B&B test three

orbitofrontal cortex

(just above the eyes), also implicated in pleasure, reward and yumminess. appears to act as an interface between automatic emotional responses (learned and unlearned) and control of complex behavior. damage doesn't impair theoretical understanding of right and wrong, but personal behavior is not congruent with this understanding. Therefore, not directly involved in judgements but in translating these judgments into appropriate behavior.

rapid cycling

4 or more episodes in a 12 month period, may not be permanent

cannabidiol

CBD: decompositoin product of THC that accumulates in aged cannabis

cannabinol

CBN: most abundant organic cannabinoid after THC

activator

CREB ______ proteins: promote long-term memory formation

repressor

CREB _______: promote forgetting

spatial

H.M had trouble learning ______ layouts.

vertebrates

LTP in ___________: high frequency stimulation of cells in the hippocampus causes long term changes in the cells to which they are connected. Specifically, those cells will need less stimulation in the future in order to fire.

specificity

LTP property: only active synapses are strengthened.

associativity

LTP property: pairing a strong input with a weak input will make the response to the weak input stronger

cooperativity

LTP property: simultaneous activity in 2 different synapses has a greater effect than repeated stimulation of one synapse.

monoamine oxidase inhibitors

MAOIs: increase NE and serotonin by preventing their breakdown

lower, higher

PET scans reveal _____-than normal activity during depressive episoces and _______ than normal activity during manic episodes.

serotonin-specific reuptake inibitor

SSRI: e.g. prozac, decreases serotonin reuptake

stress

___ in addition to activating the ANS, it also activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA): production of adrenaline, NE, and cortisol. reacts relatively slowly, but when stress is prolonged then its influence on the immune system can be huge. Cortisol. Also bad for the hippocampus and memory.

glutamate

___ is excitatory and overexcitation causes dangerous levels of intracellular calcium and triggers cell death. so you cant simply administers doses of this to schizophrenics (have to use more indirect methods: use glycine or glycine agonists like d-cycloserine to enhance glutamate binding at NMDA receptors like benzodiazapines enhance GABA binding)

high

____ hostility men show higher reactivity, but not women (the opposite: low hostility=higher reactivity)

hebb

_____ and the hebbian synapse: if a neuron often stimulates another neuron, then changes will occur that will make this more likely to occur in the future.

decreased

_____ blood flow and metabolism have also been found in the cingulate gyrus and the basal ganglia of depressed individuals.

magnesium

_____ is positively charged, so it is attracted to the neuron but cant quite fit through calcium channels. when the membrane is depolarized, they lose their attraction.

empathy

______ and the brain: the theory predicts that if you had damage to an area of the brain involved in feeling an emotion, then you would have trouble perceiving it in others.

sympathetic

______ ennervation associated with quick mobilization of energy for quick movement

psychopaths

______ have lower skin conductance responses to aversive pictures, and they also have attenuated startle reflex to aversive pictures (autonomic responses are also affected)

contralateral

______ organization: vision, touch, motor skills,

positive

______ symptoms of schizophrenia: new behaviors that arise as a result of a disease. these symptoms come and go; two main clusters. psychotic cluster (delusions, hallucinations), and disorganized cluster (disordered thought, inappropriate emotional responses)

neurotransmitters

_______ fuse across the cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. two types of receptors: ionotropic and metabotropic

refinements

_______ of monoamine hypothesis: some studies have found normal levels of NE metabolites. also, drug treatment targets the monoamine systems quickly, but relief is not experienced for at least two weeks. alternate theories: there are changes in monoamine receptor sensitivity that are time dependent; abnormal NE metabolite levels may be an attempt to compensate for the decreased receptor sensitivity (bu producing more NE)

negative

_______ symptoms of schizophrnia: behaviors that cease as the result of a disease. these symptoms are stable over time and are difficult to treat. flat affect, speech and working memory problems, social avoidance.

