rectangular base; small dagger is slipped into the front of the garment

Female Pair of Twin Figures Ere Ibeji, Area of Abeokuta, Nigeria, Yoruba, 20th century, wood with black and indigo paint, pearl necklaces (similar to image presented)

• Special relationship between Shango and twin figures, sometimes also called "children of thunder" • Yoruba see twins as spirited, unpredictable and fearless (like their patron orisha); bring affluence and well-being > mothers publicly bag for twins • Downside: high infant mortality; if a twin dies, its parents consult a babalawo, to learn how to placate the spirit of the dead child (surviving child in danger) • Babalawo typically advises parents to procure an Ere Ibeji, which needs to have same gender as deceased twin > dwelling place for the spirit • Fitted out with tiny garments, necklaces made of beads, covered against cold weather, etc. • Figure is bathed, fed, powdered, pampered with oil and indigo > eventually, the surviving twin may become the custodian of the figure

Stool, Yoruba, Area of Ijebu, Nigeria, 19th/20th century, wood and polychrome paint

• Stools for dignitaries are related to veranda posts and embrace a wide range of themes • Riding or even owning a horse was always a sign for high social rank • About 1600 B.C.E., horses appeared in northern and parts of Western Africa, but only much later in tropical latitudes • Because of the long plaited hair, this figure can be identified as the hunter ogun • He is the god of hunting and war, as well as the god of iron, the blacksmiths and wood carvers. As such, he symbolize violence and legitimates destruction, which is necessary for new beginnings and innovations (similar to the role of death in life)

Three Dignitaries Striking Bird with Prophecy Staff, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

• Story of the "Bird of Prophecy" (oro): In the early 16th century, the rival kingdom of Idah, northwest of Benin and across the Niger River marched on Benin and almost conquered it • A strong defense on the outskirts of Benin City repulsed the attackers and the retreating army was hotly pursued by Benin warriors to Idah, the invaders' capital - A bird prophecy was heard that Benin would go downdefeated,

Ifa Tappers, Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, can be brass or ivory

• Tappers are used by the diviners to strike the Ifa tray with the pointed end in order to attract orunmila's attention at the beginning of the session • Throws 16 palm nuts to determine a configuration of eight sets of signs; draws signs in dust, then erases them > 256 configurations, each known by name and associated with a body of oral literature > bablawo chants the verses, client applies them to their own situation - The broad end is often hollowed, forming a bell, with a small clapper inside, which is rattled during invocations

Dance Wand in Honor of Eshu, Yoruba, Nigeria, wood, leather, cowrie shells, brass bone

• The trickster god Eshu is represented in many contexts: house posts, lintels, doors, bowls, and staffs • Special congregations of worshippers who make use of of dance wands, assemblages and altar figures > used in processions and festivals held in honor of the god • Crested hairdo (sexual/phallic connotations) typical of Yoruba art, stings of cowrie shells (money) •Eshu is a dynamic Orisha, constantly changing

Veranda posts (opo ogboni), Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, wood and pigment

• Veranda posts can take on a variety of subjects and styles • Besides their function as architectural sculptures to support roofs and hallways in royal palaces, they demonstrated royal power and strength • Representation of the king, his family and his retinue showed the sovereign's descent from important ancestors, whereas mother-figures are mostly representations of the queen mother: the continuity of the dynasty was embodied in the origin of the future king. • Other examples could be more mundane, such as the monkey below

Voodoo-Fetish, Nigeria, Yoruba, 1850-70, wood, canes, clay-like mass

• Vodoo fetishes of the time seen with the Fon, can also be found among the Yoruba • This one contains: sacrificial traces (palm oil), bullet casings (eyes), a head sculpture rising from a conical base, surrounded by five figures, replication of a gun made of cane and wood

Oro Efe Mask of the Gelede Set, Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, Yoruba, Nigeria, 20th century, wood and polychrome paint

