Behavioral Sciences MCAT

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/_________/_________ -> roles in? A. this card - low vs high levels B. next

****neurotransmitters are manufactured in NEURONS in the brain!!!! Besides the catecholamines of the medulla. Epinephrine aka Adrenaline and norepi aka noradrenaline: - in the family catecholamines, also a monoamines, also a biological amine - Catecholamines = emotion Epi/Norepi: both for alert and wakefulness! ------- Epinephrine: more common with sympathetic response and secretion from adrenal medulla norepinpehrine: more commonly a local neurotransmitter! - low levels: depression - High levels: anxiety and mania!

Alzheimers risk factors - genes: presen C1/14, Apol E 19, B-amyl (down synd) C21

- genetic, if it runs in family - females much more likely to get it - over age 65 - lowered risk with higher levels of education - low AcH in hippocampus Mutant Genes which increase risk: - presenilin gene on chromsome 1 and 14 - apolipoprotein E chromsome 19 - B-amyloid precursor protein on chromosome 21 (explains why down-syndrome way more likely to have alzheimers) Findings in scans: - atrophy of brain - flattened sulci in cortex - enlarged cerebral ventircles - deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, reduced metabolism in pariteal and temporal lobes - reduced acetylcholine and choline acetyltransferase (produces Ach) - senile plaques of B-amyloid (misfolds of beta-pleated sheets) - neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated TAU proteins

1. Activation-synthesis Theory 2. Problem-solving theory 3. Cognitive process dream theory 4. Neurocognitiv models of dream

1. Activation-Synthesis theory: Dreams are caused by widespread random activation of neural circuits! The cortex stitches these random yet familiar dreams together making them bizarre 2. Problem-solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problem while you are sleeping, you are untethered by the rules of the real world. 3. Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are tied to stream of consciousness, just as you shift so quickly from on thought to the next, dreams follow a similar stream. Neurocognitive models of dreaming: unify biological and physiological perspectives on dreaming by explaining dreaming as both subjective (based on feelings and emotions of an individual) but also based on physiology whereby the mind tries to understand the body

four key tenets of medical ethics 1. benefi 2. nonmalefic 3. respect auton 4. justice

1. Beneficence: physician must act in patient's best interest 2. Nonmaleficence: do no harm! doctor must avoid intervention and treatment if harm outweighs benefit. 3. Respect for Patient autonomy: physician must respect the patient's decisions and choices about their own healthcare 4. Justice: physician has responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and distribute healthcare resources fairly.

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin 4. GABA, glycine, glutamate

1. GABA: γ-aminobutyric acid - has inhibitory effects in the synapse, creating hyperpolarization conditions in CNS! 2. Glycine: inhibitory effect in CNS, causes influx of Cl- and hyperpolarization just like GABA! 3. Glutamate: excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS (opposite of glycine)

Cognitive changes with age: 1. intelligence (two types, ability and ties to what else have a role?)

1. IQ test and intelligence DECLINES with age: A. Fluid intelligence: ability to problem-solve and think flexibly B. Crystallized intelligence: use of accumulated facts, knowledge, and skills acquired throughout life - Decline in intellectual abilities is tied along with activities of daily living (eating, bathing, etc.) and to higher level education, social factors, stimulating envrionment, etc.

Signal transduction pathway of photoreceptors by cell type... explain why color has more fine tune detection and sensitivity compared to rods... amacr/horiz cells

1. Light enters eye and travels PAST the ganglion/optic nerve/amacrine/bipolar cell to hit the CONES and RODS which reigster photons. 2. Upon absolute threshold, signal transduction is initiated and passes the light "forward" towards the front of the eye 3. It passed to the bipolar cell, then to the amacrine and horizontal cells, then to ganglion which integrates signals to transduce to brain via optic nerve! Amacrine and horizontal cells: Receive messages from rods and cones before the bipolar body. Therefore, they process the information first and help with edge detection and increase perception contrasts! Rods vs Cones sensitivity/detail: there are many more rods! And groups of rods much converge on a single ganglion. Since less cones exist, each ganglion has less cones it receives integrated signals from so can more accurately process this light. Rods have a greater number of receptors converging onto one ganglion reducing the resolution of the light/dark reception.

Reinforcement Schedules graph interpretation... 1. note on fastest? 2. note on fix?

1. Notice that Variable-ratio is the FASTEST learning condition technique and has the slowest extinction rate which is also good. - Makes sense: species will perform activity in hope the next behavior will be the "right one" to get reward 2. Fixed patterns have moments of NO RESPONSES - this is because the rate is expecting food consistently so will only perform behavior now when it wants pellet

Language (five components) 1. phonology (Categorical perception) 2. morphology (morphemes) 3. semantics 4. syntax 5. pragmatics (prosody)

1. Phonology: refers to phonemes or the SOUND of a language, in english there are 40. - children must learn to recognize these different from other sounds and use them to interpret meaning! - Categorical Perception: crucial in identifying phonemes! People talk differently, but dog said by mom or dad to a baby are categorized to mean the same even though said slightly differently! 2. Morphology: the root structure of words, composed of multiple building blocks known as morphemes (root words, prefixes, or suffixes). - redesigned broken into re- meaning to do again, design, the verb root, and -ed meaning in the past 3. Semantics: association of meaning with a word 4. Syntax: how words are put together to form sentences 5. Pragmatics: how context and tone influence the real meaning of the sentence. - prosody: the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voice

Sleep and circadian rhythms: - melatonin - hypo-pit-adreno axis (cort)

1. Retina is directly innervated with the hypothalamus. Light will inhibit the hypothalamus from activating the Pineal gland to release melatonin. 2. Increasing light levels in the morning result in slow increase in release of Corticotropin releasing factor from hypothalamus, increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone release in anterior pituitary which stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol contributes to wakefulness

Piaget's stages of cognitive development stage 1: ______

1. Sensorimotor: child learns to manipulate environment to meet his or her needs, often through circular actions - age: 0-2 Parts: A. circular reactions: repetitive actions a child engages in to obtain some desired response i.) Primary Circular reactions: repeated movement of the infant's body, founded originally by chance - Baby sucking own thumb, finds it soothing ii.) Secondary Circular reactions: Manipulation outside of the baby's own body, getting some external environmental reactions - throwing toy over and over, results in parent picking it up B. Object permanence: ability to understand objects exist even when they are out of view - babies find peek-a-boo so entertaining because person disappears then reappears out of nowhere. - marks point of representational thought: ability to picture something in his/her mind as a symbol (language/images) of something else ... doggie and horsey

Types of memory branch

1. Sensory (1 sec) 2. Short (1 min) and Working 3. Long-term (lifetime) A. Explicit (effortful) I). Episodic: expereiences II.) semantic: facts B. Implicit (unconcsious) I.) procedural: skills/tasks/motor skills

Auditory pathway! MGN, aud cort, sup oliv, inf colloc

1. Vesibulocochlear nerve from hair cell distortion action potential reaches the brainstem and is sent to the Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the THALAMUS 2. From thalamus, sent to the temporal lobe auditory cortex for sound processing. 3. Some information/APs are sent as well to the superior olive (localizes sound) and the inferior colloculi (midbrain) involved in the startle reflex! MGN: M for music, auditory part of thalamus LGN: L for light, photo reception of thalamus

Somatosensation concepts: 1. two-point threshold 2. phsy zero 3. Gate theory of pain

1. two-point threshold: The minimum distance two objects need to be in order to register them as separate points of contact. 2. Physiological zero: the resting temperature of skin! Below phys zero feels cold! Above feels warm! 3. Gate theory of pain: There is gating to nociceptors which determines whether or not we experience pain! any non-painful stimulus INHIBITS and CLOSES the gates to painful stimulus - ex: when hit knee on chair, rub it to close pain gates!

Social institutions (6 main) 1. family 2. education 3. religion (define, religosity, denomination, sect, cult, secularize, fundamentalism) 4. government and economy - theocracy, capitalism (division of labor) 5. healthcare and medicine (life course approach to health, sick role)

4. religion: pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices aiming to explain the meaning of existence. - religosity: how religious one considers himself - denominations or Sects: different umbrella religions sharing slightly differing in connotations of beliefs and practices, having broken off from one another (judaism, Christianity, islam) - cult: when a religious sect takes on extreme or deviant philosophies - secularize: move away from a world dominated by religion, towards a world dominated by rationality and scientific thinking - Fundamentalism: maintenance of strict adherence to religious code 5. Government and economy: systematic arrangements of politics and capital - democracy: allows every citizen a political voice - monarchies: royal ruler, passed down generations - dictatorship: single person holds power, usually taken by force - theocracy: system where power is held by religious leaders - capitalist: free market and laissez-faire - division of labor: tasks are divided to people by skills and training (specialized/efficiency) - Socialist: large industries are shared businesses, compensation is divided equally among members 6. Healthcare and Medicine: maintaining or improving health status of individual, community, or society as a whole - Life course approach to health: treating patients not only on immediate symptoms but also patient history and psychosocial factors - sick role: the behavior expected by a sick or ill patient. Changed drastically nowadays so there is more of a preventative side to it... we behave in a manner set by society when sick! get better as soon as possible, exempt from everyday responsibilities

Language development... - 9-12 months - 12-18 months - 18-20 months - 2-3 years -5 where is exponential growth? Explosion? errors of growth? babbling

9-12 months: babbling - both deaf and hearing babies babble which is required for language! 12-18 months: Add a word once every month about often will categorize apple with all fruits for example so parent must train exact meaning! Will use ONE word and point to designate wants an apple 18-20 months: Explosion of language! adds dozens of words, and now COMBINES words, "that apple" to explain what he wants. 2-3 years: Vocabulary grows exponentially and semantic use of words develops way more! Children increasingly may grammatical errors as they try to internalize complex rules of language. - errors of growth: incorrectly applies a grammar rule to a situation, often morphemes. "mommy runned to the store" instead of ran 5 years: Language is substantially mastered by age 5. Children acquire language super easy compared to adults!

opponent-process theory

A theory explaining that emotions oppose one another, experiencing one emotion suppresses that of another... - feeling fear in the dark suppresses relief ... BUT over time, the secondary feeling of fear removed and replaced by primary feeling... Tie to why so hard to break drug addiction habit: When a drug is taken repeatedly, the body physiologically changes to a state of happiness, but in its absence the opponent, sadness, appears... it takes more and more drugs to maintain this desired happiness response A.) individual takes drugs and experience euphoria B.) the opponent feeling of dystopia takes over in its absence C.) over time, drug TOLERANCE rises and more drug is needed to achieve a gradually decreasing level of euphoria, while the negative dystopia feelings increase as user become more dependent D.) Now, individual takes drugs not for pleasurable effects but to avoid withdrawal! Tolerance: a decrease in perceived effect after increased time of drug abuse.

Marxist theory - proletariat/bourgeoisie - class consciousness and false consciousness ------------- Anomie, strain theory, anomic conditi

A theory that government is merely a reflection of underlying economic forces Proletariat: the have-nots (lower classes) Bourgeoisie: the haves (upper class) The proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie if they developed class consciousness (awareness of one's social status, especially as it relates to the economy) and instead insert a socialist economy. - False Consciousness: helped prevent revolution since individuals had a false sense of class or just how bad their conditions were. ---------- Anomie: lack of societal norms/mores, causing break down of ties between an individual and society. - may evolve from conflict of belief systems - Anomic conditions: individualistic, social inequality, isolation - strain theory: how anomic conditions lead to deviance.

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach (disease assoc)

Acetylcholine: Found in both the central and peripheral nervous system! - can be EXCITATORY or INHIBITORY!!! A. Peripheral: Parasympathetic nervous system signal transmission and in preganglionic transmission of sympathetic! Also in somatic signaling (excite or inhibit) - ex: heart muscle inhibited by Ach! slows heart beat B. Central: Involved in attention/memory and arousal - loss of cholingeric neurons in the hippocampus is associated with alzheimer's disease! -> incurable memory loss

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: faster 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin 4. GABA, glycine, glutamate 5. Neurpeptides aka .... two exs ------------ hormones/Endocrine system: slower 1. pituitary 2. adrenal glands (both parts)

Adrenal Glands: A. Adrenal Cortex: all hormones produced here are called corticosteroids! i). Glucocorticoids: cortisol - stress ii). Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone - raise BP iii). Androgens: testosterone and estrogen B. Adrenal Medulla: stimulated by sympathetic nervous system! i). epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines/biological amines)

Social development: - stranger anxiety - separation anxiety - parallel play some common patterns - gross skills start and move to - motor skills start - social skills follow then....

Age 1: (stands up) Stranger anxiety: fear of unfamiliar individuals, goes away around 7 months Separation anxiety: fear of being away from a parent, goes away around one year Beginning to progress from solitary play to onlooker Age 2: Uses 10 words Parallel play: Starts around year 2, infants will begin to play with other babies without influencing other's behaviors, usually finding interest in what others are doing! Age 3: (bladder control) Ability to identify own gender and own name, will act gender specific Age 5: Conformity to social norms and developing crushes on other people begins ---- Trends: 1. Gross motor skills: Starts at head -> toes (control neck, trunk then leg movement) and develop at the core then move to extremities/periphery! 3. Social: move from parent to self to other oriented!

Aggression Biological: - amygdala (increase activity results in...) - prefrontal cortex (decreased activity results in...) - testost Psychologi: - cognitive neoasso - exposure

Aggression: behavior intending to cause harm or increase social dominance - may help evolutionarily with mating, access to food, etc. Biological roles: Amygdala: part of brain associating stimuli with rewards or punishments... tells us if something is a threat! - increased activity of amygdala can increase likelihood of aggressive behavior Prefrontal cortex: responsible for processing amygdala messages and can help REDUCE aggressiveness based on stimuli. - a decrease in prefrontal cortex functioning is linked with increased aggression. Testosterone: higher levels lead to more aggression, show why men commit disproportionately higher number of crimes Psychological: - cognitive neoassociation model: tendency for individuals in pain, sick, or frustrated to act more aggressively - explains hangry, riots on hotter days, honking in no-AC cars - Exposure to violent behavior: increases likelihood child conveys aggression themselves

Prosencephalon- telencephalon- CEREBRAL CORTEX! overview of cerebrum 1. frontal aka (neo) - prefr (assoc area, damage result in) - motor (location, projection, motor homunc) - broca

Aka neocortex (since it developed most recently evolutionarily) Gyri: bumps in neocortex brain Sulci: folds in neocortex brain - provide increases surface area Cerebrum: both lobes Cerebral hemispheres: left and right! Four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital -------- Frontal: prefrontal and motor cortex regions A. Prefrontal cortex: manages executive function through processing perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning through integrating information from other parts of the brain! - tell an individual to wake up or relax depending on situation ---> Association area: prefrontal cortex referred to as this since it takes messages from many regions of the brain! Example: solve a complex puzzle Damage to prefrontal cortex leads to: poor decision making skills -> less empathetic, less in control of behavior B. Primary Motor cortex: Located on the Precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes!) - initiates voluntary muscle movement through nerve impulses down spinal cord to muscles! - projection area in the brain! (simple projected response) - Motor homunculus on next slide, organizing motor movement! C. Broca's Area: needed for speech production! Only found in one hemisphere ("dominant") - if damaged, can understand speech but not produce it

Forgetting - alzheimers -- explained by, memory loss proceeds in ________ fashion, microscopic findings ... sundowning - Korsakoff syndrome -> caused by, confabula -Agnosia (caused by, effect)

Alzheimer's Disease: Loss of acetylcholine neurotransmitters in neurons of the hippocampus, results in memory degradation, dementia, and brain atrophy - memory loss proceeds in retrograde fashion: most recent memories lost and → more distant memories follow - Microscopic findings: Neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques - Sundowning: phenomenon where Alzheimer patients tend to have greater dysfunction in the evening Korsakoff's Syndrome: memory loss caused by THIAMINE deficiency! - both retrograde amnesia (loss of old memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) results! - Confabulation: the creation of fabricated memories to take their place by the person... fake memories triggered for creation by "missing memories" in brain Agnosia: loss of ability to identify/recognize sensory info such as properly such as people, objects, or sounds (usually only one). Caused by physical damage to the brain!