hippocampus

________ and binding: memories consist of different elements (they are rich). Cues for memory are not as rich as the memories themselves. possible that this area is involved in tying together all the different elements of memories ("binding")

associative

_________ LTP: can make weak synapses more likely to fire too

reverberating circuits

a loop of neurons, if they remain active long enough, permanent chemical and/or structural changes occur: new synapses are created, and existing synapses are strengthened

locus coeruleus

a major cite of NE synthesis, located in pons and connected to the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex. stimulation of this produces arousal, hypervigilance, and suppression of exploratory activity in primates. these behaviors are similar to behaviors of depressed humans suggesting a role of this in depression

hypomania

a milder form of mania in which occupational or social functioning is not impaired.

affective disorder

a mood disorder, either depression and/or mania

learned helplessness

a pattern of depression-like behavior produced by repeated exposure to an inescapable noxious event. It is assocaited with a heightened locus coeruleus activity, manifested as the behavioral changes associated with depression

locus coeruleus

antidepressant drugs decrease the firing rate in the _______ ______ and reduce the levels of MHPG, a NE metabolite, in the CNS

posterior

area of the frontal lobe where phonetic processing takes place

anterior

area of the frontal lobe where semantic processing takes place

amino acid/peptide hormones

attach to metabotrophic receptors, long-lasting effects via second messengers

treatment for anxiety disorders

best bet is cognitive behavior therapy; anxiolytics can help with some symptoms. "unlearning". PTSD associated with smaller hippocampal volumes (cortisol?). also with decreased frontal activation, hyperreactivity in the amygdala, and lowered activation in the anterior cingulate cortex.

amyloid plaques

between nerve cells in the brain. a general term for protein fragments that the body produces normally. beta-amyloid is a fragment of a protein that, in a healthy brain, would be broken down and eliminated. in AD, the fragments accumulate to form hard, insoluble plaques.

wernicke/Geschwind model

brain areas associated with language

normal, increased

calculating murderes have _____ prefrontal activity and ______ amygdala activity.

schizophrenia

can be confused with: mood disorders (bipolar), substance abuse (cocaine psychosis), brain damage (tumor, stroke), hungtington's disease, nutritional probelms (food allergies, vitamin deficiency)

memory disorders

caused by damage to mammilary bodies (hypothalamus) and other brain regions (esp. dorsomedial thalamus)) that have connections to frontal lobes. "I'd rather have a bottle in front of me". pathologically there is a neuronal loss, gliosis, and hemorrhage in mammilary bodies. ventricles are enlarged relative to controls

schizophrenia

child is extremely rare. in adults it is characterized by an acute psychotic episode and in children it appears gradually. diagnosis for children is the same as for adults except that symptoms appear before the age of 12. common to have a first degree relative with same diagnosis. more severe chromosomal abnormalities in children than in adults

dysthymia

chronic form of depression; usually low-level

cognitive behavior therapy

combines cognitive therapy (identifying/changing cognitions about events) with behavior therapy to make people aware of the events/situations that trigger depression and to change cognitions about those events if they occur.

Wernicke's area

comprehension

major depression

concordance rates for identical twins is about 50%. and for fraternal twins is about 20%

arcuate fasciculus

connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas

tau tangles

consist of insoluble twisted fibers that are found inside of the brain's cells. they primarily consist of a protein called tau (microtubules). in AD the tau protein is abnormal and the microtubule structures collapse.

decreased, increased

convicted murderers have _____ prefrontal activity and ____ amygdala activity in impulsive murderers. more crimes of passion

CREB

critical for both the long term stability of changes in synaptic function and for long term memory. with higher levels of these activators, systems need less training and briefer periods of rest between training for efficient long term memory formation.

mimicking

drugs as agonists: ___ the neurotransmitter at the postsynaptic receptor: a drug binds to a neurotransmitter's postsynaptic receptors and directly opens ion channels. (LSD and nicotine)

increase

drugs as agonists: _____ release of neurotransmitter: more neurotransmitter in the synapse (more has been released). more binds to more postsynaptic receptors, enhancing its effect. ex: black widow venom stimulates exocytosis of ACh.