• Yoruba have several masquerades, the most famous of which use Gelede (southwestern Yorubaland) and Epa masks (northeastern Yorubaland) • Gelede made up of both male and female dancers, led by an elderly woman • Masquerade is an offering to "Our Mothers" > sculpture, dance, song intended to convince Our Mothers to use their special powers to the good of the community, instead of using these powers destructively • Eshu may appear before succession of Gelede masks • Types of masks in the Gelede set: Iyanla (Great Mother), Eye Oro (Spirit Bird), Oro Efe (male leader of the society, and servant of the Mothers) • Oro Efe emerges for a nightlong presentation of songs, proverbs, praise poems, riddles, and jokes > songs include humor and sarcasm, but function as invocation, calling on the powers of Our Mothers • Performers face is concealed by a veil, mask on top of head Superstructure alludes to pythons (or other animals, crescent moon,) turban, etc.

Pair of ritual staffs Edan (Pair of figures), Ogboni society, Yoruba, Nigeria, 19th/20th century, brass

• Yoruba kings ruled through councils and associations, such as Ogboni, consisting of both male and female elders • In pre-colonial times Ogboni society not only had religious, but also political and jurisdictional functions; with the founding of "Reformed Ogboni Fraternity " in 1914, the old rites of Ogboni Society lost their meaning • Edan staffs were important ritual objects in Ogboni society; they were worn around the neck as a symbol for membership; protected their owners against diseases and played an important role during funeral celebrations • Typically feature a male and female figure to form a single entity • Also serves a badge of membership

Oracle board (opon ife) and utensils of the Ifa oracle, Yoruba, Nigeria, wood

• Yoruba venerate an infinite number of orisha (two primordial orisha: orunmila (destiny - certainty, fate, equilibrium, order - and eshu - uncertainty, chance, violence; eshu is orunmila's messenger) • Diviner, babalawo, mediates between orunmila and the human community through the divination process Ife > consulted once every 4 days •Eshu's face in the middle of divination board • Tapper iroke, carved with two pairs of janus heads; diviners necklace opele, with halved seed vessels thread on a string of fabric and cord material; ifa oracle head, made of bone, • The diviner strikes with the tapper iroke the ifa board in order to get the attention of orunmila, the deity to whom the demand for prophecy is directed • The opon ifa is covered with flour; by throwing the diviners necklace on the board, the babalawo generates the oracle from the lines drawn on the plate; the various utensils are kept in wooden boxes called agere ifa

Bell, Nigeria, Yoruba, 20th century, brass

• Youba and their neighbors (Fon) have produced a great many such brass bells - Commemorate of the ancestors, and are placed on family altars

Uhunmwun Elao (Commemorative Head) of a Queen Mother, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 15th - 16th century, brass

•A distinct group of about six or so commemorative heads (Uhunmwun Elao) depict the Iyoba, the Queen Mother of Benin (birth mother if the son who would become Oba; primogeniture) •This example executed in the typical "early" style of naturalism; relatively thin casting •All of these heads and metal objects would be made by the Oba's guild of royal bronze casters (Igon Eronmwom) in Benin city •Conical hairdo with lattice net of coral beads is part of the convention of depicting the Queen Mother

Basket of Human Heads, Owo (Yoruba), Nigeria, 15th century, terracotta

•A more unsettling aspect of this culture is human sacrifices of strangers or slaves captured in war •Several examples of such baskets with offerings of decapitated heads survive

Leopard Head, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 17th-18th century, ivory, iron, brass

•Another example of a leopard sculpture associated with court of Benin, probably carved during the rule of Oba Ewuakpe, Akenzua I, or Eresoyen, each of whom impressed visitors with their lavish use of ivory •Presumably one of a pair of leopards; sections carved out of elephant tusks: head, front legs/chest, back legs/buttock •Surface damage due to exposure to the elements

Ritual Vessel, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, Ile-Ife, 13th to 14th century, terracotta

•Classical art of Ife: Archeological evidence about early Ife and Owo (Leo Frobenius, Frank Willett, Bernard Fagg, et al.) •Bronze, terracotta, stone sculptures > shrine and tomb furniture items associated with pottery pavements > some found in situ; other artifacts reburied in relatively recent times •Benches/altars with pottery vessels of type shown here typically found inside courtyards > bottom of pots deliberately broken > libations

Ivory Mask of Queen Mother, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th century, ivory