Semicircular canals

Angular/rotational acceleration detection! Three canals all perpendicular to one other and end in the AMPULLA. Ampulla = location of hair cells! Endolymph in the semicircular canals resists movement, which stimulates underlying hair cells as head rotates!

Arousal Theory of mot (Y-D law) (what are units of graph)

Arousal: the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli Arousal Theory: people are motivated to perform certain actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. - Yerkes-Dodson Law: Predicted a U-shaped curve of arousal, at the ends individuals will behave to increase or decrease arousal to maintain optimal levels! Performance is best at the optimal arousal level. High complexity: low arousal Low complexity: Higher arousal preferred High arousal people might be seen jumping out of airplanes to bring their levels back down!

Memory and aging effects - prospective memory - time-based prospective memory vs event

As individuals age, it is not necessarily true that memory will fade with age! There is a wider range of memory ability for 70 year olds then for 20 year olds KEYS: - semantic memory, emotion reasoning, and crystallized intelligence improves with age! - Episodic (explicit LT) memory, recall, and prospective memory tend to decline with age! It appears elderly asked about their most vivid memories oftentimes explain acts in their late teens and 20s, this may be the peak encoding period. Prospective memory: remembering to complete a task later in the future - this remains in tact regardless of age for EVENT-based (remembering to give a massage to a friend when you see that friend) Time-based prospective memory: remembering to recall a desired intended behavior in the future at a certain TIME. - this does tend to worsen with age

Association vs projection area

Association area: Takes lots of sensory stimuli and processes it all from periphery and environmental cues to make a educated response. - permits perception of the world! Plans actions! - wernicke, broca, prefrontal cortex (abstract thought,plans) Projection area: Sensory reception areas, much less complex, perform rudimentary and simple perceptual/motor tasks - areas in brain where sensory info is sent to be RELAYED to an association area! - Only perform rudimentary repsonses

Attachment - secure -avoidant - ambivalent - disorganiz

Attachment: the emotional bond and secure base between a caregiver and a child, caregiver can be anyone sensitive and responsive during social interaction. - secure base = consistent, available, comforting, and responsive caregiver Secure attachment: seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and know they can depend on them to return. Will dislike caregivers living, but will accept a separate individual providing care. - healthiest and most important for proper social development later in life Avoidant attachment: child finds neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction with the caregiver, doesn't care if the caregiver comes or goes, become independent - signals neglect Ambivalent Attachment: Ambivalent means mixed feelings, results from inconsistent care/neglect by caregiver. - baby will be distressed on separation, but has a mixed response when caregiver returns since baby is unable to form a secure base, is usually anxious! - aka anxiety-ambivalent attachment, inconsistent care from parent - possible sign of abuse, baby may internalize idea people are unreliable and cannot trust other people Disorganized attachment: no clear pattern and disorganized behavior by the baby, often mixed with rocking, distress, avoidance or resistance, dazed, etc. - possible sign of abuse, or issue with baby!

Attention - sensorium selective attn (cocktail party phenomenon) divided attn (controlled and automatic processing)

Attention: concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment aka sensorium Selective Attention: focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring the rest of the stimuli! - allows us to focus on one thing while other stimuli are filtered or processed in the background at much less intensity! ---> cocktail party phenomenon: when you are talking with a friend at a party, hearing your name causes your ears to perk even though your attention was elsewhere! Divided Attention: ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Is based on the fact we have controlled (effortful) processing and Automatic processing. - Driving a car at first is difficult and requires controlled processing, but after awhile it becomes automatic processing so you can talk, change songs, or eat while driving.

Hindbrain: A. Medulla Oblongata B.

Autonomic and vital functions! Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure developed by rhombencephalon -> Myelencephalon

Learning (behaviorist) theory

B.F. Skinner, proposed language is learned via operant conditioning. This is because a babies parents constantly speak with certain phonemes that reinforce and make those seem more important to the baby who comes to learn based on what the parents are speaking.

Other theories of personality: - behaviorist (driven by, therapy involved token economies) - social cognitive (bandura, reciprocal determinism) - biological perspective

Behaviorist: B.F. Skinner - reflection of operant conditioning and behaviors that have been reinforced over time! -THERAPY: use Token economies (operant conditioning) where tokens are given to patients as a reward for good behavior for a treat of some sort later! Social Cognitive: Albert Bandura - Personality is largely a function of how we interact with our environment - Reciprocal Determinism: our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment are all interacting with one another to determine our actions in a given situation... our actions are influenced by social environment and personal factors - people choose different social environment which shape personality, and personality (feelings and behaviors) will dictate how we respond to the environment - believe in locus of control as well! Some feel more in control of their environment while others feel less in control. Biological perspective: Genes influence how one behaves and are expressed specifically in the brain

schizophrenia biological bases - factors influencing - meds and what they target

Biological base of schizophrenia: - genetic - trauma at birth-- hypoxemia (low oxygen levels) - excessive marijuana at young age Medications: - Neuroleptics aka Antipsychotics: inhibit/block dopamine receptors, decrease dopamine activity in brain (more sedated)

Bipolar and related disorders - manic episode - Bipo I - Bipo II - hypomania - cyclothymic disorder monoamine (or catecholamine) theory of depression

Bipolar disorders: formerly manic depression, is characterized mania and depression - Manic episodes: elevated mood lasting at least one week usually with: increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, increased self-esteem or grandiosity (thinking someone is all-powerful), racing thoughts, agitation, increased talkativeness, high-risk behavior. Bipolar I disorder: manic episodes with or without major depression episodes Bipolar II disorder: hypomania with at least one depressive episode - hypomania: no significant functional impair, but there is a noticeable increase in energy or optimism. Cyclothymic disorder: combination of hypomania and dysthymia --------- Monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression: says mania results from too high levels of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin, and depression results from too low!

Inner ear functions and compartments...

Bony Labyrinth: Three bones all continuous with one another - Cochlea: - Vestibule: - Semicircular Canals: Membranous Labyrinth: Duct filled with the potassium-rich fluid endolymph Perilymph: another fluid which surrounds the membranous labyrinth and creates a suspension which transmits vibrations from the outside world and cushions inner ear strutures

Object Recognition types... 1. bot up 2. top down relation to deja vu

Bottom-up (data driven) processing: Uses parallel processing and feature recognition, slower more accurate - begins with sensory reception, ends with brain analysis using parallel processing (determining stimuli based on shape, motion, color, and depth it can recognize!) - Take individual sensory stimuli and combine them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is - flight panel, no known data, stimulus influence our perception Top-down (conceptually-driven) processing: Brain recognizes the whole object using memories and expectations, typically faster and less accurate - recognize something quick without processing components! - use background knowledge to influence a perception Deja Vu: - Top down processing = see the whole object and it looks familiar, not able to break into parts though - Bottom up processing = unfamiliar, no deja vu and unfamiliar object.

Hindbrain: A. Medulla Oblongata B. Pons C. Cerebellum D. Retic form

Cerebellum: Coordinated movements of body, posture, and balance! - alcohol effects this region! Slurry speech, off balance, etc! developed by rhombencephalon -> metencephalon Reticular formation = arousal and CONSCIOUSNESS/alert (speak, act, think clearly)

Signal detection Theory

The theory that the perception of stimuli is dependent upon our internal perception (physiological) AND external perception (based on environmental conditions) which are called nonsensory factors: factors like motives, expectations, and experiences/memory which factor into signal detection Ex: how loud does one need to yell your name to get your attention at a concern? A. psychology: if you hear your name you likely acknowledge it? - - not simplye a yes or no! - depends on size of crowd, social factors, how likely you feel it is your name would be called B. Physiology: threshold fires

Vestibule (U + S and otolith)

The utricle (horizontal accel) and Saccule (veritcal accel) are both parts of the vestibule and are sensitive to LINEAR ACCELERATION, used in the balancing apparatus. Otoliths: cover the modified hair cells in the saccule and resist accelerative motion which bends and stimulates underlying hair cells to send signals to brain

Personality disorders clusters A: paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, Histrionic, narcissistic CLuster C: - avoidant - dependent - obsessive

Cluster C: Worried, disorders marked by personalities of excess worry, anxious, or fearful of others 1. Avoidant personality disorder: extreme shyness and fear of rejection - stay in same job or relationship in fear of change, just want acceptance 2. Dependent personality disorder: individual needs constant reassurance and is dependent upon usually no person (a parent) for decisions and to take action 3. Obsessive-personality compulsive disorder: perfectionist, inflexible, and tends to like rules and order - Ego-syntonic! Differs from OCD in the sense that OPCD individuals feel they "just enjoy order" whereas OCD is ego-dystonic, they despise their inability to stop obsessions and compulsions

Chapter 4: Cognition, consciousness, and language - cognition (how it is related to a computer) Dual-coding theory

Cognition: How the brain processes and gains understanding of information overload presented to us by the world through thought, experience, and the senses. - Computer must encode data in a language it understands, store it somewhere it can be found later, and be able to retrieve information when required! Cognitive ability: One's ability to think and solve problems across a lifespan - develops with age Dual-Coding theory: Both verbal associations and visual images are used to process and store information. They use different channels though! - Ex: hearing dad can recall some information, seeing a picture of dad can recall that same information! - "search engine optimization" in comparison to computer

Specialization of cell types in the eye (sh/col/mot) spatial vs temporal resolu parvicel vs magnocel vs cone

Color: Cones are responsible for color vision Shape: Ability to discern 3-D shape AND to discriminate an object from background based on boundaries. - utilize parvocellular cells: very high color spatial resolution which means we see very fine detail when examining an object. - Parvocellular cells have low temporal resolution! Can only discern shape of slow moving objects Motion: Motion is detected by magnocellular cells which have high temporal resolution, ability to discern fast moving objects! Have little spatial resolution meaning once an object is moving its shape is weird and it becomes blurry! - magnocellular cells detect object motion

verbal and nonverbal communication Animal Communication

Communication: the ability to convey information by speech, behavior, writing, or signals Verbal communication: the transmission of information using words, wether verbal, sign, or written. Nonverbal Communication: all transmission of information without the use of words. Body language, eye movement, posture, facial expression, tone, etc. - affected by culture: in U.S. no eye contact = sign of guilt, in japan it is a sign of respect. ----------- Animal Communication: the communication with other living creatures that affects the resulting behavior of at least one of the receivers. - facial expressions are the most well-conserved across species! Ex: snarling and fangs = anger - nonhuman animals convey health, location of food, mating, etc. via nonverbal or verbal cues. - scents are used inter (between diff species) and intraspecifically (same species)

Compliance: - foot in the door technique - door in the face technique - lowball - thats-not-all

Compliance: change in behavior based on a direct request, usually asked by a person or group with no actual power over this individual. - foot-in-the-door technique: ask for a small compliance first and then ask for the larger compliance. Opens the door to continued compliance. - Door in the face technique: ask for something extremely large, then when rejected ask for something much smaller which was the real goal the whole time. - Lowball technique: requestor gets intial commitment from someone, and then after being committed will raise the cost (money, time, or effort). - EX: say yes to internship 20 Hr/wk, add 10 once in - Thats-not-all technique: an individual is made an offer, before being allowed to respond, is told there is more to the offer making it better than expected.

More mapping patterns of brain: CT PET MRI fMRI

Computed Tomography (CT): many X-ray slices are taken of the brain to generate on computer cross-sectional slice images of the tissue. Positron emission tomography (PET): radiolabelled isotope sugar is ingested and tracked on where it goes throughout the body! Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): magnetic field interacts with hydrogen to map out hydrogen dense regions of the body! functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): same tech as MRI but specifically useful to monitor blood flow and therefore, areas of increased neural activity (with increased blood flow)!

Conformity (majority influence, normative conformity, identific, internaliza),

Conformity: matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms - Identification: when an individual changes one's behavior to fit into a group, but privately still disagrees with the group - conformity is also known as majority influence: when a larger groups ideology is influences behavior of a smaller group - Internalization: when an individual changes one's behavior to fit with a group, but also privately agrees with the ideas Normative conformity: changing ones behavior to fit into a group, because of fear of rejection - Asch experiment, individuals responding wrong on purpose to fit into the other sample individuals! Informational Conformity: looking to the group seeking knowledge about something they are less familiar with.

Continued Freud psychoanalytical ideology: - thoughts fall into consci, preconci, uncon - instinct (eros vs thanatos)

Conscious: awareness Preconscious: thoughts and feelings one is not aware of but can easily be brought to the surface - NOT to be mixed with subconscious (under conscious and not able to be brought up)! Unconscious: outside of conscious awareness, thoughts feelings and urges. Instinct: to freud this was a psychological representation of some physiological need, split into life and death instincts - Eros: life instincts like hunger, sex, and thirst - Thanatos: unconscious wish for death an destruction

Retrieval Cues (= little reminder which helps us remember) - context and state depend - serial posi (prima/recen)

Context Effects: Memory recall is aided by trying to recall information in the same location encoding took place! - information learned underwater better recalled underwater State-dependent Memory/Effect: Information learned at a given temperature, time, mood, or state are better recalled at that same state later! - learn facts intoxicated, harder to recall sober - positive mood easier to recall when in good mood, but also trigger more positive memories so it is a positive feedback mechanism... negativity = slippery slop Serial Position Effect: retrieval cue appearing when learning lists, order determines what you most strongly remember! - Primacy: You tend to remember the first items on the list better. tends to last longer - Recency: You remember the last items on the list better since you saw them last. tends to fade faster

contralaterally vs ipsilaterally

Contralaterally: most cases, opposite side of body to brain, left brain controls right side of body Ipsilaterally: same side of brain to same side of body, right body part to right brain.

More on forebrain (prosencephalon) -> Telencephalon -> Basal ganglia - overview - _____ system diseases associated with damage?

Coordinate muscle movement as they receive sensory input and relay it through the Extrapyramidal system to the central nervous system. - make our movements smooth and steady! Especially posture. Extrapyramidal system: Gathers information about body position and carries this information to the CNS, but not functioning directly through motor neurons Diseases: 1. Parkinson's disease!: chronic illness characterized by tremors and JERKY movements 2. Schizophrenia 3. obsessive-compulsive disorder

mapping the brain: cortical maps EEG rCBFlow

Cortical maps: Using electrodes on the brain, can identify specific regions for specific functions! If zapped in motor cortex, the patient suddenly jerks, etc. Electrodes deeper in brain can elicit sleep, anger, terror, etc. Electroencephalogram (EEG): electrodes positioned on the outside of the patients head and records sensitively any electrical activity! - common tactic for sleep and seizure testing Regional Cerebral Blood flow studies: relies on the assumption more active brain parts get more blood! Tracks blood volume flow to different regions of the brain to help map and relate what different areas are known for. - uses radioactive gas diffused in blood which can be picked up by monitors to assess levels reaching parts of the brain.