inhibit

drugs as agonists: _____ reuptake of neurotransmitter: some drugs enhance the neurotransmitter effects by preventing it from being taken back up by the presynaptic cell. ensures that as much neurotransmitter as possible can activate postsynaptic receptors. cocaine and prozac and ssri's

inhibiting

drugs as agonists: _________ enzymatic breakdown: some drugs increase neurotransmitter effectiveness by preventing it from being degraded (so it is around longer to activate the postsynaptic cell). some drugs inhibit enzymatic degredation a little bit, like MAO inhibitors (anti-depressants that slow the breakdown of DA and NE by MAO) or physostigmine, which inhibits the breakdown of ACh by AchE. some drugs, like nerve gas, are so effective and irreversibly inhibit the action of an enzyme, that they disrupt neurotransmission so badly that the organism dies.

block

drugs as antagonists: ____ post-synaptic receptors: a drug can block the action of a nt by plugging yp that nt's postsynaptic receptors. these drugs do not themselves effect the postsynaptic receptors. instead, they prevent the nt from getting to its postsynaptic receptors. opiates block NE receptors in the locus coeruleus that are involved in the stress response and memory formation. curare blocks ACh receptors in the somatic nervouus system, and relaxes skeletal muscle.

block

drugs as antagonists: ____ release of nt: if a nt cannot be released, it cannot contact the post-synaptic receptors. an example of a drug that blocks release of a nt is botulinum toxin. tetanus toxin- blocks release of inhibitory nt glycine and GABA. Tetrodotoxin (blowfish-Fugu) blocks voltage-gated sodium channels

block

drugs as antagonists: ____ synthesis of neurotransmitter: if no neurotransmitter is synthesized, then none can be released and contact the postsynaptic cell. asprin, paracetamol, and ibuprofen block prostaglandin production at source of pain.

block

drugs as antagonists: ____ vesiculation: even though a nt might be synthesized, if it is not packaged into vesicles, it cannot be released.

tricyclic compounds

drugs that increase NE and serotonin levels by interfering with their reuptake after neuron fires

alternative

dyslexia hypothesis: it is not dyseidetic or sydphonetic. Problems with temporal order processing (timing). problems with synthesizing visual and auditory information. abnormal attentional focus.

james-lange

emotion as interpretation. emotion-inducing stimuli received and interpreted by the cortex. cortex triggers changes in the visceral organs via the autonomic nervous system; in the skeletal muscles via the somatic nervous system. these responses trigger the experience of emotion. a reversal of common sense. ignores the cognitive aspect of emotion.

cannon-bard

emotional stimuli have two separate effects that work simultaneously: excite the feeling of emotion in the brain, and create the expression of emotion in the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. feeling and expression occur in parallel and don't influence each other.

schacter-singer

emotions as physiological and cognitive processes. The same bodily reaction will cause one emotion in one situation, and another emotion in a differnt situation: give people a dose of adrenaline, and put them in different situations.

darwin

emotions evolved as behaviors that are predictive of subsequent behavior (shared by all members of a species). If these behaviors benefit the animal that display them, they will remain and evolve in ways that enhance their communivative function and their original function may be lost (e.g. the smile). E.g. threat displays: originally preparation for combat, become signals of impending battle, advantageous to be able to communicate your aggression and intimidate without actually fighting. hard to substantiate, descriptive.

frontal lobe

esp. motor areas. procedural memory.

season of birth hypothesis

for schizophrenics, it was noted that babies born in late winter/early spring were more likely to have the disorder than babies born at other times of the year. neurons in certain brain areas (hippocampus) were disorganized and it was also discovered that cold/flu viruses change the adherence properties of radial glial cells, such that migrating new neurons might not travel properly to their final places, giving rise to disorganized neurons. deficits might not be evident in the developing brain, but after maturation (after puberty) these subtle abnormalities might give rise to more serious behavioral deficits

CB2

found mostly in the PNS and directly on immune cells; helps with inflammation and peripheral pain (presynaptic membrane)

lithium

found to promote hippocampal neurogenesis in rodent models. Beardon et al examined changes in grey matter density in lithium-treated and untreated vs. controls. Greatest differences were in medial temporal areas.