•Example of a carved ivory face mask, worn as hip masks during festivities; cache of four such masks found during British 1897 raid in Oba's bed chamber •Naturalism of 16th Benin art can be observed •Traces of metal inlay made of iron/copper; some examples of this type of art were originally worn with headband appliqué made of coral beads

Crowned Head of a Queen, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, Ite Yemoo, 12th to 15th century, terracotta

•Excavations of pavement-period sites unearthed a series of heads in both metal and terracotta •Defined by a great sense of gravity and naturalism, which have since become some of the most iconic works of African art •Originally brightly colored they were unearthed in the context of the pavement-period courtyards/altars > much of this art was presumably created for royal courts •Portraits of ruler, officials, and their families •In this example, portrait of a queen with a crown of five tiers of beads •A row of feathers would have originally projected over the serene face •Crest has been lost; note circular pendant on forehead •One of the key characteristics of many Ife works is the vertical striations > found on both terracotta and metal heads •Mostly interpreted to allude to sacrification pattern of the people who made them; this interpretation has been called into question recently

Carved Altar Tusk, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 18th century, carved ivory

•From the middle period (1550) onwards, the commemorative heads were made in Benin •Designed to support huge elephant tusks, adorned with carved bas-reliefs depicting the events during the reign of the Oba or the Ozomo, Benin's top war chief > hereditary position with royal status •Royal imagery: •The next slide shows the arrangement in site; note that in 1914, the ousted king's son was allowed to restore the monarchy and to begin rebuilding the palace, but Benin as a political empire was a thing of the past > hence, there are relatively recent photographs of the Oba, the court, the altars, etc., giving us a flavor court life in ancient Benin

Seated Female Figure, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, 12th to 15th century, terracotta

•Full figures preserved intact, such as this one, are rare •Most famous example, made of copper (next slide) associated with a group of metal figures that was discovered in two settlements, Jebba Island and Tada, along the Niger river, 120 miles north of Ife > largest human and animal bronze works in sub-Saharan Africa

Head Crest, Banyang, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 19th century, wood, skin, iron, reed/Head Crest, Ejagham/Ekoi, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 20th century, wood covered with antelope skin, metal eyes and teeth, hair, missing basketry cap

•Further examples showing Cross River skin-covered mask genre, and the effect it produces on the beholder • Banyang are a forest people living west of the Keaka branch of the Ejagham, with whom they share many cultural features, incl. use of skin-covered masks at initiations and funerals •Skin-covered headdresses were used - among other purposes - by the Ngbe society of the Ejagham, which was the oldest Cross River secret society

Hornblower, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th to 17th century, brass

•Hornblowers were part of the retinue of the Oba; they announce the Oba and his entourage with blasts on a horn, whenever there is public procession from the palace > cf. illustration from Olfert Dapper's 1668 travel account, showing annual procession of king outside palace wall, including the depiction of one such hornblower •Processions involved hundreds of heavily armed warriors; they were also preludes to attack on enemy territory: drums, clanging of swords, spears, bronze bells, high-pitched pipes and flutes, blasts of horn > intimidating effect on enemy •Hornblowers were also frequently depicted on the bronze plaques which were used to decorated the pilasters of the royal court

Pendant, Owo, Nigeria, 15th century, bronze/One of a Pair of Double-Cylinder Bracelets, Owo (?), Yoruba, Nigeria, 17th century, ivory

•In both objects, sacrificial rams' heads figure prominently (along with crocodiles on the bracelet) •In the Yoruba tradition, the ram symbolizes royal power •There is no monumental metal sculpture among the Owo, however, the Ife tradition of this type of art find its extension in that of the court of Benin

Head of Oni with Crown, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, Wunmonije District, 12th to 15th century, copper alloy

•Like terracotta counterparts, these heads may have been placed on altars •Alternatively, holes the bottom of the neck may have been used to attach them to a carved wooden body > full figures •Modern Yoruba funerary rites contain homage to images of deceased ancestors > similar function •Ife/Yoruba believe that Ase, a person's energy or strength, was held in the head •Other theories have suggested that these heads were used as mounts for displaying crowns at annual rites of renewal and purification when the ruler's inner head was blessed