Hermann Von Helmholtz

Credited with transitioning psychology to be known as a natural science! Found the speed of a neuron based on reflex recordings.

Critical period vs sensitive period

Critical period: specific case of sensitive period where a time in an organism's life which developmental skills are highly "plastic" in the brain and so learning has a significant effect, inability to learn past this period at all! Sensitive Period: an environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability, can still learn after this period, but slower - language

Cues - consistency - consensus - distinctiveness correspondent inference theory

Cues are used in order to understand another's behavior: Consistency Cues: consistent behavior when given similar stimuli Consensus cues: how similar subject's actions are to the group Distinctiveness cues: how different one responds in different situations with different stimuli! (low distinctive = acts same across the scenario)

Culture (sociology standpoint) - ethnography material culture (artifacts) Symbolic (aka nonmaterial) culture lag

Culture: encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group, what makes human societies unique from one another - Ethnography: the study of culture and customs Material Culture: the meaning of objects of a given society - Artifacts: material items a group makes, possess, and value (I.e. american flag, baseball, barbecue etc.) Symbolic aka nonmaterial culture: ideas that represent a group of people - mottos, songs, catchphrases (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness... usually is the underlying embodiment of material culture) Culture Lag: symbolic culture takes longer to change than material culture! - smart phones = less privacy, America still idealizes privacy though

Culture - culture shock - pop culture - assimilaiton - multiculturalism - ethnic enclaves

Culture: shared beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. - Culture shock: sense of anxiety experienced from being cut off from your culture, such as when traveling to a different country. Pop Culture: practices, beliefs, and ideas generally recognized as mainstream or popular at a given time. Assimilation: the process by which an individual's behavior and culture being to resemble that of another group. - can also refer to two cultures blending together to become one (usually one culture dominates as having more influence on the merged culture). - contrasted from multiculturalism, assimilation is merging of cultures, melting pot Multiculturalism: communities or societies containing multiple cultures. In sociology, usually has a positive connotation for cultural acceptance and understanding. - contrast from assimilation, multiculturalism is a cultural mosaic Ethnic Enclaves: locations with a high concentration of one ethnicity - little Italy or "chinatown" in NYC

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia vs monoamine theory

DOPAMINE: argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain MONOAMINE (dopamine, NE especially, EPI, serotonin): low levels = depression, high = mania!

Freud Defense Mechanisms

Defense Mechanism: the clash between the superego and Id, which first distort reality and second operate unconsciously Repression: ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious - suppression: a more conscious form of forcing undesired thought and urges down (I'm not going to think about that right now) Regression: reversion to an earlier developmental state - under stress, adults may suck thumbs, throw tantrums, rely on mom Reaction formation: suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites! - man who loves a celebrity he will never meet may outwardly say he hates the actress Projection: individuals attribute their undesired feelings on to others - instead of I hate my parents which superego says is unacceptable, you compensate by believing that my parents hate me - Roschach inkblot test: projection study to see one's unconscious feelings that he/she projects onto an art's shape - Thematic Appreciation Test: consists of a series of pictures given to a client who is asked to make up stories, helps also elucidate client's unconscious thoughts and feelings. Rationalization: justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to self and society - killer who says his victim "deserves it" or a reckless driver who says "what is one more bad driver" Displacement: transference of one's feelings toward and individual to another person - person who cannot snap at boss will go home and snap at wife Sublimation: transfer of unacceptable urges to socially acceptable behaviors. - someone with sexual urges may turn these tensions toward their painting

Deindivdiuation - antinormative behavior

Deindividuation: loss of sense of one's identity in a social setting/large group. This in turn makes one more likely to behave deviantly, violently, or away from the norm due to the feeling of anonymity which is the definition of Antinormative behavior: - deindividuation results in possible antinormative behavior.

Cognitive disorders: Dementia - leading causes - starts with... and can turn into... Delirium

Dementia: usually SLOW, impaired memory to begin, which can result in impaired judgment and confusion - Leading cause of dementia is Alzheimers - Another leading cause is vascular dementia: micro-infarctions, microscopic clots in vesicles in the brain and high blood pressure Delirium: RAPID fluctuations in cognitive function that is reversible and cause by medical (non-psychological) causes. May be drowsy, restless, or fearful or imaginary disasters. - electrolyte or pH imbalance - malnutrition or low blood sugar levels - infection or drug reaction - alcohol withdrawl - pain

Demographic transition s1 (high, no change yet) s2: (health) s3: (affording) s4: (both low) which drops first

Demographic transition: the demographic shift in crude birth rates and death rates a country experiences following the transition from preindustrial to industrial economic status... stages follow below Stage 1: high birth and death rates Stage 2: improved health, nutrition, and sanitation DECREASE death rates Stage 3: improved contraception access and women's rights with shift from agriculture to industrial economy, Birth rates (births per 1000 individ. per year) to DECREASE. Also explained by more support and finances needed to support through school Stage 4: birth and death rates in industrialized society are both low high Birth/death -> decreased death -> decreased birth -> lower stable rates death rate drops before birth rate, population initially increases until birth rate drops and equalizes.

Drugs: 1. Depressants -alc, neurotrans affected, affect on cells, dopam levels, alcohol myopia! - results in... (brain big issue, thi def) - MEDS today (barb and benz) 2. Stimulants 3. Opiates 4. Hallucinogens

Depressant: Reduces nervous system activity, giving sense of relaxation, reduced anxiety. - alcohol most common Alcohol: increases activity of GABA receptor, A chloride channel which hyperpolarizes the membrane. This diminishes arousal, and lowers our guard by REDUCING inhibition to brain part preventing inappropriate behavior. Increased dopamine levels. - alcohol myopia: logical reasoning of brain impacted so individuals are unable to see long-term consequences of actions, act short-term. Side effects of alcohol: liver failure, ulcers, pancreatic damage, ulcers and GI diseases, brain damage such as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome - WK: characterized by THIAMINE deficiency leading to memory impairment with changes in metnal state and loss of motor skills! Medications: anti-anxiety aka depressant A. Barbiturates: more addictive, increase GABA activities to help with sleep and/or relaxation (anti-anxiety) - amobaribtal/phenobarbital B. Benzodiazepines: less addictive and more common, increase GABA activity same as above - alprazoiam, diazepam, lorazepam

Depressive disorders 1. major - episode - anhdeona 2. persist - dysthymia 3. seasonal aff dis (treatment?)

Depressive disorders: must meet specific severity and duration criteria 1. Major depressive disorder: a mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode - Major depressive episode: period of 2 or more weeks where an individual is depressed, hopeless, loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite and sleep disturbance. weight change, worthlessness or guilt feelings, thoughts of suicide. - Anhedonia: (seen above) is the loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities. 2. Persistent Depressive disorder: milder form of major depression, but lasts for at least 2 years. - Dysthymia: the persistent but milder depression feelings, basically synonymous with PDD 3. Seasonal affective disorder: major depressive disorder with SEASONAL onset. Depressive symptoms are present ONLY in the winter months. - may be related to abnormal melatonin levels - treated with bright light therapy

Depth perception mono vs di cues overall - convergence vs retinal disparity

Depth Cue: using cues to figure something out in 3D space Monocular cues: relative sizes of an object, obscuring of one object by another, converging of parallel lines at a distance, object position in visual field, lighting and shadowing Binocular: slight difference in angle registered on two retinas of adjacent eyes - convergence: more eyes look inward the closer an object is believed to be - Retinal disparity: Using two eyes to form clearer picture

The Humanistic perspective aka (pheno) - basic definition (contrasted with psychoanalytic/dynamic view of person) - personality results from? - gestalt therapy

Directly contrasting psychoanalytical perspectives (sick people), human perspective aka phenomenological theorists focus on the value of individuals who take a more person-centered approach describing how healthy people strive for self-realization. - personality springs from our conscious feelings as we attempt to attain our needs and goals. Gestalt therapy: seeing an individual holistically, looking not at just his drives and behaviors, but as a complete person, focusing more on the person in the now here before you. - gestalt = an organized whole that is MORE than the sum of its parts!

Decision-making: 1. Heuristics... availability, representative (basal rate fallacy) 2. Bias and overconfidence - disconf princip - conf bias - belief persever - overconf

Disconfirmation principle: Evidence from a testing mechanism demonstrated the solution is WRONG. This solution should be discarded since it doesn't work. - confirmation bias or belief perseverance may prevent someone from casting aside a solution that was disconfirmed Confirmation bias: tendency to focus on information that confirm's an individuals beliefs and rejecting information going against beliefs. Belief Perseverance: The inability of someone to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary! Overconfidence: Tendency to erroneously interpret one's decision, knowledge, and/or beliefs as infallible (impossible to be wrong)

Discrimination

Discrimination: when prejudicial attitudes cause individual's of a particular group to be treated differently from others While an individual may have prejudices (Attitudes), they may never discriminate (act on them) Individual discrimination: when one person discriminates against a person or group Institutional discrimination: an entire institution discriminates against a person or group

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia 1. Delusions 2. hallucinations 3. Disorganized thought (loos of assoc) - word salad - neologisms 4. disorganized behavior - cataton - echolalia - echopraxia

Disorganized thought: - loosening of associations, this is seen when a listener would have a hard time following the talkers train of thought and topic transition. - Word Salad: when a speaker throws together words into an incomprehensible sentence. (and patient has no Wernicke's area damage) - Neologisms: invention of new words --------- Disorganized Behavior: inability to carry out activities of daily living such as paying bills, keeping hygiene, and keeping appointments. - Catatonia: motor skill impairment in schizophrenia, involves rigid body or spontaneous movement greatly reduced, or it could be excessive useless and bizarre movements. - Echolalia: repeating another's words - echopraxia: imitating another's actions

Dissociative disorders - dissoc amnesia - dissoci identit disord - deperosnal dis - derealization dis

Dissociative disorder: an individual avoids stress by escaping his or her identity. Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past experiences, but not due to a neurological disorder. Often occurs after trauma or stress! - Dissociative fungue: sudden loss of realization of one's identity, also engages in some sort of travel Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): formerly multiple personality disorder, two different personalities recurrently take control of a person's identity. Component's of identity fail to integrate - often result of sexual abuse as a kid Depersonalization disorder: individuals feel detached from their own mind and body - out of body experience, inability to recognize oneself in the mirror derealization disorder: person feels detached from their surroundings - the world is given a dreamlike quality

Stressor types social readj rat sca conflict stressor types (choice stress) - appr/appr - appr/avoid - avoid/avoid

Distress: negative, results from painful stimuli types which impairs functioning and is overwhelming. Eustress: positive, results from good stimuli and is motivating and enhances functioning. Social Readjustment Rating Scale: measures the impacts of major life events from 0-100 ----------- conflict stressor: An event triggering stress due to a decision having to be made - Approach-approach conflict: the need to choose between two desirable options (italy or greece) - Approach-avoidance conflict: The need to choose between one desirable and one undesirable option (pay raise, but means longer hours) - Avoidance-avoidance conflict: the need to choose between two undesirable options (spiders or snakes)

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/_________/_________ -> roles in? A. Nor/epinephrine B. (NOW) high in what region, imbalances leads to _____ and ____ because

Dopamine: the third catecholamine! also a monoamine/biological amine... - involved in movement and posture! - High [ ] in basal ganglia! imbalances: - play a role in schizophrenia, high dopamine = schiz - Parkinson's disease: mentioned earlier, damage to basal ganglia = parkinsons! SO, disruptions in dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia = poor posture and tremors ... LOSS of dopamine = increased parkinson symptoms

drive-reduction theory - primary drives - secondary drive

Drives: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors which are goal based - believed to be intrinsic motivation, needed and created by host to come up with some goal which helps with survival (go get food, or take care of kids) Primary drives: tensions for some innate biological need, i.e. food, warmth, shelter - help maintain homeostasis - food/hunger drive: is a common example organisms have when their body is out of homeostasis and hungry! - Often regulated by negative feedback loops Secondary drive: internal tensions driving a non-innate behavior, so ones derived from learning or emotional desires! - Ex: Drive to go to med school, drive to find a companion and fall in love, or drive to achievement/aggression Drive-reduction Theory: This theory states motivation is based on the goal to eliminate uncomfortable states (drives) which drive us to act in some way to maintain homeostasis (of mind and body)

Duplexity/duplexity theory of vision (number of R and C and characteristics) - rhodop - three forms of c

Duplexity theory of vision (duplexity): there are two types of cells in the eye to register light and dark, and also to register color. - rods more nighttime - ones more daylight ---- Rods: 120 million rods, light and dark detection - Sense light and dark using their ONLY pigment present in rods which is Rhodopsin Cones: 6 million cones, color vision and fine details! - three forms: named by size of wavelength they absorb A. Short: high energy, blue B. Medium: medium energy, green C. Long: low energy (high wavelength) red!

Sleep disorders: - 2 main classes: dys and para dys: - insom - narcolep (cataple, sleep paral, hypnago/hypnopompic halluc) - apnea

Dyssommnia: inability to fall asleep, avoid asleep, or stay asleep - insomnia, narcolepsy, apnea Parasommnia: Abnormal movements or behaviors DURING sleep, usually in NREM - sleepwalking and night terrors _____________________________ Dyssomnia: 1. Insomnia: difficulty falling or staying asleep... usually result of stress, meds, depression, etc. which effect circadian rhythm -> MOST COMMON 2. Narcolepsy: lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep! Involves cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations symptoms: - Cataplexy: strong emotion or laughter causes sudden loss of consciousness and REM sleep - Sleep paralysis: sensation of being unable to move despite being awake - Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep (gogic) or awakening (hypno) 3. Sleep apnea: inability to breathe during sleep - obstructive: something physically prevents breathing - central: brain fails to send signals to diaphragm.

Elaboration Likelihood Model -------- social cognitive theory

Elaboration Likelihood model: separates individuals onto a continuum based on how they analyze persuasive information and their change in attitudes. - Central route processing: deep thinking, thinking about the message of the presenter with facts and information - Peripheral route processing: uses superficial details such as slogans, catchphrases, emotion, beauty, and fame Ex: two voters watch a political debate: One says they like X because of their cogent arguments, the other say they like Y because he is more personable. ---- Social-cognitive theory of attitudes: people learn how to behave and shape attitudes based on how they interact with or by how they observe others in a social group. - behavioral factors, personal factors, and environmental factors all play a tied role

Emotion three elements

Emotion: natural instinctive state of mind derived from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others. 1. Physiological response: changes in emotion activate the autonomic nervous system which changes heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure - sweating 2. Behavioral Response: facial expression and body language - smiling, gasping 3. Cognitive response: emotion causes subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced! This involves looking into memories and pst experiences to form perceptions on the cause of this emotion. - thoughts, beliefs, expectations

Psychosocial Development 1. tr/mis 2. aut/sh+do 3. init/gu 4. indus/infer 5. ide/RC 6. inti/isol 7. gerner/stagn 8. integ/desp where does physiological development fit in?