5

genetic connection may be as much as ____ times higher for bipolar disorder than for major depression. Dipolar disorder tyypically involves multiple genes or complex gene interactions

schizotype

glutamate hypothesis: phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine inhibit glutamate receptors (NMDA) and at larger doses, create ______ symptoms (both positive and negative). they have little effect on prepubescent children. PCP is used in recovered schizophrenics will incduce a relapse.

lower

glutamate hypothesis: schizophrenics have ______ amounts of glutamate in PFC and hippocampus, also have fewer glutamate receptors

right

hemishphere that is more specialized for the analysis of space and geometrical shapes and forms that occur simultaneously. involved in organizing a narrative (selecting and assembling the elements of what we want to say). understanding prosody (rhythm and stress). recognizing emotion in the tone of voice. understanding jokes. more involved in musical processing.

left

hemisphere that is more specialized for the analysis of sequences of stimuli that occur quickly but sequentially (comprehension and production)

testosterone

higher levels of testosterone (esp. in males) may foster aggression via medical preoptic area of the hypothalamus (also implicated in thirst, temperature regulation and sexual behavior/bonding)

bipolar II

hypomanic, full manic episodes rare. depression often still severe

AMPA

if ______ receptors are stimulated by glutamate, they open and depolarize the membrane. Magnesium dislodges from the NMDA channels so that calcium can enter. the entry of calcium sets a chain of metabotropic reactions into effect. Calcium ions flow into the cell through the NDMA recptors and bind to calmodulin (part of a second messenger system). this activates calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinase II- an enzyme that modifies proteins.

dyslexia

impairment specific to reading. 15% english speaking males, and 5% females. not well understood. two types: phonetic aand graphemic

anterior insula

implicated in pain, empathy, decision-making, cravings, and "gut feelings" both literally and figuratively.

left frontal cortex

in depression, reduction in activity is especially apparent in the _____ _______ ______

theta

in humans, navigation is associated with ______ activity (4-7 Hz). heightened activity in the hippocampus and parahippocampus

schizophrenia

inability to perform everyday functions; some combination of hallucinations, delusions, disordered thoughts, inappropriate emotional expressions, disordered movement. variations in symptoms from person to person. can be acute or chronic. onset after puberty (early 20's for men, late 20's for women)

LTP

increased gene expression also occurs during the development of ___ (CREB mediated): additional synapses may also form, and more recepors.

cortisol

increases metabolism and blood glucose (sympathetic function) and the expense of protein production (including the production of immune system cells)

agonist

increases the effect of neurotransmitter or mimics its effect (high efficacy)

metabotropic

indirect, g-protein mediated (slower, longer, long distance)

amygdala, hypothalamus, and frontal cortex

integration of the anger/aggresive response linked to brainstem areas including ___________, ___________, and ________

broca's area

language production; motor codes

depression

long term ____: opposite of LTP. in response to slow frequency stimulation, decreases synaptic strength, decrease in the number of receptors

hippocampus

long term potentiation in the ______ and synaptic plasticity: high frequency stimulation of cells causes long term changes in the cells to which they are connected. specifically, those cells will need less stimulation in the future in order to fire. Glutamate mediated synaptic strengthening (bind to receptors on membrane that is already depolarized= stronger synapse). strong synapses= more receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane

autism

male teens with _____ avoid eye-contact, have abnormal scanning patterns of faces (esp. avoid the eye area). also show heightened amygdala activity when they do fixate on the eye region

GABA

many depressed people have low levels of _______ and administration of ______ agonists can have antidepressant effects. it inhibits the locus coeruleus, so a decrease in ______ levels would increase activity in the locus coeruleus, possibly leading to depression.