Uhunmwun Elao (Commemorative Head of a king), Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 17th - 18th century, brass

•Most head sculptures have been interpreted as royal commemorative heads •Around the neck, they usually have strings of coral beads that look like brickwork and may reach over the chin to the mouth •On their heads they wear a cap, also out of coral beads, to which strings of four or five coral beads or wing-shaped elements may be attached •Parallel indentations on forehead with iron inlays > iron, the result of the transformation of earth into metal, is believed to have special powers in many African societies •Notices that this example of a later head is less naturalistic than previous one (neck has disappeared, facial features more stylized) > this observation holds true in general for the evolution of these heads

Drum Ornament, Mbembe, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 17th-18th century, wood

•Name Mbembe given by foreigners; about 40,000 people in the border area between Nigeria and Cameroon •Only about a dozen such figures known; first published in 1974 •Figures decorated monumental slit drums, a common type in the southeastern regions of Nigeria and southwestern parts of Cameroon; sound of such drums could be heard up to 10 kilometers away

Head of Oni, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, Wunmonije District, 12th to 15th century, brass and gold

•Oni was a descendant of Oduduwa, viewed as god-king; confined to palace, rituals and ceremonies defined his existence; made public appearances only when well being of the state required it > divine, mysterious, aloof •Holes along hairline: used to attach headgear; holes in lower part of the face: attached facial hair or to attach a beaded shield to hide the lower portion of the face > veiling sacred ruler to hide him from the glances of the profane •Classical example of a pavement-period head with striations •Mastery of lost-wax casting process •Metals used are mostly alloys with high copper content, plus zinc and lead (brass) > scholars believe that metals were obtained through trans-Saharan trade networks connecting Ife to northwest Africa and even Europe

Bowl bearer Olomeye, Nigeria, Yoruba, 20th century , wood, polychrome paint, glass beads

•Other divination paraphernalia (not just for Ifa), w ould be stored in large, multi-compartmented, lidded containers called Opon Igedeu, or, if they take on the form of a human figure, Olomeye • Figures of a kneeling woman offering a bowl can be seen in many Yoruba shrines; it is unlikely that the figure had a male companion, as it is often the case for female figures of eshu - Probably represents a female worshipper and not the trickster-god eshu himself in female form

Male Miniature Head, Owo, Nigeria, Igbo 'Laja, 15th century, terracotta

•Owo is an ancient town, located on the eastern border of Yoruba, halfway between Ife and Benin (settlers from Ile-Ife?) •Early art of Owo reflects themes and naturalism of 14th-cent. classical portrait style of Ife, mixed with strong Benin influence after mid-15th century > local architecture, political titles, ceremonial costumes, regalia (coral beads, beaded crowns, loop-handled swords), rel. rituals and ceremonials > distinctive style in terracotta and ivory carvings •Excavations of small terracotta statues close to storehouses or important shrines > contemp. With Pavement Period •Cap headdress, sideburns, moustache are all typical features of Owo miniature heads

Ritual Container, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 17th century, brass

•Sacred vase with ritual motifs in high relief on surface: tortoises, snails, cross-legged people; intricate geometric motifs, typical for Yoruba or Benin art •Handles formed by pythons holding sacrificial human victims in their jaws > python is considered the king of snakes, messenger of water god Olokun, reincarnated in the person of the Oba •Used at court for ritual ablutions

Altar Stool with Intertwined Mudfish, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th century, brass

•Seat in the form of two intertwined mudfish (malapterus electricus; hallmark - whiskers) •Mudfish associated with sea god Olokun; can grow up to a meter in length; feared because it can inflict electrical shocks when touched •Representations of Oba with mudfish legs in reference to his great spiritual power, near divine position •Only two such altar stools are known; the other one being at the BM, London

Monolith known as Opa Oranmiyan ("Staff of Oranmiyan"=mystical son of Oduduwa), Ife (Yoruba), archaic period, Nigeria, before 800, granite and iron