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial development theory: - emphasizes emotional development based on social interaction conflicts being resolved resulting in different beneficial skills 1. trust vs mistrust (0-1): - if resolved, child comes to trust his or her environment - if not child, may grow up distrusting the world 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3): - Favorable outcome is ability to exercise choice but also self-restraint. - Unfavorable results in feeling of external locus of control (world is out to get this person) 3. Initiative vs guilt (3-6 years): - can be given a sense of purpose and leadership skills - fear of guilt can result in restricting one's goals, or showing off 4. Industry vs inferiority (6-12): - good results in competency and feeling able to change the world in the way the child wants - Bad results in inability to make a difference, low self-esteem 5. Identity vs role confusion (12-20): physiological revolution - ability to see oneself as unique and loyal (fidelity) - inability to see one's purpose and changing personality from day to day 6. Intimacy vs isolation (20-40) - love, ability to have an intimate relationship - avoidance of commitment, distancing of oneself and his ideals 7. generativity vs stagnation (40-60) - productive, caring, contributing member of society - self-centered, little care for others, bored 8. integrity vs despair (60-80) - wisdom, assured of the meaning of life, happy with life's course, ready for death - life was worthless, fear impending death, bitter

Ethnocentrism: vs cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism: making judgements about other cultures (language, religion, and customs) based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture - forming judgements based on the self culture as reference - will feel their in-group is better than their out-group, leading to negative judgement In-group: social group by which one experiences a sense of belonging to. Out-group: social group by which one does NOT identify. Cultural relativism: the perception of another's culture as different from one's own, but not forming any negative or positive attitudes towards such. - forming judgements based not on their own culture as reference, but the culture of study - Jews eat Kosher, Arabs eat Halal, it is not good or bad, it is all relative and is what it is.

False memories (def?) construction - confabulation - misinfo effect - source monitoring error - intrusion errors

False Memories: memories that do not accurately reflect what actually occurred or was read Internal errors: - Confabulation: construction of fake memories to fill in missing parts of real memories External errors: - Misinformation effect: The idea that post-event information can interfere with the memory of the event itself! Ex: watch video on car crash, when asked about speed when cars collided vs cars crashed, different verbiage got different average of answers! - Source-monitoring error: An error between the episodic and semantic memory... an error where the details of a memory are correctly remembered, but the origin/context of the experience is incorrect! Ex: recalling a conversation from a dream as a reality. - Intrusion Errors: errors whereby information related to the THEME of a memory, but not associated with the memory, become part of the memory itself.. common in word recall lists (sky, plane, joy -> repeats sky plane tense)

Feminist theory gender roles, objectified, glass ceiling

Feminist theory: the idea that sexism and the subordination of women is done through social structures and institutional discrimination. Macro or micro - methods of subordination: gender roles, sexuality, financial opportunity, and social mobility Gender roles: behaviors expected of a given gender sexual inequality: differential expectations of behavior between men and women Objectified: being seen as a sexual object rather than a person --- Glass ceiling: an unofficially acknowledged barrier to advancement in a profession, especially affecting women and minorities (pay and position holding)

Fertility rate, mortality, crude immigr vs emigr and push vs pull factors Malthusian theory

Fertility rate: the average number of offspring given per female during her lifetime. Mortality rates: the number of deaths in a population per unit time (often per 1000 people) Crude Rate: total rate of something for a population Immigration: movement into a new geographic region Emigration: movement out of a geographic region - Push factors: negative attributes to the old location and encourage the immigrant to leave - Pull factors: positive attributes to the new location of interest Malthusian theory: how exponential growth of a population can outpace the growth of the food supply, leading to social degradation and disorder (malthusian catastrophe)! U.S. growing in population: in diversity (immigration, intermarriage, etc.), in population (immigration + birth rates/fertility rates)

Foraging biolo: - brain region? lat vs ventromed? - gen psycho: - type of learning

Foraging: seeking out and eating food, driven by biological, psychological, and social influences Biological: - The hypothalamus is responsible for hunger signaling in the brain - lateral hypothalamus: hunger (damage = starve) - ventromedial hypothalamus: satiety (damage = obesity) - influenced also by genetics Psychological: - foraging is learned through observation!

Macula, Fovea, blind spot, and R/C found where?

Fovea: central most part of the macula where ONLY cones are present! Most sensitive spot in daylight vision, most acute vision finest detail processing w only cones Macula: central section of the retina, straight ahead vision As you move further away from the macula/fovea, rods concentration increases and cones decreases. Blind spot: results from the point where the optic nerve is found and sends signals back to the brain!

Psychosexual development - libido - fixation - neurosis Stage 1: 2 3 4 5

Freudian theory: Psychosexual development-- Freud believed individuals are born with libido (sex drive), and psychological development was based on libidinal energy and reducing libidinal tensions. - defined different moments in children's life based on erogenous zones - theory is driven by drive-reduction ideology Fixation: overly indulged, or frustrated in a certain stage of development leading to adulthood mental disorders known as neurosis - neurosis: poor ability to adapt to one's environment or change traits of one's personality (i.e. OCD) Stages: 1. Oral stage (0-1 years): gratification primarily through placement of objects into mouth - oral fixation: people tend to be excessively dependent on others 2. Anal stage (1-3 years): satisfaction is gained from elimination and retention of waste from the anus - Fixation: results in anal-retentiveness (excessive orderliness) or sloppiness 3. Phallic stage (aka oedipal) (3-5 years): resolving oedipal or electra conflict - oedipal conflict for male-- men envy their fathers who marry their mothers, they fear castration so want to kill the father, and also begins to identify with father gaining morals and sexual identity. Males also sublimate libido energy (act more socially acceptable) - Electra conflict: same idea of female jealousy for the father, but do not fear castration so instead have penis envy. compete w mom for dad 4. Latency (5-puberty): one child sublimates libido, they enter latent stage until puberty 5. genital (puberty): extends into adulthood, involves healthy heterosexual relationships if previous stages went normally.

functional attit theory (k, e, a, e) ----------- learning theory

Functional attitude theory: attitudes serve for functions 1. Knowledge: attitudes help provide understanding of behaviors of others - individuals who care about political action would most likely vote 2. Ego-expressive: attitudes allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity - someone who likes the brewers wears a brewers hat 3. Adaptive: idea that they help one be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed 4. Ego-defensive: attitudes defend our self-esteem or justify actions we know are wrong - child who has math trouble may develop negative attitude toward the subject Learning theory: the development of attitudes are result from different forms of learning (observational, conditioning, etc). - an individual is taught curse words are bad, so will have a negative attitude toward them and those who use them - individual watches friends smoke begins to think its cool

Functionalism (organism analogy) - function def - dysfunc manifest vs latent function

Functionalism aka functional analysis: the study of the structure and function of each part of society Marco-level - takes on the organism analogy: a society is like a living organism, it needs all member parts functioning properly to function! - function: beneficial consequences of people's actions, help a society run properly - dysfunction: harmful consequences of people's actions, undermine a social system's equilibrium. Manifest function: an action intended to help some part of a system Latent function: an actions unrecognized benefits to the system EX: medical convention manifest function is to increase medical knowledge, latent function is socialization and stronger intrapersonal bonds

Functionalism (set forth by ___________) - criticized by _______ (reflex arc antagonist)

Functionalism is the study of the mind and how it can help species adapt to their environment/be more functional! - How the environment and society a organism lives in relies on society to function! Father of American Psychology William James was responsible for starting this theory. ---- John Dewey: Criticized functionalism, says we need to look at the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment!

game theory

Game theory: the study of how people behave in strategic situations. In the context of biology, game payoffs refer to fitness... - Evolutionary stable strategy (ESS): A genetically distinctive set of rules for behavior that when adopted by a certain proportion of the population cannot be replaced by any alternative strategy. Hawk-dove game example: - hawk will fight for food - dove will be aggressive but unwilling to fight for food, and will share if no fight Strategy/advantage depends on the situation, if the reward is larger than the cost of fighting a hawk wins out, is the fight is a larger cost than the reward, the dove wins out Four possible alternative strategies for competitors: 1. Altruism: donor provides a benefit to recipient at cost to self 2. Cooperation: donor and recipient benefit by cooperating 3. Spite: both donor and recipient are negatively impacted 4. Selfishness: donor benefits while recipient negatively impacted

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft translates to community and society Gemeinschaft: community, groups unified by shared feelings of togetherness and shared beliefs due to geography or ancestry - family, neighborhoods, etc. Gesellschaft: society, groups formed by mutual SELF-INTERESTS working toward a common goal - companies and countries for example

Types of identity - gender (undiffere, androgeny) - ethnicity/nationality hierarchy of salience

Gender Identity: The scale one places oneself on of masculinity and femininity - Androgyny: high levels of both masculinity and femininity - Undifferentiated: Low levels of both Ethnic identity: The ethnic group to which belongs to, involving a shared language, common ancestry, and cultural heritage. We are born into ethnicity - Nationality: political borders to which one belongs ------------- Hierarchy of Salience: identities order in importance depend in how often we use them based on the external settings we are in! we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most important for us at any given time. - salient = prominent, particularly important - relevance of an identity

Personality disorders general (ego-_____) clusters (three Ws) A, - paran, - schizot, (magical think and ideas of reference) - schizo

General Personality Disorder: pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive and impaired functioning of: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control - Ego-syntonic: patient considers her behavior as normal - specific types of disorders broken down into clusters Cluster A: Weird, behaviors labeled as odd or eccentric by others 1. paranoid personality disorder: pervasive distrust of other 2. schizotypal personality disorder: odd or eccentric pattern of thinking - Ideas of reference: similar to delusions of reference (everything is targeted at self), but less severe - magical thinking: superstition or thinking they can predict future outcomes 3. schizoid personality disorder: detachment from social relations and restricted emotional expression - often have few friends

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: faster 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin 4. GABA, glycine, glutamate 5. Neurpeptides aka .... two exs ------------ hormones/Endocrine system: slower 1. pituitary 2. adrenal glands 3. Gonads

Gonads: ovaries in women, testes in men - sexual hormone production in larger concentration! - too much testosterone = aggression - both contribute to libido (sex drive)

Groups (diad/triad) - primary - secondary - peer group - family group - ingroup -outgroup - reference group Group conformity

Group or Social group: two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity - diad: 2 person group - triad: three person group Primary group: long-lasting, a group involving close and intimate ties, family, friends, or members of a team for example Secondary group: short-lasting, superficial interactions, few emotional bonds.. students work together on a project Peer group: association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses. Family group: NOT self-selected but rather determined by birth, adoption, and marriage In-Groups: the groups to which an individual belongs Out-Groups: the groups an individual is not part of or is in direct opposition to reference groups: groups that establish the terms by which an individual evaluates oneself. - med student uses all medical applicants Group Conformity: an individual is influnced by the group and will conform (change attitude/behavior due to non-authority) to the group's goals even if they differ from the individual's goals

Groupthink - illus invuln - collec ratona - illus morali - excess stereotyp - press conform - self-censo - illus unanimi - mindguar --- Fad mass hysteria (withccraft)

Groupthink: A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts. - social harmony is reached by forcing consensus to be meet and then ignoring an external ideas! 8 Factors indicative of groupthink: 1. Illusion of invulnerability: members of group have sense of invulnerability (impossible to be harmed), leading to excess optimism and encouraging risk-taking 2. Collective Rationalization: preventing members from hearing others warnings against the ideas of the group 3. Illusion of morality: belief that the group's decisions are morally correct 4. Excessive stereotyping: members of the group possess stereotypes and negative views of the "enemies" 5. Pressure for conformity: pressure on group members to never have any opinions outside of the groups, viewing opposition and disloyal 6. Self-censorship: withholding of opposing views, never reveal any opposition 7. Illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement within a group 8. Mindguards: appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views ------------------------------ Fad: behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community. - objects (certain clothes) or actions (vine) Mass Hysteria: shared, intense concern about threats to a society. - usually many characteristics of groupthink such as illusion of stereotyping and collective rationalization lead to irrational fears and distrust of something. - EX: Massachusetts witch trials burning witches at the stake

Halo effect just-world hypothesis self-serving bias (relation to self-enhancement)

Halo effect: cognitive bias, tendency for a judgment in one area to influence an opinion in another area! - Judy was nice! ... going farther to more likely conclude Judy is a good mother. - attractive people likely have halo effect, come across as more trustworthy and friendly Just-world hypothesis: belief good things happen to good people and bad things to bad people in a JUST world. - Karma in hinduism - believing a victim got what he deserved Self-serving Bias aka Self-serving attributional bias: people take credit for good things and blame other things for bad outcomes. - I performed well because I am athletic, but lost today because of the wind - high self-esteem people likely to exhibit this - influenced by locus of control (internal - own destiny, external - world already decided) - Self-enhancement: feelings for the need to maintain self-worth (can be done via self-serving bias) - reverse attributional theory: depressed people saying "I got lucky this time"

Anxiety disorder (most common psychiatric for men? Women?) - generalized -specific phobias -social anx dis - agoraphobia - panic disorder

Highest rate of psychiatric disorder for... Men: substance use disorder Women: anxiety disorder --- Generalized Anxiety disorder: disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least six months. Specific Phobias: the MOST COMMON anxiety disorder. Stems from a specific fear compelling someone to avoid something. Social anxiety disorder: anxiety due to social situations Agoraphobia: fear of being in places where it might be hard for an individual to escape. Often fear leaving their homes. Panic Disorder: consists of repeated panic attacks (loss of control, hyperventilation, extreme anxiety, racing heart, feeling like they are losing their mind)

Subdivisions of the embryonic brain overview (more later)

Hindbrain and forebrain: both develop into two swellings Midbrain just one ------- Prosencephalon (forebrain) -> telencephalon and diencephalon Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) -> myelencephalon and metencephalon

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: faster 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin 4. GABA, glycine, glutamate 5. Neurpeptides aka .... two exs ------------ hormones/Endocrine system: slower - as a whole!!! 1. pituitary

Hypothalamus connects central nervous system to the endocrine system! Also can regulate hormones via release of pituitary hormones by using the hypophyseal portal system which connects the two!!! Pituitary gland: A. Anterior: "master" gland which based on hypothalamus messaging releases hormones into portal system, it can then control nearly all other endocrine glands. FSH, LH, ACTH, Prolactin, endorphins, GH B. Posterior: ADH and oxytocin

chunking/clustering

In memory, Chunking aka clustering: refers to putting objects in a list we need to memorize together to make it easier to recall! - Ex: ENALPKCURTRACSUB is tough until we chunk it into BUS, CAR, TRUCK, PLANE (still memory encoding)

accommodation pupillary reflex

In response to parasympathetic nervous system stimuli, Ciliary muscles contract and pull on suspensory ligaments which changes lens shape, this is known as accommodation.

incentive theory expectancy-value theory What are the four primary factors that influence motivation?

Incentive theory: individuals are driven by external rewards or hoping to avoid punishment! Expectancy-Value theory: an individual's motivation to complete a goal is a result of 1. how well that person expects to succeed at the goal and 2. the degree to which they value succeeding at the goal. - How well will I do? How bad do I want it? Motivation primary influencers: Needs, drives, arousal, and instincts.

Epidemiology: - incidence - prevalence - morbidity vs mortality (men vs women) - second sickness medicare medicaid

Incidence: number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time - if you have the illness, you are not at risk anymore Prevalence: number of cases of an illness overall Morbidity: burden or degree of illness of some disease Mortality: deaths caused by a disease - Men have higher MORTALITY, women have higher MORBIDITY rates Second sickness: exacerbation of health outcomes due to social injustice Medicare: covers 65+, and end stage renal-disease and ALS Medicaid: cover those in significant financial need

Sir Charles Sherrington

Inferred the existence of the synapse, only wrong belief was that the synapse had electrical signaling, but in fact it was a chemical process!