amygdala

medial, lateral and central nucleus make this up. lesions reduce or abolish emotional behavior and physiological responses (autonomic and hormonal) (e.g. animals will be more tame, show less fear, have lower stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline), no fear conditioning.

long-term memory

memory for things that are more distant. unlimited capacity. more persistant. memory can be reconstructed with hints or strategies.

implicit memory

memory is inferred from performance measures like RT or errors. also includes procedural learning (i.e. asking someone to perform task is different than having them tell you how it's done). memory is inferred via behavior like faster reaction times or better behavioral performances- awareness that memory is being tested is not necessary and people often arent aware of their memory. better for testing nondeclarative memories (hippocampus less involved)

declarative

memory that we can talk about. includes semantic and episodi memory (hippocampus more involved)

nondeclarative

memory that we can't verbalize. involves procedural memory and other things like conditioning and priming (hippocampus less involved)

steroid hormones

more complex compounds derived from cholesterol. attach to metabotropic receptors and enter the cell and alter gene expression. all sex hormones are these

korsakoff's disease

most often caused by chronic alcoholism, though other conditions (e.g. severe malnutrition) have been documented. damage caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1 which is necessary to metabolize glucose). severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia. implicit and procedural memory are less affected (nondeclarative memory). impaired memory for time (temporal order) and confabulation (false memories), tendency to repeat themselves (which reinforces cofabulations), inability to inhibit responses previously made (wisconsin card sorting task)

bipolar I

most severe, obscures normal functioning, hospitalization common

davidson's

negative emotions: RH positive emotions: LH LH activation especially frontal associated with happiness/contentment.

broca's aphasia

not fluent aphasia. difficulty in producing language (comprehension is largely intact- excpet when sentence is grammatically complicated). Due to damage in part of the left inferior frontal gyrus (the frontal operculum) (very close to motor areas). Nowadays, any production deficit is called Broca's aphasia, regardless of the location of brain damage. speech problems (even in deaf), in particular, grammar problems.

autism

not normally thought of as an affective disorder. communication and language problems. sterotyped and repetitive behaviors. difficulty with social reciprocity and engagement.

cardiovascular disease

number 1 killer of adults in North america. estimated 70 million affected. obesity, smoking, lcohol, exercise, BP, cholesterol levels. But this cant be the whole story. Hostility: MMPI and the cook-medley hostility scale. lawyers scored high on particular items on this scale had higher moratlity from heart disease. sympathetic activity= higher heart rate and blood pressure. individuals with high levels of hostility may have high lvels of reactivity to stressful stimuli. chronic levels of reactivity may in turn weaken the cardiovascular system and increase the chance of cardiovascular disease.

cychlothymia

one of the bipolar disorders characterized by less intense episodes of mania and depression than are seen in the bipolar disorder. milder form of BP II, "bipolar spectrum disorder"

PTSD

particular kind of anxiety disorder triggered by a single, traumatic event characterized by: re-experiencing symptoms- a mental replay of the trauma, often accompanied by strong emotional reactions (e.g. in reaction to thoughts or reminders of the experience when the person is awake or in the form of nightmares during sleep). avoidance symptoms- efforts to evade activities, places, or people that are reminders of the trauma. numbing symptoms- a loss of emotions, particularly positive feelings (not unlike depression). Arousal symptoms- excessive physiological activation and include a heightened sense of being on guard as well as difficulty with sleep and concentration.

CaMKII

phosphorylates AMPA receptors making them more permeable to the inflow of sodium ions and increases the sensitivity of the cell. it also increases the number of AMPA receptors at the synapse

prozac

pills that is a serotonin agonist, has had some positive results in controlling extreme aggression.