•Several monoliths at Ile-Ife from so-called Archaic period (before 800; pre-pavement) ; Opa Oranmiyan the largest and best known •Adorned with spiral-headed iron nails > associated with Ogun, the god of iron? •Commemoration of an early warrior-ruler and acknowledge his association with Ogun? •Ife is the sacred city of the Yoruba, regarded as the cradle of origin and seat of political and religious authority ("naval of the world") •According to Yoruba legends, it is the place where man was created and where various people dispersed to populate the world •Early 13th century > defense system, earthen ramparts; densely populated > warfare between city-states •Palace at center with concentric rings of fortification walls; radiating farmland; shrines to various deities throughout city •Paved courtyard in palaces > sacred spaces; with mud altars

Court of Benin - Benin Bronzes - Nigeria (2)

•Since 16th century: internal rivalries, incessant war at borders, expansion of European influence through trade, Muslim raids and incursions from the north •British punitive expedition of 1897 sacked the city and disposed the Oba (Oba sacrificing, human sacrifices) •Over two thousand objects in royal treasures were looted from palace and shipped to Great Britain, from where they spread all over the world, creating awareness for the extraordinary refinement of Benin art •The corpus of Benin court art consists of a wide variety of objects in wood, ivory, iron, terracotta, leather, but especially bronze (90%) •The Oba had the monopoly on the casting of bronze, and the working of ivory and coral beads •Portuguese travelers marveled at the pillars of the of the palace courtyards, which were adorned with heavy bronze plaques depicting scenes of court life, the Oba's achievements in peace and war, and even the manifold cultural and trade exchanges with European visitors > some of these plaques are seen installed here •Other looted objects (mostly associated with palace shrines): memorial heads and related altar pieces, ritual stools, vessels, animal figures symbolizing royal power

Seated Figure (by Ife artist?), Tsoede, Nigeria, Tada, 13th to 15th century, copper

•So-called Tsoede bronzes (nine in total), after the legendary founder of the Nupe kingdom, who is said to have escaped from Idah (center of Igala kingdom) in a bronze canoe and to have deposited the bronze figures as symbols of his authority at several places on his way upriver, before founding the Nupe kingdom > appropriated by local people for their religious/ritual purposes •Fleshy forms, naturalistic proportions, dignified facial expression > obvious stylistic influence of Ife > trophies of war? > during 16th century, the Nupe were at war with the Yoruba city-state of Oyo, which had close ties with Ife

Pair of Leopards, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 16th-18th century, brass (similar to presented image)

•Statues of bronze leopards were produced in pairs and placed next to altars; superbe craftsmanship •Other leopard bronzes were aquamaniles intended for offerings of liquids and cleansing sacrificial ceremonies at large palace banquets; appear on bronze plaques (discussed below), guarding the Oba's palace gates •Real leopards were kept as pets at the royal court (easy to domesticate); leopards were even sacrificed at court ceremonies, f. ex. Igue festival (cf. below) •Leopard closely associated with royal power •Pairing of objects/subjects important for symmetry and balance of altars

Court of Benin - Benin Bronzes - Nigeria

•The Ife prince of Oranmiyan is said to have established a Yoruba dynasty among the scattered chieftaincies of the first Edo kingdom (13th/ early 14th century); people called the Bini; Great Benin also known as Edo •Introduced a centralized political system under a divine kingship, which, together with administrative reforms during the 15th century, laid the foundation for the expansion and flourishing of the Benin kingdom •During the rule of Oba (king) Esigie in the late 16th century, the Benin empire extended to Lagos and Dahomey to the west, to the Niger river to the east, to Ekiti to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the south (greatest expanse) •Early trade relationships with Europeans: since 1483, commercial and diplomatic relations between Benin and Portugal > trade in spices, ivory and slaves opened an avenue for Christian missionary activity and Western education of princes at court > Portuguese brought copper, western arms and ammunition, but also coral beads and gems for court regalia •In 1485 Benin City was reported to have been an impressive place, "the largest and best-ordered town" that the Portuguese had encountered "in the whole of Guinea" > fortifications, wide open streets, royal court ceremonies, displays of art and military might (17th century) •A huge retinue of courtiers, officials, priests and servants, as well as thousands of slaves and organized guilds of court craftsmen, were maintained by the king's palace > occupied half of the city; royal art patronage