Information processing model

Information Processing model: 1. thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storing stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (not reflexive or instinctual) to be useful in decision making 3. situational modification: decisions in one situation can be extrapolate to help solve new problems 4. Problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on context and complexity of the problem The model likens the thinking process to how a computer works. Just like a computer, the human mind takes in information, organizes and stores it to be retrieved at a later time. graphic!!!! Sensory -> Short term <-> Long term - attention - recall/retrieval vs encoding

Instinct theory and instincts

Instincts: innate, reflexive response to some stimuli - wolves naturally stay in packs following the alpha dog - can be consistent throughout life or disappear with time (grasping reflex) Instinct Theory (of motivation): Humans are motivated to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts which drive them to certain tendencies to help a species survive.

Methods to observe and analyze groups: SYMLOG, interaction process analysis

Interaction Process Analysis: observing, classifying, and measuring interactions within small groups! System for multiple level observation groups (SYMLOG): 3 fundamental dimensions of interactions, stems from interaction process by observing interactions within groups - dominance vs submission - friendliness vs unfriendliness - instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive

Interference (in forgetting) in whole! proactive vs retroactive

Interference (effect): Retrieval errors caused by the existence of other similar information! A. Proactive interference: old information prevents learning new information - Trying to learn a new house address, but hard because you keep remembering parts of the old one B. Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with recall of old information - Teacher learning new names of the students this year make it hard to remember the previous year! - Reduce retroactive interference can be reduced by limiting number of interfering events! For example, students recall more what they learned at end of school year than at the beginning

James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Schachter-Singer (aka 2-f, aka cog-arou)

James-Lange Theory of Emotion: emotion is the result of AROUSAL (physiological) - emotion cannot be processed without feedback from peripheral organs (paralyzed people are less emotional) 1. first have a PHYSIOLOGICAL response (increased HR and sweating) 2. Next there will be a secondary response where the physiological response is labelled! --> Car almost hits you, your heart rate rises and your breathing rate rises, you now can interpret this as ANGER Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotion and arousal occur simultaneously and separately! - Runs into a wild lion, sensory info relayed simultaneously via thalamus to sympathetic nervous system and to cortex, heart pounds AND cognitive fear response, resulting behavior is run! - fails to explain the vagus nerve, cranial nerve which is a feedback system conveying info from the peripheral organs to the CNS. Schachter-Singer theory, cognitive-arousal theory, two-factor theory: the experience of emotion is determined by the intensity of the arousal we are experiencing, but that the cognitive appraisal of the situation determines what the emotion will be. - impending car, heart pounds (physiological) and cognitive label ("I'm afraid") lead to the emotion of fear Did a study with epinephrine... - had people told they would get epi get it and another group not get it, and had a group not said they were getting epi... - Had a person make these participants happy or angry - when reporting emotions, people not told they got epi were MOST emotional, even more so then people without epi lied to and told they were getting it... This supports idea we place a cognitive label on some external factor (the EPI) before we can feel an emotion!

Stages of Cognitive Development... start with ideas behind the developmental psychology theories... - what is it trying to explain? - schema/schemata, how did piaget think children learn? - assimilation, accommodation, adaptation

Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development! - Piaget believed passage was sequential! Had to make it through sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and finally formal operational in that order! - explain the development of intelligence and how humans develop knowledge from a young age - says mental processes are learned from both biological tendencies and then also understanding the world around them. Piaget believed children learned through instinctual interactions with the environment! - ex: grasping reflex teaching babies they can grab onto things. ----------------- Schema: a cognitive framework or pattern that helps organize information! they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment. - ex: social schema: shake someone's hand and smile when meeting them - Gender schema: theory states gender (kids usually find masculinity/femininity scale around age 3) is influenced by culture and societal means! Adaptation: processing new information and experiences into schema Assimilation: placing newly perceived information into existing schemata Accommodation: expanding schemata or making new schema to fit a new experience that may not fall into pre-existing schemas!

Carl Jung's psychoanalytic perspective -- dynamic perspective of personality the self is (combo of)... personal uncons collective consci archetypes are - perso - anima - animus - shadow ------------- Three dichotomies (four with mye/brig type invent) - extrav vs intrav - sens vs intuit - think vs feel (- judg vs perc)

Jung's dynamic perspective of personality: develops from PSYCHIC energy resulting from two unconscious types, collective and personal unconscious, manifesting into the conscious mind. The Self: Jung believed the self was a balance between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind. symbolized as a mandala striving for harmony Personal unconscious: similar to freud's unconscious, an individuals unaccessible urges or feelings Collective Unconscious: a collection of universal concepts from our ancestors called archetypes Archetypes: underlying (unconscious) symbols, images, or patterns of thinking inherited from out ancestors (may differ between cultures) ex: image of g-d and devil has meaning based on culutre! - Persona: the "mask" we wear in public, the personality we present to the world, will often depend on the social circumstances and how to emphasize the best qualities in that moment. - Anima: femininity, a man's inner women vs - Animus: masculinity, a women's inner man - Shadow: unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness - the dark side of one's personality Jung believed in Three dichotomies of personality: each is present in an individual to an extent but one tends to dominate. 1. Extraversion (E) vs Intraversion (I) -> oriented toward external world or self 2. Sensing (S) vs Intuiting (I) -> working with objective information vs abstract information about the world 3. Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F) -> using logic and reason vs using values and beliefs. (Myers-Briggs -- 4. judging vs perceiving: preferring orderliness vs spontaneity) Myers-briggs Type Inventory (MBTI): classic personality test using the FOUR dichotomies above

Force field Theory (who? KL...) 2 types of forces!!! A. assit, B. block

Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory: the field is the individual's current state of mind, the forces are the influences on the individual at this time. Two types of forces: 1. Forces assisting with attainment of goals 2. Forces blocking path to goal achievement

Latent Learning problem solving

Latent Learning: Learning that is done without motivation, but the behavior will not be performed unless there is motivation to do so - Knowledge that only comes to the surface when one needs to use it - You do not think about a dark alley, but once you approach one you are very likely to avoid it! - Also, child learning math in class has no incentive to display this unless there is some reward (good grade on a test) Problem Solving: avoiding trial-and-error tactics, organisms will instead attempt to analyze a situation and then take decisive action.

Moral reasoning theory by__________ - heinz dilemma prec - ob -self conv aka instra rel st - conf - L/O postconv - soc cont - univ hu eth

Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral reasoning theory - heinz dilemma: individual whose wife is sick, cannot afford meds which doctor will not lower price for, so he breaks in and steals them. Asked participants if the act was moral or not... came up with three phases, two stages each How it works? You progress from one stage to the next, but do not hold multiple stages! 1. Preconventional morality: preadolescence thinking, emphasized the consequence of the choice... rewards and punishments A. Stage 1: obedience- Avoid punishment - he would go to jail! B. stage 2: self-interest- it is all about gaining my own rewards - he wants to be with wife longer so needs them! 2. instrumental relativist stage aka conventional morality: begins in adolescents, people see themselves in terms of others, based on SOCIAL RULES, relationship to society - MOST common in adults! not everyone moves to post-conventional A. stage 3: conformity- seeks approval of others "good boy, nice girl" - would not steal because stealing is wrong B. stage 4: law and order: social order is the highest regard - if everyone stole, that business would cease to exist! 3. Postconventional morality: not everyone is capable of this, it is based on social rights, duties, or values one has internalized in their life. A. Stage 5: Social contract- moral rules are conventions designed to ensure the greater good of society - everyone has a right to live B. stage 6: universal human ethics- makes decisions in some form of abstract principles - it is wrong for one person to hold another person's life ransom

Ch 3: learning Learning Stimulus habituation dishabituation

Learning: the way in which we change behaviors due to our response to a stimulus Stimulus: anything to which we can respond! Behavioral learning relies upon how we respond to a stimulus! --- Habituation: repeated exposure to a stimulus results in decreased response! - ex: med students in cadaver lab find it less and less gross! - eating same meal before moving to next plate = less hungry then switching plates... Dishabituation: recovery of a response to the ORIGINAL stimulus, oftentimes as a result of a different stimulus being presented! - Ex: receptionist expects truck everyday 9 am, at first its okay good its hear, then gets used to it. One day it doesn't show up, the next day the truck shows up and this SAME original stimulus produces a stronger response! - eating one meal but simultaneously switching back and forth to next plate = MORE hungry due to dishabituation!

Cultural and Biosocial Development who zone of pr dev

Lev Vygotsky's cultural and biosocial development: - a child's cognitive development was reliant upon interactions with one's culture: rules, symbols, language, and so forth. zone of proximal development: skills which are currently within the range of possible abilities and skills a child could develop at the moment IF a more knowledgable other helps show them... - ex: at a certain age, an individual can ride a bike, but needs help of dad to show them how.

Episodic vs semantic memory flashbulb memory

Long-term memory -> Explicit (require effort) memory -> ... Episodic: experiences requiring effort to remember - memories of first day of school, a friend's bday Semantic: Recall of information/facts from when we were young - grass is green, washington is a state Flashbulb memory: a stimulus triggers remembering of both episodic (experience) and the semantic (facts) of that event creating a vivid picture.

Limbic System more (prosencephalon-> telencephalon) three parts... function to? fornix

Made up of hypothalamus, septal nuclei, amygdala - emotion and memory - temporal lobe A. Septal Nuclei: primary pleasure center, responsible for addictive behaviors! B. Amygdala: defensive behavior including fear and rage! C. Hippocampus: Learning and LONG-TERM memory, helps consolidate info to form them - Fornix: Long projection allowing hippocampus to communicate to other parts of the limbic system! -- helps communicate so involved in memory, emotion, arousal

Maintenance rehearsal vs elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal is the repetition of a piece of information in order to keep it within working memory (not forget it) and at the forefront of consciousness - more short-term oriented Elaborative rehearsal: More in depth, similar to self-reference effect and deep semantic processing, we relate some sort of information to what you already know allowing for contextualization and LONG-TERM storage. (still memory encoding)

Mating and Mate choice - monogamy - polygamy (polygyny, polyandry) - promiscuity - mate choice aka inters selec (mate bias) - direct vs indirect benefits

Mating systems: organization of group sexual behavior Monogamy: exclusive mating relationship, one partner Polygamy: multiple partners - Polygyny: one male, multiple females - polyandry: one female, multiple male partners Promiscuity: An individual of one sex will mate with individuals of the opposite sex without exclusivity versus Mate choice aka Intersexual selection: selection of a mate based on attraction - Mate Bias: how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate. (evolutionary bias, increases fitness) Direct benefits: when mate bias results in a companion providing material, protectional, or emotional support benefits... benefits the MATES Indirect benefits: when mate bias results in choosing a mate who promotes better survival for their offspring... benefits the OFFSPRING

Memory Three parts: 1. encode - automa - contro/eff proc - three types of controlled encoding how to switch between the two example w lang? 2. store 3. retrieval

Memory: The study of how we gain information over time Encoding: The process of putting new information into memory A. Automatic processing: information gained effortlessly without trying - walking past Starbucks to work, noticing familiar face works there, this becomes part of your memory - Reading MCAT book you absorb info passively B. Controlled (Effortful) Processing: actively working to gain information - studying for MCAT by engaging with text and trying to memorize information Types of Controlled Encoding: 1. Visual encoding: learning through visualization 2. Acoustic encoding: learning through hearing 3. Semantic Encoding: putting things into meaningful context We can switch from controlled processing to automatic! - when learning Spanish, you think very hard and have to put effort into using the language, after much practice it becomes easy and something you don't even think about = automatic.

Organization of brain start: outer covering, CSF generating? ventri

Meninges: Outer connective tissue sheath covering the brain composed of THREE layers, dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater! Brain and spinal cord rest in an aqueous solution known as cerebrospinal fluid produced by cells which line internal cavities known as ventricles! Skin-> periosteum -> bone -> DAP

mental set and functional fixedness and the candle study

Mental set: The tendency we have to approach similar problems in the same way! 1. To solve a problem, first frame the problem by creating a mental image or schematic of the issue. 2. Once solutions have been tested we evaluate results and consider other potential solutions for effectiveness --- Functional Fixedness: The inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner. - Duncker's Candle Study: tacks, candle, and matches box and tasked with mounting candle to wall, most people do not think of using the match box as a candle holder since that isn't its "fixed" or normal function

Mesolimbic reward pathway

Mesolimbic reward pathway: one of the 4 dopaminergic pathways in the brain, involved in motivation and emotional response and activation with drugs accounts for POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT response - role in all drug types, gambling, and falling in love - all neurons here communicate with dopamine Path includes: 3. Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) of basal ganglia, then to prefrontal cortex 2. Medial forbrain bundle (MFB) 1. Ventral Tagmental area (VTA) addiction (drugs and gambling), and falling in love!

Ch. 8 social process, attitude, behavior ----------- Michelangelo Phenomenon ... One of the first and leaders in sociology is _____ (MW) - social action vs. Law of Social Facilitation

Michelangelo Phenomenon: is an interpersonal process observed by psychologists in which close, romantic partners influence or 'sculpt' each other. Over time, the Michelangelo effect causes individuals to develop towards what they consider their "ideal selves". - came from Michelangelo sculpting figures he believed were already there. Max Weber: leader in sociology one of the pioneers, came up with Social Action - Social action: how we act depends on the social environment we are in, we are influenced by those around us... considers JUST the action of the individual who is surrounded by others - as compared to social interaction which is how individuals both shape each others actions versus Yerkes-Dodson law of Social Facilitation: individuals in a social setting perform simple tasks better than if they were alone, but perform complex tasks worse. Discusses idea performance is based not only on talent, but also social setting! - simple = something someone is already proficient in - complex task = something someone is still learning or less familiar with - look at graph to understand higher performance with higher arousal in social setting! EX: pianist plays better in a concert than in solo practice sessions.

Mnemonic systems in memory

Mnemonics: acronyms or rhyming phrases to provide a vivid organization of the information we want to remember! Types: 1. Method of Loci: "memory palace technique" uses visualizations of familiar SPATIAL environments (places you have been) in order to enhance the recall of information - place each item to be remembered at a point along the imaginary journey - ex: grocery store shopping, each item gets their own image picture in your head (egg carton dropping on the ground) 2. Peg-word: Associating numbers with items (sometimes they may rhyme or resemble numbers) - one is a bun, etc. Helps memorize lists in order! (still memory encoding)

Need-Based Theory - Who is prominent in it? - hierarc.... - needs? also separate: ******Self-determination theory and 3 components --- People are self-actual he found posess... - peak experiences

Needs: motivators that influence human behaviors Need-Based Theory: motivational efforts by an organism to meet certain needs types of need-based theories: 1. (Abraham) Maslow's Hierarchy of needs: 5 levels, Physiological, safety, love and belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization, respectively. One satisfies the base needs before top of pyramid needs. 2. Self-determination theory: people are motivated by three universal needs that are requisite for healthy relationships with self and others... A. Autonomy: feeling of control in one's own actions/ideas B. Competence: need to compete and excel at difficult tasks C. Relatedness: Need to feel accepted and wanted. ------------- Maslow is a humanist (study the whole, usually healthy, person) - did a study on successful people at the time he felt were self-actualizers... found they had similar personality traits (creative, spontaneous, original, creative, humorous, independent) - Peak experiences: they all also possessed this, profound and moving experience's in ones life which have important and lasting effects.