CB1

primarily found on presynaptic neurons in CNS neurons and ultimately affect the release of other neurotransmitters

global aphasia

problems with both comprehension and production

alzheimer's

progressive memory loss accompanied by confusion, restlessness, insomnia, depression., hallucination/delusions. risk for this increases with age. average time from diagnosis to death is 4-7 years. declarative memory is affected most (procedural memory is preserved)- ACh system. accordingly, explicit memory also more impaired than implicit memory. definitive diagnosis of this disease is currently not possible until after death. seems to be two diffferent types (early onset and late onset). Both seem to be associated with abnormal protein accumulation that interferes with normal brain function and causes atrophy of brain fissures (amyloid protein plaques and tau protein tangles)

amygdala

promotes anger and violent emotional responses

hippocampal

rats with ____ ablations have impaired maze performance (cant remember where they have already been, dont show memory for location)

psychosomatic illness

refers to the cause of an illness. if the onset of a disease or illness is influenced by personality, emotions, or experiences. Stress results in activation of autonomic nervous system and also influences hormone release (via hypothalamus-> pituitary-> adrenal cortex). clearest cases involve autonomic regulation. disorders in which there is REAL physical illness that is largely caused by psychological factors such as stress and anxiety.

insula

rich connections with amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate. Damage to this in smokers got rid of the urge to smoke. brief exposure to drug-related stimuli (even without awareness) elicit amygdala and insula activation

neurodevelopmental hypothesis

schizophrenia arises because of prenatal and neonatal developmental abnormalities. these abnormalities alter brain anatomy and create behavioral problems. genetics could play a role, but not the most important one. factors could be: poor nutrition, Rh incompatibility, season of birth effect, premature birth/low birth weight, comlications during delivery

dopamine hypothesis

schizophrenia due to excess activity at dopamine receptors. supported by the fact that dopamine antagonists can allevaite positive symptoms. also supported by evidence that drugs that are dopamine agonists can cause positive symptoms if they are abused. dopamine antagonists do not have immediate effects. direct measures of systemic dopamine are normal in schizophrenica. no firm support that dopamine receptors are overabundant. imporvements in technology are leading to better, more selective dopamine ligands: one recent study suggests that dopamine might bind more to a particular subtype of dopamine receptor in schizophrenics. blocking dopamine can have serious side effects. there are two dopamine pathways: vta to limbic system and PFC and substantia nigra to the basal ganglia. both are affected by current antipsychotic drugs. parksinson's disease results from the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. not surprising that drugs that block dopamine can create movement orders.

depression

sleep disorders such as insomnia and hypersomnia are reported by people suffering from _____. REM sleep occurs earlier than normal and total sleep time is shortened. advancing the sleep-wake cycles may help alleviate symptoms of depression.

hippocampus

stress hormones esp. cortisol are bad for the hippocampus (cause neurons to shrink, interfere with LTP)

spatial memory

studies looking at navigations show robust hippocampal activations (theta activity)

thc

tetrahydrocannabinol: the principle psychoactive constituent

monoamine hypothesis of depression

the idea that depression is caused by decreased activity at noradrenergic and serotonergic synapses. 5-HIAA (a serotonin metabolite) is lower in people with major depression. low levels of CSF 5-HIAA are associated with suicide. a NE metabolite (MHPG) is lower in people with major depression: as NE metabolites increase, subjects with bipolar disorder become manic. drugs that increase monoamine levels induce depression. drugs that increase monoamine levels are associate with a reduction in depression. lithium carbonate- decreases brain NE levels and is clinically effective in treating mania.

schizophrenia

the lobes of the brain most affected in ___________ are the frontal lobes (associated with deficits in executive function, interface between reality and perception) and the temporal lobes (associated vidual and auditory hallucinations). in contrast, the occipital and parietal lobes are less affected.

concordance rate

the rate at which any characteristic occurs in both members of a pair of relatives. (bipolar disorder: for identical twins ranges from 20% to 75%, fraternal times from 0% to 8%. some genetic overlap with schizophrenia).