Drum Ornament of a Seated Man Holding a Cut-Off Head, Mbembe, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 17th-18th century, wood

•The slit drum these figures would be holding have been lost for all but one example, preserved at the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin •Sculpture more than 3m high, weigh around a ton •This statue believed to represent the chief Mabana, famed for his courage, who lived in the 16th century •All Mbembe statues are heavily eroded

Mask of Obalufun II, Pavement Period, Ife (Yoruba), Nigeria, 12th to 15th century, copper

•Third ruler of the Ife, Obalufun II, according to legend, introduced method of metal casting, founding the Ife's rich metal arts tradition •Copper is very difficult to cast > high degree of perfection •Narrow slits below eyes suggests that this mask was made to be worn; holes on the back to attach costume •Work kept (until recently) on an altar in the palace of the present-day oni of Ife

Ikegobo (Altar of the Hand) of an Oba, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 18th century, brass

•Top (lid): royal ritual; in the center, the Oba holding implements called eben (sword insignia) in each hand > he greets his ancestors •To his side: Olukoton and Olukohi, two chiefs who have special duties when the Oba sacrifices to his hand (Ihiekhu), which celebrated the king's prowess and accomplishments •Two leopards flank square hole into which offerings of kola nuts are placed; low-relief crocodiles •Central register in relief: Oba (owner of object) with staff and attendants, including female figures: wives, queen mother also included •Base: animals that the owner sacrificed to his had (leopard, elephant, etc.) •Ikegobo was reserved to people of high rank: Oba, queen mother, chiefs, royal carvers or smiths, warriors, wealthy traders

Head of an Oba, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, late 15th to early 16th century, brass (similar to image presented)

•Traditionally, on the death of the Oba, his head was transferred to Ife, the spiritual center of the Yoruba; in exchange, a bronze head was sent to Benin, to be placed in the palace, in the sanctuary dedicated to the ancestors of the king •These heads feature typical sacrification marks in the Benin tradition, rendered with iron inserts •They are typical example for the early period of Benin court art, defined more naturalistic traits than later examples (closer to Ife tradition)

Rooster, Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria, 17th-18th century, brass

•Various explanations have been suggested for the prevalence of roosters; appeared on altars of the crown prince of Benin (Edaiken of Uselu), or functioned as symbols for the cult of the Queen mother •Senior wife of the Oba, called Esen, is also described as "the Cock who crows the loudest" (Oba had multiple wives, Esen is the head of the harem, but not necessarily the Queen mother) •Cocks were also routinely sacrificed in Benin, esp. white hens as offerings to Olokun

Head Crest, Ejagham/Ekoi, Cross River Region, Nigeria, 20th century, wood covered with antelope skin, missing basketry cap (similar to image presented)

•also known for a type of fantastic head crest that is unique in African art: •Core, modeled with clay/mud, covered with leather •Oversized, curling plaits are also characteristic of Ejagham/Ekoi head crests •Ejagham and Ekoi designate the same people; Ekoi, however, is believed to be a pejorative term and therefore is being avoided

Ceremonial Vase in the Form of a Giant Snail's Shell, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria, 9th to 10th century, bronze with a high percentage of lead (similar to image presented)

•the oldest known bronze-casting tradition of sub-Saharan Africa is that of Igbo-Ukwu, dates to 9th and 10th centuries; differences in technique, higher lead content •Discovered by chance in 1938 in Igbo-Ukwu ("Great Igbo">the Igbo are one of the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria), a village in south-eastern Nigeria •Unique in their craftsmanship, surface treatment > especially conches, cups, ceremonial vessels •Finds related to the ritual paraphernalia of a divine king of the type of the nearby Nri tradition > Nri (like Ife for Yoruba) considered the center of creation, from which all other civilizations dispersed •Eze Nri, the Nri king -priest, was a centralized institution of great antiquity and custodian of the earth god (Ala) shrine, which was associated with crop protection, purification and fertility > representation of insects on numerous objects seems to fit with role of crop protection