Types of studies: negative and positive control - Cross-sectional - longitudinal - ethnographic - Cohort - case - correlational - retrospective analysis - experimental - mixed methods

Negative control: Including individuals with NO treatment Positive control: Including individuals with a treatment, but which has known effects - testing it works 1. Cross-sectional: studies a population at ONE point in time, looking at how variables may affect one another, WITHOUT any manipulation - a longitudinal study, but only at one moment in time. 2. longitudinal study: follows a population at different points in time do track some variable, unmanipulated 3. Ethnographic: study a culture or group of people in their own environment in real social settings 4. Cohort: subset of longitudinal, study a group with shared characteristics 5. Comparative analysis: compare two different populations against one another 6. Case study: follows one individual or one particular concept over time 7. Correlational: study trying to find if there is any relationship between two variables 8. Retrospective analysis: using past info and outcomes to see if any trends exist to explain current. 9. Experiment: manipulate variables 10. Mixed-methods: quantitative (numbers) AND qualitative (feelings) component in one study

Network - network redundancy - immediate networks - distant network

Network: observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups - Network Redundancy: overlapping connections with the same individuals Immediate networks: dense with strong ties Distant networks: looser with weaker ties Ex: alumni network is more immediate

Neurobiology of learning and memory: - neuroplasticity - synaptic pruning - long-term potentiation

Neuroplasticity: the ability of the brain to form and reorganize synapses to make new connections, especially in regards to learning or post-injury - kids are termed "plastic" because brain can adapt so well... ex: remove a hemisphere and other hemisphere will adapt to take over lost functions so kid can lead a normal life! Synaptic Pruning: with age individuals have WEAK synaptic connections cut while strong ones are bolstered, this increases efficiency of our brain to process information! Long-term potentiation: as information is learned, certain synapses and neurons are firing neurotransmitters form a memory trace, as this neuron becomes more active, the dendrite on the receiving cell inserts more neurotransmitters on the membrane (↑ receptor density) to be more sensitive to the response, also more neurotransmitters are released from signaling cell! this phenomenon is termed long-term potentiation!

Development! neurulation, notochord, and groove/folds, crest, tube, alar plate, basal plate, development of brain (three swellings to 5) --- baby held in the _____ and connected via _______, the _____ transmits

Neurulation: begins when the ectoderm forms a furrow after the notochord forms made of mesoderm cells! Results in formation of a neural groove surrounded by neural folds. Neural tube leading edge cells are the neural crest: this region separates and will form dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, and calcitonin producing cells of the thyroid The rest becomes known as the neural tube which develops into the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Two plates of the neural tube: A. Alar Plate: Develops into AFFERENT (sensory) neurons B. Basal plate: develops into efferent (motor) neurons The cells around the neural tube folds in on itself many times! Results in formation of prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon! THEN, results in tiencephalon (cortex/limbic) , diencephalon (thalamus), mesencephalon, metencephalon (pons/cere), myelencephalon (medulla) -------------- Baby grows in the uterine cell wall! - connected to placenta and uterine wall by the umbilical cord - Placenta transmits food, nutrients, oxygen, water, and returns waste to the mother

Hind/midbrain/fore!

No coincidence the order of bottom to top, based on evolutionary development, first hindbrain (breathe), then midbrain (senses), then forebrain (complex behavior) Hindbrain + Midbrain = Brain stem Hindbrain: relay sensory info, control autonomic system, maintain balance and equilibrium! Midbrain: Regulate movement, help with auditory and visual information! Forebrain: Complex behavior, processes sensory information to muster response, reasoning and problem solving! Regulates autocrine, endocrine, and motor functions - Cerebral cortex is major player

Norms - taboo - folkway - mores and social control - sanctions (formal/informal, positive/negative)

Norms: societal rules agreed upon that define boundaries of acceptable behavior, giving a sense of what is appropriate - parents shop at a store for their kids A. Taboo: socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible behavior. B. Folkway: behavioral norms which are considered polite in particular social interactions - shaking hands after a tennis match C. Mores: a type of norm, the norm of morality, or right and wrong which are offensive to break - heroin is bad in America - serve as a means of social control: mechanism of regulating behavior of individuals in a group Sanctions: a reward or punishment for behaviors serving to reinforce or prevent certain actions in a society - negative sanctions: take away, a fine vs positive sanctions: corporal punishment - Formal (enforced by institutions) vs informal (enforced by behaviors, getting weird looks) - also a social control mechanism

Obedience obeying vs complying (ex with notes)

Obedience: changing one's behavior in response to an AUTHORITY figure - as opposed to compliance involving NO authority or power figure. - MILGRAM shock study, people obeyed to authority experimenter to deliver shocks! When being asked for notes by... Complying: your classmate, you comply and change behavior for non-authority figure, give notes to friend Obeying: your teacher, you obey and change behavior for authority figure, give notes to teacher

OCD body dysmorphic

Obsessive-compulsive disorder: characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts) which produce tension and compulsions (repetitive tasks) which release tension Body dysmorphic disorder: a person has a negative unrealistic evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part. - may seek plastic surgery or other extreme interventions

Prosencephalon- telencephalon- CEREBRAL CORTEX! 1. frontal 2. Parietal Lobe: 3. occipital -visual aka _________ cortex

Occipital lobe: A. Visual cortex: aka striate cortex ... means striped since appears striated under microscope! - visual processing! Also learning and motor control implications

Attention Studies: Shadowing

Often involved in Selective attention studies!!!! - Selectively listen and repeat certain phrases Shadowing: Repeating aloud a message word for word at the same time the message is being presented often involving other stimulus in the background. - AAMC: pilots presented left or right ear while flying and told to repeat, present 2 vs 4 digits... Example of a shadowing of the attended ear

Olfactory _________receptors phermo amt of olfactory rec? pathway of reception... only sense which doesn't...

Olfactory chemoreceptors: Smell sense, the cells are localized onto epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity. Odorants/chemical stimuli bind to their specific receptor to cause a response! - GAS/voltalile compound EACH odorant has specific receptors, so we can tell the difference between many different signals. Pheromones: received by a person or animal and when another organism smells these pheromones, it influences them to behave in a specific way! Olfactory pathway: 1. odor molecules are inhaled into the nasal passages, AP fired and sent via olfactory nerves to the brain 2. Sent specifically to the olfactory bulb 3. These signals are then sent to the olfactory tract to higher regions of the brain, including the LIMBIC system THE only sense which does not travel through the thalamus relay station! Direct to high order brain parts.

associative learning part 1: classical Part 2: operant - developed by who? he was the father of ____________ - aspirin ex reinforce and add vs remove - escape learn - avoid learn relating classical and operant together in reinforcers!!! - 1˚, 2˚, and discriminative stimulus, conditioned reinforcer (punishment next nc)

Operant conditioning was founded by B.F. Skinner, the founder also of behaviorism! Operant conditioning: Altering the frequency of VOLUNTARY behaviors through added or removed stimulus! ------------------- Reinforcement: the process of increasing the likelihood someone will increase a desired behavior! A. Positive reinforcers: elements which reward or incentivize certain behaviors - employees get paid extra for hard work B. Negative reinforcers: unpleasant elements removed in an attempt to increase prevalence of desired behavior i). escape learning: reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists! - aspirin! takes away a headache (unpleasant) away which reinforces behavior to take aspirin when sick! ii.) avoidance learning: reduce the unpleasantness of an event in the future - Andrew taking medicine before a baseball game to help with later knee pain ----------- Primary reinforcer: stimulus biologically important to an organism - dolphins training using fish as stimulus Secondary reinforcer: a stimulus reinforcing a behavior successfully after being paired with the primary (biological) reinforcer! - emitting clicking sound from a buzzer as the dolphin is fed food - also called the conditioned reinforcer discriminative stimulus: the antecedent stimulus which has control over the primary (/secondary) stimulus which results in an organism behaving one way in the presence of a given stimulus and another way in its absence - person giving the 1˚ reinforcement to dolphin causes dolphin to behave differently or understand the operant paradigm is about to begin just by being present!

Drugs: 1. Depressants 2. Stimulants 3. Opiates action? - ate vs oid - most common? 4. Hallucinogens

Opiate: naturally occurring, morphine and codeine Opioid: synthetic derivatives, oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin Mechanism: Bind to opioid receptors in the nervous system and cause reduced reaction to pain, increasing euphoric perception (mimmic endorphins/enkephalins)! Different mechanisms of acting, some antagonists other opioid receptors help release and cause AP for happy signals Heroin: synthetic derivative known as diacetylmorphine. Once metabolized it turns to morphine and is very addictive.

Organizations - formal - history/enforce/goal elements -characteristic institution - bureaucracy - iron law of oligarchy - mcdonaldization

Organization: entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and culture - aka formal organizations - can have a HISTORY, since the organization can exist before or after some individual leaves it. - orgs have enforcement procedures aiming to control the activities of the group. Also have express goals. Usually are divided hierarchal Characteristic institution: the predominant basic organization of society - Bureaucracy: rational system of political organization, administration, and control of NON-elected representatives Bureaucracy usually involved paid workers who obtain privileges, and follow strict procedures... results in slow to change inefficient organizations Iron law of oligarchy: states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group. McDonaldization: shift of a group in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies. - based on the McDonalds franchising mechanism.

Parts of the ear: outer: pinn/aur, EAC --- tymp mem (freq vs inten effects and how it changes vibrat) Middle: ossicles Inner: next notecard in depth eustach tube?

Outer ear: - Pinna/Auricle: the outer cartilaginous portion of the ear, channels sound waves - External auditory canal (EAC): large hollow tube of outer ear sound travels down ------- middle and outer divided by: - Tympanic membrane: sound waves from EAC hit ana vibrate the tympanic membrane which vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves. frequency sound = rate of tympanic vibration. Louder sounds = greater intensity = greater amplitude of these vibrations! Middle ear: MIS Three smallest bones in body found here, the ossicles: help transmit and amplify vibrations from tympanic membrane to inner ear!! A. Malleus (Hammer): affixed to the tympanic membrane B. Incus (anvil): receives hammer, transmits to staples C. Stapes (Stirrup): attached to the cochlea, transmits signal vibration to inner ear! Inner ear: bony labyrinth A. Vestibula B. Semicircular canals C. Coclea Eustachian tube: connects ear to nasal cavity to help balance and equalize pressure from environment to equalize it with middle ear!

More on forebrain (prosencephalon) -> diencephalon -> Hypothalamus! -overall subdivided into: lateral: what happens if removed in mice? ventromedial: what happens if removed in mice? anterior: what happens if removed in mice?

Overall: homeostasis and hormones - Emotional experience during arousal, aggressive behaviors, and sexual behaviors! - also controls some endocrine functions and autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic response) - receptors in hypothalamus help correct imbalances! Release ADH for blood pressure control (osmoreceptors), coordinate pituitary hormone release on metabolism, temperature, and water balance. Lateral Hypothalamus: hunger and thirst receptors and response coordination - destroy LH, Lack Hunger! - destroyed in rats, they refuse to eat, starve to death Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Satiety control with food - destroy in rats and leads to obesity and overeating - VMH destroyed, very much hungry! Anterior Hypothalamus: Sexual behavior, sleep and body temp - destroy in rats, no sex drive... stimulated, rats will "mount" anything - when destroyed AH, Asexual Habits

Parallel processing (and feature detection)

Parallel processing: the ability of our brain to analyze and interpret many different stimuli SIMULTANEOUSLY at once! - we do not see white, than red, than hexagon, thn stop we see a stop sign! - smells, sight, and other stuff senses shape our memories Example: we register a car moving since we are familiar with its usual motions and shape. Feature detection: process by which brain analyzes complex visual cues to extract behaviorally relevant data to help determine associations with important or familiar objects! - See hexagon, red, predict stop sign

Formation and retrieval of emotional memories - 2 pathways which brain parts activated in facial expression?

Path 1: Explicit pathway -> Medial temporal Lobe (hippocampus) - The experience or story of the event! (conscious encoding) Path 2: Implicit Pathway -> Amygdala - emotional memory pathway, (unconscious encoding) Facial expression recognition: - Temporal lobe - occipital lobe

Peer pressure Identity shift effect Cognitive dissonance

Peer pressure: social influence placed on an individual by a group of one or more people. - Peer: individuals who are considered equal in a social group Identity shift effect: an individuals state of harmony is disrupted by the threat of social rejection, so they conform to the norms of the group to reduce internal tension. However, in doing so, they experience tension since the behavior is outside the norm of the individual, so that person will experience an identity shift to adopt the standards of the group as her own! - different behavior -> fear rejection -> change -> shift identity to alleviate guilt of changing - black person in the hood in a gang Cognitive Dissonance: two opposing thoughts or opinions will create an internal state of discomfort, reduce this discomfort by changing their perception, belief, or behavior! - Smoker says unhealthy I quit, or research is inconclusive I will continue. - usually an action not involving a group, but more about the self! (diet, pick up dog shit, etc.) Identity shift: Your thought different from groups, conform to gorup, alleviate tension by switching identity! vs Cognitive dissonance: 2 thoughts you have at once, create internal conflict so you rationalize it or change behavior!

Personal Construct theory - how would therapy work?

Personal construct psychology: George Kelly studied himself, and concluded the individual is a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. Individuals construct schemes of what others may do! - the anxious person is someone who has a hard time understanding how his or her companions will behave like. People construct personal accounts of how the world works, then uses these accounts to understand or make sense of their experiences and observations! PSYCHOTHERAPY: operates by giving a person more tactics to understand and predict troublesome events. ex: couple breaks up: - diff people act differntly (wasn't meant to be, total dick, etc.

5 recognized mechanisms of mate choice: phenotyp benefits sensory bias fisherian aka _______ selecton indicator traits genetic compatability

Phenotypic benefits: observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex Sensory Bias: idea that female or choosier gender's preferences are based on sensory stimulus adapted in NON-mating settings, so the non-choosy gender will adapt to these preferences - A fiddler crab will build pillars around their territories, which attracts females who think it is food, to increase mating chances. Fisherian aka runaway selection: when one gender finds a specific feature attractive, the feature will "runaway" or become predominant in offspring as the opposite gender selectively chooses and prefers mates with this trait. The trait either has no effect or a negative effect on survival, but positive effect on mating. - Peacocks plumage is classic example Indicator traits: traits which signify good-health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness - clean and shiny cat coats Genetic Compatibility: create of mate pairs that when combined have complimentary genetics. - attraction of individuals to starkly different genetics, less likely for homozygous disorders

Sensory receptor types: - phot -hair -vestbular - noxi - thermo - osmo -olfac - gustato/tas

Photoreceptors: respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible light spectrum Hair cells: respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear (hearing, rotational/linear acceleration) vestibular sensation: balance (ears) Nociceptors: respond to painful or noxious stimuli Thermoreceptors: changes in temperature Osmoreceptors: changes in osmolarity Olfactory receptors: volatile compounds/smells Gustatory/ taste receptors: respond to dissolved compounds

Place theory and tonotopically

Place theory: The location of hair cell movement on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch! - Further into the cochlea = lowest frequency (apex) - Right at the oval window vibrations = highest pitch! Tonotopically organized: which hair cells vibrate give brain an indication of the pitch of the sound

Trauma and stressor related disorders - PTSD - acute stress dis Symptoms: 1. intrusion 2. avoidance 3. negative cognitive 4. arousal

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): continued stress after a traumatic event. Must be longer lasting than one month. Types of symptoms: 1. Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, nightmares, flashbacks, etc. 2. Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, person, place, and objects associated with the trauma. 3. Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, negative view of the world 4. Arousal Symptoms: increase startle response, irritability, self-destructive behavior, sleep disturbance Acute stress disorder: PTSD symptoms but for 3 days to one month

Poverty - social reproduction - structural poverty - absolute poverty - relative poverty - poverty line

Poverty: low socioeconomic status, lack of resources due to finances - Social reproduction: social inequality, especially poverty, being passed down from one generation to the next - Structural poverty: the idea that the structure of society and the economy results in the poverty issue Absolute poverty: people without enough money to obtain a quality of living with adequate food, shelter, and clothing Relative poverty: one is poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live. Poverty Line: determined by the government based on determined estimates of costs to meet minimum basic needs. - FAILURE: does not consider geography, and how different living locations affect cost of living

Prefrontal cortex role in emotional response gage example dorsal, ventral, ventromedial

Prefrontal cortex: personality, decision making, cognitive functions, arousal and other emotions! Left hemisphere portion = Positive emotions Right hemisphere = Negative emotions - Phineas Gage: pole in his prefrontal cortex left lobe, he was seen to be VERY angry all the time. - Dorsal prefrontal cortex: associated with attention and cognition - ventromedial prefrontal cortex: thought to play a substantial role in decision making and conrtoling emotional responses from the amygdala - Ventral prefrontal cortex: associated with emotional experience

Forebrain: - dienc, telen with what in each relative size, survival?