callosum

the right and left hemispheres of the cortex are connected by corpus _______ and anterior and posterior commisures. They have sensory inputs from different areas (visual, tactile, auditory) and laterization of motor skills. they have different functions.

emotions

the same brain areas involved in perceiving emotions are also involved in feeling them ourselves.

right hemisphere

theory where all emotions are processed in right hemisphere. people with RH damage have weaker behavioral reactions to emotions. wada test (RH seems to be more emotional)

short-term memory

things that have just occurred. 5-7 items +/- 2. fades quickly without rehearsal. decay is complete. once thought to be temporary holding station. now understood to be a holding area for information while it is manipulated or attended to: working memory. can be consolidated into LTM.

serotonin

thought to inhibit aggression. destruction of these synapses or deprivation/depletion of this in the forebrain has been linked to aggressive behavior (also to stalking/obsessive romantic behavior).

amygdala

thumbnail sized structure in the medial temporal lobes. Has 12 divisions, each with subregions. Function of divisions is still not well understood. Five important nuclei. Hard to study its function in humans.

phonetic

type of dyslexia that is the trouble pronouncing word syllables (auditory deficit)

graphemic

type of dyslexia that is the trouble with visual processing at a whole word level. (visual deficit)

procedural

type of long term memory that is knowing how to do something

semantic

type of long term memory that is not just language, but also what we know about the world

episodic

type of long term memory that is the feeling of knowing what has happened to us; what we have experienced. autobiographical (knowledge about one's personal life, often more emotional than episodic memory). Flashbulb memories. hippocampus is critically involved

lithium carbonate

used for bipolar disorder. influences synthesis or reuptake of many neurotransmittters including DA, NE, serotonin, GABA< the neuropeptides, and glutamate. three systems of these effectsL adjusts balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurons, affects the structural proteins of the neurons, and regulates 2nd-messenger signaling pathways, transcription factors, and gene expression

ECT

used for drug-resistant depression. may work by inhibiting locus coeruleus activity. right unilateral ____ may work as well as a bilateral application with fewer side effects. a new promising alternative treatment is repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over left frontal areas. disadvantages: high relapse rate, multiple sessions necessary, and memory deficits

wernicke's aphasia

wernicke noticed that damage to a particular brain area caused language problems. left temporal cortex (posterior to auditory cortex). Fluent but often meaningless speech: unlike broca's aphasics, these aphasics are still articulate (no production problems). problems with anomia (not able to name objects), problems finding the right words. problems with comprehension, word meaning, sentences are usually grammatically correct, just dont make any sense.

audition

what has bilateral organization?

NMDA

what lets in calcium ions but only if the cell membrane is already depolarized (if the cell is in a resting state, these channels are plugged by magnesium)

AMPA

what lets in sodium ions (excitatory)

frontal lobes

what part of the brain has control over aggression. impulsive violence in humans is due to faulty emotion regulation here.

pre-frontal cortex

what part of the brain is decision making linked to?

calcium

when it reaches the terminal buttons, an action potential (in the presynaptic cell) triggers an influx of ________ ions at the button's membrane. this attracts vesicles filled with neurotransmitters to the cell membrane (of the presynaptic cell), where they fuse and spill their contents into the synaptic cleft. (aka exocytosis).

angular gyrus

written code into auditory code

explicit memory

xpts where you are explicitly asked to remember. memory assessed directly via direct questions (declarative memories). people are aware that their memory is being tested (hippocampus more involved)

higher

anger in: ______ reactivity

phobias

a specific kind of anxiety disorder. a persistent irrational fear of an object or a situation that's generally considered harmless. accompanied by a strong desire to avoid what you fear and, in some cases, an inability to function at normal tasks. two components: fear response and avoidance response. fear responses: sympathetic and brain response to feared object or situation. Avoidance response: reward assocatied with avoidance (reinforces the phobia). phobics learn to fear their fear. best treatment is behavior theory (desensitization)

bipolar disorders

a type of affective disorder characterized by episodes of mania and depression that typically continue throughout a person's lifetime