Prosencephalon: complex perceptual behavior, cognitive and behavioral processes - Emotion and Memory! - Greatest influence on human behavior! - Not essential for survival, but associated with greatest influence on human behavior! - Largest compartment by weight! 1. Prosencephalon 2a. Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system 2b. diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland

Psychoanalytical perspective A. ID (pleasure princ, prima proc, wish fulfil B. ego (real princip, secon proc) C. superego (consien vs ego-ide)

Psychoanalytic aka psychodynamic theories of personality: - the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality - clash between superego and id results in Ego relieving anxiety via defense mechanisms - Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud's model: A. Id: all the basic primal, inborn surges to survive and reproduce. The Id functions to relieve any existing pent-up tension! Driven by the pleasure principle: behaving to satisfy now any biological needs and avoid any pain! - primary process: the Id functions through this mindset, obtain satisfaction NOW not later. - Wish fulfillment: any daydreaming which satisfies the ID, although it is usually only temporary solution and action will have to be taken to Id relieve tension B. ego: operates based on the reality principle, when the Id cannot be satisfied immediately, the Ego organizes the mind to DELAY the primary process until satisfaction can actually be obtained. This is secondary processing. - decision making component of personality! guides the Id, moderates desires of superego - In traffic, Id might say pull to shoulder and drive by! Ego says change channel and deep breathe. - Reality principle: takes into account the objective reality of a situation in order to guide the activity of the Id. - Secondary process: the guidance of the ego to help prevent the Id from making us take action which may not be the right decision at the time or under the circumstances! C. superego: personality's perfectionist judge, will respond with pride to accomplishments and guilt to failure. The moral standards in one's head set by society and parents. - conscience: make's the ego (the person) feel guilt if gave in to some bad temptation - ego-ideal: the rewarding of proper, moral actions taken by an individuals. The image of rules and standards for who the ego wants to be! Id: devil on shoulder ego: personality, the listener and moderator Superego: the angel/moral on shoulder primary process use Id and pleasure principle, secondary process use ego operating on reality principle

Summary of the psychoanalytic personality theorists - gen def of psychoanalytical Freud believes Jung believes Adler believes Horney believes

Psychoanalytic theorists: focus on "sick" individuals and their troubling urges Freud: believes personality is dictated by inborn instincts Jung: believes personality is dictated by inborn archetypes (symbols/images passed from ancestry) Adler: believes personality is derived from striving fro superiority Horney: believes personality is derived from interpersonal relationships with others to meet needs and satisfy anxieties.

Ch 7: Psychological disorders - biomedical vs biopsychosocial approach (dir/indire therapy)

Psychological disorder: set of thoughts, feelings, pr actions that cause noticeable distress to the sufferer, cause maladaptive functioning in society. or are considered deviant by the individual's culture Biomedical approach: Utilize therapies that help with symptom reduction, assumes the pathology has roots in biomedicine, so solution is of a biomedical nature. - only physical/pathological focus of the mental illness - direct therapy only Biopsychosocial approach: Incorporates social circumstances and psychological attributes alongside biomedical disorders in order to treat illness. - ex: Depression has a genetic component (biomedical), but also is reliant upon how much stress and pressure one is under (psychological) as well as the social environment (social) which can add more stressors. - Direct therapy: treatment acting directly on the individual (medication or therapy) - Indirect therapy: treatment which increases social support, educating friends and family on how they can help ------- diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) - currently on DSM-5, used to pair symptoms to an individual to mark a disease.

Psychophysics studies definition Distal and proximal stimuli of sensory receptors

Psychophysics: The study of the physical nature of stimuli and the physical sensations they evoke. --------- Sensory Receptors: detect stimuli and trigger electrical signals! Distal stimuli: objects out in the external environment which releases or reflects some pattern of energy! - ex: camp fire Proximal Stimuli: Stimulus from the object (distal stimuli) that actually reach your SENSES (ear, eye, touch, etc) and activate sensory receptors. Proximal is more important for perceiving the world! - ex: heat and light radiating from the fire hit skin and eyes helping you perceive the object.

associative learning part 1: classical Part 2: operant - now punishment - Shaping? Part 3: how schedule ties into the conditioning! - fixed/variable : ratio/interval which is fastest for learning and prevents __________ (long retention behavior)

Punishment: conditioning in an attempt to REDUCE a behavior! A. positive punishment: Adding a stimulus to reduce a behavior - child picking nose in class, you scold him in front of class (added stimulus) to reduce behavior in future~ B. negative punishment: removing a stimulus to reduce a behavior - child misbehaves so you take away her toy. Shaping: process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors! - ex: bird gets food for 90˚ spin, then only 360˚ spin, then only for 360˚ spin and hitting keyboard! --------------------------------- Reinforcement Schedules: fixed or variable, ratio or interval 1. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules: Every X number of times the behavior is reinforced! - Ex: mouse gets food after every 3x it presses a bar - continuous reinforcement: FR schedule where behavior is rewarded every time! 2. Variable-ratio (VR) schedules: The behavior is rewarded on a changing basis, but the average number of behavior performances is relatively constant - gambling/lottery is good example, the average number of people needed to play before winning is random but the average stays about the same! - ex: another one is giving rat food after 2 attempts, 8, 6, and 4, so the average is roughly the same 3. Fixed-interval (FI) schedules: Reinforcement of behavior is given after a fixed amount of time has passed - rate does trick, and must wait 60 seconds for reinforcement or for another reward to be given. - 4. Variable-interval schedule: the behavior is reinforced after changing times - rat may get a pellet after doing good behavior but may need to wait 30 seconds, then 90, then 3 mins, etc. Variable-ratio is the BEST schedule for fastest learning and largely prevents extinction! Behavior performed for long after it is taught.

Rational choice theory exchange theory

Rational choice theory: an individual's decision making where all of the benefits/rewards are listed and all of the punishments are listed to compare, choosing the highest benefit-to-harm ratio option! Micro - pros and cons list to make a CHOICE which maximizes personal benefit - pros and cons of a choice for their individual selves! - economic or social or political! (not relationships!) Exchange theory: an extension of RCT the interaction between groups in decision making, where the rewards and punishments are analyzed to dictate decisions and choices. - cost benefit analysis between two parties to dictate risks and benefits of a RELATIONSHIP! - is risk > costs, terminate relationship

Motor reflexes of a newborn: primitive sucking rooting reflex moro babinski grasping

Reflex: Behavior resulting from stimulus without higher level input! Primitive Reflexes: babies are born with these which help them survive! Disappear with development! So can help determine any developmental disorders/delays 1. Sucking: things put in their mouth (nipple) trigger sucking 2. rooting reflex: touching cheek causing baby to turn neck! Likely for breast feeding 3. Moro reflex: swinging back of arms when babies head is swung! Will slowly withdraw them and then cry! Goes away around 4 months! 4. Babinski reflex: all toes spread out wide when bottom of foot is stimulated 5. Grasping reflex: Anything placed in babies hand causes baby to close hand around item!

Memory Three parts: 1. encoding: automatic and controlled (visual, semantic, auditory) 2. storage: Sensory, Short, working, long 3. retrieval: - recall vs recognition

Retrieval: taking information that was learned and recalling it, or by retaining information by recognizing something quicker after having seen it already for the first time. Recall: retrieval and statement of previously learned information Recognition: process of merely identifying a piece of information previously learned (much easier than recall)

Hindbrain development, functions of it as a whole?

Rhombencephalon: Located where spinal cord meets brain. Functions: Movement, coordination, breathing, HR, digestion, arousal (sleep and waking) Hindbrain -> Myelencephalon (later medulla oblongata) and Metencephalon (later pons and cerebellum)

Other influences on identity: - role-taking - theory of mind - looking glass self

Role-taking: individuals often will imitate certain identities of others they find interesting or look up to! This is a positive thing as individuals learn to see from others perspectives and imagine themselves from the outside. - playing house or some imaginary game Theory of mind: The ability to see how others are thinking -ex: understanding what your friend is thinking or how he will react to a story you are telling - once this develops, marks the time from which we react and care how other perceive us. Looking-glass self: the idea by which individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others perceive them.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development S1: Sensorimotor (circular reactions and object permanence) S2: Preoperatinal (symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration) S3: Concrete Operational (logical thinking, understand conservation) S4: ______________________ - piegetian pendulum experiemnt

S4: Formal Operational: ability to think logically about abstract concepts, and begin to be able to problem solve. - age 11 and onwards Pendulum Experiment: Piaget had concrete and formal operational groups try to determine what affects a hanging pendulum's frequency (length of rope, force, drop length, etc.) - concrete operational: kids manipulated many variables at once and at random - Formal operational: accurately designed and tested the pendulum experiment manipulating one variable at once to see how it was affected.

Schizophrenia (psychotic disorder def) must have... +/- symptoms (catatonic, neologisms prodromal phase downward drift hypothesis

Schizophrenia: a psychotic disorder: a group of disorders that affect the mind, resulting in one of the following symptoms: - Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia (abnormal movement due to poor mental state), or negative symptoms Must have "active" symptom of one mentioned above continuous for at least 6 months. Positive symptoms: behaviors, thoughts, or symptoms added as an addition to normal behavior. - delusions/hallucinations/disorganized thought/ catatonic behavior, neologisms (invent new words) Negative symptoms: those which involve the absence of normal or desired behaviors - disturbance of affect or avolition (neglecting to due routine activities) ----- Prodromal Phase: The early phase/onset of a mental health disorder with clear evidence of deterioration,. social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences. ----- downward drift hypothesis: later in sociology, this concept relates mental illness to a decline in socioeconomic status, worsening illness symptoms, which creates a downward spiral. - this is why schizophrenia is so high in homeless populations.

Anatomy of the eye - sclera - blood vessels (choroi + retin) - retina - cornea - anterior/posterior chamber - iris (dila/cons pup) - choroid - canal of schlemm - ciliary body/muscles - lens - suspens ligs - virteous

Sclera: outermost layer of the eye, the "white" flap covering everything but the cornea! Blood Vessels: 1. Choroidal vessels: blood vessels intermingling between the sclera and retina 2. retina vessels Retina: Inner most layer, location of photoreceptors which transduce photon reception to AP to brain. Is said to be part of the CNS in fact! Has its own blood vessels. Cornea: clear dome-like window which filters and focuses light! anterior chamber: between cornea and iris posterior chamber which is between the lens and the iris Iris: colored part of the eye! Dilation/constriction muscles here innervated by autonomic NS A. Dilator pupillae: stimulated by sympathetic nervous system to dilate B. constrictor pupillae: constricts pupils under parasympathetic control Pupil: black portion of eye light enters (a hole almost) Choroid: continuous with the iris! one layer inside the sclera, location of aqueous humor production (ciliary body)! Canal of Schlemm: drains aqueous humor fluid Ciliary body: connects the iris and the choroid! Houses ciliary muscles, deals with accommodation and aqueous humor production. Lens: controls REFRACTION of incoming light! Suspensory ligaments: connected to the lens, changes shape of lens based on autonomic nervous system! Virteous humor: gel supporting the retina!

Ch 6: Identity and Personality Self-concept vs identity self-schema

Self-Concept: An idea of the self one holds based off of ideas they have on themselves as well as others opinions, includes behaviors of our past and future selves - ONE constant large massive construction of who we are, were, and will be versus Identity: The set of behaviors and labels we take on in a specific group individual components of our self-concept... religion, gender, hobbies, membership in social groups, are all different identities forming our one self-concept idea! - Can vary depending on situation/social group (mom and kevin or mom and kids) Self-Schema: All the different LABELS one gives oneself ... athlete, student, intelligent, etc.

Self-discrepancy theory - relation to self esteem?

Self-Discrepancy Theory: There are three versions of our "selves" that play a role in evaluating ourself - Actual-self: Our self-concept and how we actually see ourselves - Ideal-self: the person we would like to be - Ought-self: the way in which others think we should be The closer these three selves are, the higher in general an individuals Self-esteem-- the measure of how we feel about ourself - low self-esteem: more likely to take criticism poorly, only think others will accept them if they become successful

Self-efficacy, overconfidence, and learned helplessness locus of control?

Self-efficacy: our belief in our ability to succeed - high self-efficacy can result in us being more likely to try something, but overconfidence can be a bad thing Overconfidence: overly confident in out ability to succeed, too high of self-efficacy - can result in injury, embarrassment, failure, etc. Learned Helplessness: persistent attempts to succeed which all fail, or could be caused by a traumatic event caused, individual will have very low self-efficacy and feel helpless... possible cause of depression ---------- Locus of control: the extent to which we characterize outside influences impacts on our life. - internal locus of control: individuals feel they control their own fate (i lost race because I didn't train enough) - external locus of control: individuals feel events in their life are cause by luck or outside influences. (I lost race because my shoes wore down and the track was wet)

Self-fulfilling prophecy (ex: med residents + sutures) Stereotype threat (relation to self-fulf prophecy)

Self-fulfilling prophecy: originally false expectation about something or someone leads to its own confirmation! - individual believes the stock market will fail, takes money out and contributes to the confirmation of this belief it will fail! - med students are believed to be bad at sutures, and so don't try to prove anyone wrong but worry about it later, fulfilling the prophecy! Stereotype Threat: when a person is concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group - often leads to reduced performance, which may create a self-fulfilling prophecy - examples: women driving, study showed women score lower when testing in math with all men than when testing with all women.

Hans Selye Gen. ada. Syn.

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome: The body's physiological response to stress! 1. Alarm stage: initial reaction to stressor exposure, results in activation of the hypothalamus stimulation to release ACTH and raise Cortisol levels, also message adrenal medulla to release Epi an Nepi - Adrenal medulla (by nerves) and adrenal cortex (by anterior pituitary) activated release norepinephrine and epinephrine, and cortisol, respectively. 2. Resistance stage: Elevated hormone levels trigger sympathetic response allows for continuous release of hormones to fight the stressor 3. Exhaustion stage: point at which the nervous system can no long maintain an activated sympathetic response. Person is more likely to illness in this stage.