depressive disorder

a type of affective disorder in which depression is the only mood state (depression, major depression, dysthymia)

major depression

a type of depressive disorder characterized by a depressed mood of at least two weeks in duration

neurodevelopmental hypothesis

according to this hypothesis, these developmental factors give rise to subtle brain abnormalities. e.g. less grey matter in PFC, temporal cortex and hippocampus, enlarged ventricles. possibly due to smllaer somas in neurons, neurons also seem to lack organization, LH hypoactivity, RH dominance (left-handedness). DLPFC seems to be most affected, therefore, impairments on tasks that emphasize PFC PFC function. N.B. not all schizophrenics show this pattern. exact reason for these brain differences is not known. nor is it known whether brain abnormalities get worse over time. PFC doesn't really start to develop until after puberty.

reduction

affective disorders: ______ in volume of gray matter of orbital frontal cortex as compared to controls. prefrontal cortex has significant gray matter reduction in bipolar individuals relative to controls. also reduction of volume of brain tissue in hippocampus, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, basal ganglia, and thalamic nuclei. volume of gray matter ventral to beginning of the corpus callosum with familial affective disorders

inactivation/reuptake

after the neurotransmitter does its thing, it's got to be removed from the receptor, otherwise it will continue to affect the postsynaptic cell: enzymes in the synaptic celft (inactivation) acetylcholine, serotonin, catecholamines, and MAOI's. reuptake (taken back into presynaptic cell) serotonin and catecholamine. and diffusion.

glutamate hypothesis

alternative to the dopamine hypothesis. schizophrenia due to hypoactivity at glutamate receptors (indirectly due to overactivity at dopamine receptors). glutamate and dopamine have opposite effects. dopamine antagonists are glutamate agonists.

between, inside

amyloid plaques are _______ neurons, and tangles are _______ neurons

depression

an affective disorder characterized by an intense, continuing feeling of sadness and worthlessness

CREB

cyclic AMP response element binding protein. metabotropic receptor-mediated protein synthesis. activator and repressor proteins. creating lasting memories: begins when dendrites receive signals, the signals induce metabotropic reactions, which in turn set off CREB activator in the nucleus. The CREB protein activates genes in the cell's DNA. the genes are transcribed into messenger RNA. this is used as a blueprint to produce proteins that secure a memory.

temporal lobe

declarative semantic memories

antagonist

decrease or block the effect of a neurotransmitter (low efficacy)

psychopathy

decreased activation in the prefrontal cortex with no visible pathological alteration of the brain itself (lower activation). reduced neural metabolism in the superior parietal gyrus, left angular gyrus, and the corpus callosum, and abnormal asymmetries of activity in the amygdala, thalamus, and medial temporal lobe

LTP

depends on two things: glutamate has to bind to a certain type of receptor (NDMA receptor). At the same time, cell membrane must also be depolarized. Timing is key. different kinds of LTP: one cell can fire in succession or two cells can fire at once.

cholinergic

depressed patients may have hyperresponsive _______ systems. ACh stimulates the locus coeruleus, increasing brain activity.

hypercortisolism

depressed people often have ________. Dexamethasone suppresion test is a test to determine whether the administration of decamethasone suppresses ACTH and cortisone secretion; many depressed people have an abnormal response

thinner

depressive individuals have _____ cortical thickness

ionotropic

directly opens ion channels (fast, short-lived, local) (ligand-gated ion channels)

somatoform

disorders in which there is an APPARENT physical illness for which there is no organic basis. somatization disorder (recurrent vague somatic cimplaints without a physical cause). Conversion disorder (specific disability has no physical cause but instead seems related to psychological problems). hypochondriasis (insignificant symptoms taken as signs of serious illness). body dysmorphic disorder (obsessing about flaws in appearance)

increase

drugs as afonists: ______- production and storage of neurotransmitters: this is where nutritional supplements claim to have their effects, provide more of the building blocks for a neurotransmitter-> more neurotransmitter