Semantic network (a model of retrieval) - spreading activa -priming

Semantic Network: Memories are organized into long-term storage based off of semantic processing... we group like things together in the brain similar to an encyclopedia to be able to "sort" through information based on environmental cues and recall information faster. --- Two other closely tied concepts: - Spreading Activation: unconsciously activating specific parts of a semantic network node will begin turning on and spreading to other nodes to more easily recall other similar memories! - word red spreads to many nodes activating different memories - Priming: implicit (unconscious) effect where exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus! - seeing a word (diet) intended to bring about memories to assist later in recall of alanna's issues

Ch 2: sensation and perception --- Sensation versus perception definitions transduction ex w cinnamon

Sensation: aligns with transduction, the conversion of some external stimulus to an electrical signal in the peripheral nervous system/surface receptors. - raw signal, unprocessed message! Perception: processing a sensation to make sense of its significance! Process, interpret, and experience. example: walk into a kitchen, sensation is the cinnamon odorant triggering nose hairs to fire action potential, perception is when you say to yourself whoa the cinnamon bun smells really good.

Nervous system anatomy/overview main functions para vs sympa - bladder, eyes, digest, secretions, HR, bronchi

Sensory (afferent) neurons are signal receptors, send message to Spinal cord/Brain, send message response back via motor (efferent) neuron! CNS: Brain and Spinal cord PNS: All else! A. Autonomic i). sympathetic: increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, slow digestion, pupil dilation, less exocrine secretion and peristalsis, increase blood to muscles and blood glucose [ ], inhibits bladder, stimulate orgasm! - Pre- = acetlycholine, post-ganglionic nerve fibers uses amino acid derived adrenal medulla produced (nor)epinephrine! (adrenaline/noradrenaline) - sweating = sympathetic but uses Ach ii). parasympathetic: Decrease heart rate, constrict bronchi, increase digestion through peristalsis and exocrine secretions, contract bladder - acetylcholine is responsible for both pre- and post- ganglionic neurotransmission! B. Somatic (sensory and motor neurons allowing for coordinated muscle movement!)

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin (similar roles to ________, regulate, also considered a )

Serotonin: Also a biological amine/monoamine - regulate mood, sleeping, eating, and dreaming Like norepinephrine: Oversupply = Manic states Undersupply = depression

Personality

Set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations. Identity: who we are, Personality: how we act

Memory Three parts: 1. encoding: automatic and controlled (visual, semantic, auditory) 2. storage: - short term memory vs working memory ____ +/- ____ rule - stored where 3. retrieval

Short-term memory: fades quickly, lasting about 30 seconds - duration can be extended using maintenance rehearsal Working Memory: Similar to ST memory, can hold small amounts of information allowing for reasoning and decision making - working memory is used to perform simple math calculations! 7±2 rule: Short term memory can only remember about 5-9 pieces of information at once, but chunking can help increase the overall quantity of items remembered. Short term memories and working memories are stored/held in the hippocampus where they can also be consolidated into long-term memory. - Hippocampus will eventually pass this information on to the cortex (names, faces, etc. are deemed VERY long-term memory).

States of consciousness: 1. alertness (prefrontal cortex/reticular formation) 2. Sleep (stages) - waves and characteristics - stages 1-4 (SWS) + rem - diff in NREM and REM mem consolid

Sleep: Studied with EEG (electoenecephalography) to record brain waves through the night correlated to FOUR wave types: - alpha - beta - theta - delta IN the order the appear.... (BAT sleeps during the Day Beta waves: Occur when we are awake (alert), they have a high frequency and tend to appear when we are concentrated on a task and neurons are rapidly firing Alpha waves: Occur when we are awake (alert), but relaxing with our eyes closed. Have a slower more synchronized frequency than beta waves. Theta waves: Sign of entering sleep STAGE 1 and 2, characterized by high voltage, low frequency, and unsynchronized waves. - sleep spindle and K complex Delta Waves: very slow and large voltage waves, sign of deeper sleep NREM: (dreaming occurs, but more like daydreaming and much less vivid and shorter) Stage 1: Theta waves appear high voltage, sporadic, low frequency Stage 2: Theta waves have sleep spindles (high frequency theta wave region) and K complex (heart rate looking theta wave recording), signs of progression into stable NREM sleep! Stages 3 and 4: Delta waves appear, you are now in what is called Slow-wave sleep (SWS) where increased growth hormone release, (declarative-- facts and information) memory consolidation and cognitive recovery takes place! REM: - also called paradoxical sleep since heart rate, arousal levels, and breathing patterns all mimic wakefulness levels, but body muscles are paralyzed - Beta waves most prevalent here - (procedural-- set of experiences) memory consolidation and dreaming occurs here! order: 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or 1-2-3-4-REM

Social capital - social integration - strong and weak ties - cultural capital - five ethnicities model

Social Capital: the investments people make into their society in return for economic or collective reward - increased social capital means increased social integration: peaceful movement into mainstream society - Social capital less available for minority groups (social stratification/social inequality) - increased social capital usually implies great social networks and inclusion in society Strong ties: peer group and kinship (family) contacts, small in number but qualitatively large Weak ties: superficial social connections, allow wide range of connections! cultural capital: cultural currency (NOT money) we can tap into based on our proficiency with our culture, all we have learned and the tools we obtain from it. Dress code, language, intellect, etc. five ethnicities model: US census bureau only recognizes 5 ethnicities-- white, black, asian, native american, and latino ****Social capital: relationships with others Cultural capital: knowledge, socioeconomic status, belongings, etc. obtained in society.

Social Cognition ___________________ Attitude - Affective - behavioral - cognitive

Social Cognition: The way in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior. ---------- Attitude: the expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, of scenario - influenced by past experiences and other opinions. Components of attitude: ABC 1. Affective: the way someone feels towards something, the emotional aspect - snacks scare me, I love my family 2. Behavioral: the way a person acts with respect to something - avoiding snakes, or spending a lot of time with family 3. Cognitive: the way an individual thinks about something, usually the reason for behavorial/affective attitude - snakes are poisonous, so I should avoid them (behavioral) and be scared of them (affective)

Social mobility - vertical vs horizontal mobility intragenerational mobility intergenerational mobility meritocracy plutocracy

Social Mobility: in a class system, the ability to move to higher level employment opportunities based on education or credentials, not hereditary (caste system) - Vertical mobility: moving up or down in social class - Horizontal mobility: changing lifestyle but remaining in same class (switch from truck driver to garbage) intragenerational mobility: movement between social class within a person's lifetime intergenerational mobility: movement between social class from parents to children, how children result as an adult Meritocracy: selection of people based upon their ability or merit Plutocracy: rule by the upper class

Social perception (perciev, target, situat) primacy and recency effect implicit personality theory - stereotype - relation to central tr

Social Perception: aka social cognition, how we view characteristics of individuals and groups of people, providing tools to make judgements regarding other people. - Perceiver: influenced by past experience (help determine attitude), motives (information we deem important), and emotional state - Target: person or group about which the perception is made - Situation: determines what information is available to the perceiver. process of forming a perception on a target... biases: Primacy Effect: the idea that first impressions are most important since we categorize people and try to paint great big pictures of who they are right away Recency Effect: the idea that the most recent exposure or information we have about an individual is key in forming our impressions Reliance on central traits: the perceiver often finds certain traits more important than others, and judges the target based on those traits. Implicit Personality theory: People tend to imply a person's personality after knowing small bits of information such as their central traits! They then fill in gaps - Ex: happy person so they think the person is also nice and confident. - Stereotyping: making assumptions about people based on a category in which they are placed!

Social Support - emotional - esteem - tangible aka _____ - informational - network

Social Support: perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network A. Emotional Support: listening, affirming, or empathizing with someone else's feelings - I am so sorry for your loss B. Esteem support: affirms the qualities and skills of a person - telling an ill friend she is strong and smart and can make up the work no problem C. Material support aka Tangible support: any financial or material contribution to another person - making meal for a friend after losing someone D. Informational support: providing information that will help someone - doctors are easy examples, giving info to support patients with treatment options E. Network Support: social support which gives someone a sense of belonging - can be through shared experiences or group activities

Ch 12: social stratification Social class social stratification (ascribed vs achieved status) upper middle lower class (prestige and power)

Social class: category of people who share the same socioeconomic position in society. Social stratification: how society separates/views individuals by race, wealth, location, etc. - Ascribed status: derived from clearly identifiable traits such as skin color, age, gender - Achieved status: derived from acquisition due to direct efforts and merit Upper class: higher wealth, and more influence on political systems, high prestige and power Middle class: broken into upper, middle, lower Lower class: low prestige and low power - Prestige: amount of positive regard society has for a person or idea - Power: ability to affect other's behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments.

social construction model (emotion) (innate or no) display rules cultural syndrome

Social construction model: there is NO biological factor for emotions, instead emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone! - says emotions are different across cultures due to differing norms Display rules: cultural expectations of how to display emotion - some cultures anger is not allowed, others (japan) introversion and diminished emotions are expected, some always smiling. Cultural syndrome: shared set of norms and behaviors in a culture centering around a common theme influencing how emotions are experienced or suppressed. - an individualistic cultural syndrome: a country which has views focused on the individual (I am happy) - a collectivist culture syndrome: I am sharing happiness with others

social constructionism

Social constructionism: how we construct concepts and principles of SHARED ASSUMPTIONS about reality in a social system! is something that exists not in objective reality, but as a result of society. It exists because humans agree that it exists. Macro or micro - ex: money! paper means nothing until society assigns it value - honor and justice are constructed by society and can change over time as norms change. how society constructs concepts and principles

Social institutions (6 main) - family (pattern of kinship, divorce rates trends, #1 cause injury to women?) - education ( hidden currciulum, teacher expectancy)

Social institutions: well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. religion, healthcare/medicine, family, education, government, economy 1. Family: differs greatly across cultures - pattern of kinship: how we connect with others through marriage and descent. - different cultures have different kinship, America we say brothers and sisters, Hawaii everyone is cousins. - rates of divorce are currently dropping in past two decades - domestic violence is the #1 cause of injury to American women 2. education: arm population with information - hidden curriculum: how educational institutions transmit social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students who are only cognizant of the information the school teaches them - teacher expectancy: teachers tend to get from their students what they EXPECT from them... teachers giving lots of hard work but with confidence they will succeed at it will see more students succeed than someone who expects students to fail. (ex of self-fulfilling prophecy)

Social interaction (how is it diff from social action) polariza risky shift choice shift

Social interaction: the ways which 2 or more individuals shape EACH OTHER's behaviors. Includes group processes and establishment of culture - social action: one one individual is influenced by a group Group polarization: tendency of group to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. - Risky shift: groups which tend to make riskier decisions than the individuals making up the group - Choice shift: the idea that groups tend to make choices different than simply what the individuals within a group would make

Social movements - relative deprivation - proactive vs reactive groups Globalization Urbanization - ghettos - slum

Social movement: organized attempt to prevent or promote social change due to perceived relative deprivation - Relative deprivation: decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or whole of society - Proactive: promote social change (NAACP), reactive: prevent social change (anti-immigration) Globalization: integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping foreign markets Urbanization: dense areas of population creating a pull for immigration! - jews migrate into a city for job opportunities, further densifying the region - Ghettos: higher concentrations of specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities due to social or economical inequities. - Slum: extremely dense population of a city with low-quality housing and sanitation

Socialization - 1˚ -2˚ - anticipatory -resoc cultural transmis/cultural learning .. super basic as sounds! cultural diffusion

Socialization: the process of inheriting, developing, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs. Individuals gain knowledge of behaviors that are necessary for inclusion in society. - Primary socialization: in childhood, we initially learn acceptable attitudes and actions in our society, usually from parents and others in their close proximity. - Secondary socialization: in childhood and throughout life, occurs outside the home in more specific social environments of small to large groups (school classroom, church, sports). Anticipatory Socialization: process by which an individual take on characteristics for anticipated groups they intend to join such as when changing work, living situation, or relationship. - ex: couple living together preparing for married life Resocialization: process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change - new values in army, or new values joining a cult -------------- Cultural transmission aka Cultural learning: the process by which society socializes its members and passes on culture. Society teaches next generations culture. Cultural diffusion: the spread of (especially new ones) beliefs, norms, and customs from one population to another! - countries share or adopt new values/behaviors etc.

Somatosensation pacinian corpuscles merkle cells/disks ruffini endings free nerve endings Meissner's Corpuscles

Somatosensation: refers to touch, but specifically pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature! Pacinian Corpuscles: respond to deep pressure and vibration! Merkle cells (discs): light pressure and texture Meissner corpuscles: respond to light touch Ruffini Endings: stretch Free Nerve Endings: pain and temperature Pathway: 1. somatoreceptor cell 2. transduction to the parietal lobe, somatisensory cortex

Spatial inequality (define) - residential (suburbanization, urban decay/renewal, gentrification) - environmental - global (world systems theory, core and periphery nations)

Spatial inequality: unequal distribution of resources across different areas or locations. Residential segregation: - urban areas offer more opportunities, attract lower income in need of more opportunity - Suburbanization: movement of the middle class to the suburbs (less people, cleaner) - Urban Decay: A portion of a city deteriorate over time - Urban renewal: deteriorated portion is cleaned up - Gentrification: the immigration of wealthy individuals into a city renewing it, and oftentimes displacing low income previous inhabitants. Environmental inequality: low socioeconomic status communities have less governmental influence, will be the target of factors and other chemical releasing buildings increasing exposure to toxins. Global inequalities: - World System theory: most nations are part of a worldwide interdependent economic and political system based on the unequal exchange in the division of labor and allocation of resources between core nations, semi-peripheral nations, and peripheral nations... some benefit and others are economically exploited in the world system - Core nations: higher skills and power in the global economy... higher export of goods - Semi-periphery and periphery countries: low skills production, less wealthy regions... higher export of resources (labor, coffee, etc.)

Cochlea scalae, organ corti, basilar mem, endoly. tecto membr, perilym, round and oval window, nerve, hair cells signal path What type of receptors are stereocilia!!!! (AP generated by?)

Spiral-shaped organ divided into three parts called scalae (shown in image, three different large compartments) which run the entire length of the cochlea! 1. Middle scalae houses the organ of corti which is the hearing apparatus resting on the basilar membrane. Thousands of hair cells coat the organ of corti which are bathed in endolymph. On top of the hair cells/basilar membrane is a tectorial membrane. 2. The other two scalae compartments house perilymph! - Round window: surrounded by perilymph, allows fluid (which is incompressible) to move within cochlea. - Oval window: surrounded by perilymph, connected to stapes of middle ear which vibrations will cause the movement of fluid in the oval window to continue path of message transmission! 3. Hair cells aka stereocilia: vibrations reach basilar membrane and organ of corti, endolymph movement causes back and forth movement of fluid which OPENS channels and allows for action potentials! ---------- Tympanic membrane vibrates -> stapes/stirrup vibrates oval membrane -> vibrates perilymph fluid of oval window -> vibrates into cochlea perilymph of round window allows movement -> organ of corti hair cells move -> signal sent via auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve to brain!

Piaget's stages of cognitive development S1: Sensorimotor (circular reactions and object permanence) S2: _________________

Stage 2: Preoperational stage: characterized by egocentricism, symbolic thinking, and centration - ages 2-7 Symbolic thinking: ability to make-believe, pretend, and have an imagination! Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel Centration: tendency to focus on one aspect of a phenomenon and neglect other relevant aspects - characterized by inability to understand conservation: altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties... - Ex: determining largest volume, a child will pick based on HEIGHT and not both height and width! EVEN when watching person pour exact amount from one glass to another, picks the taller glass!

Piaget's stages of cognitive development S1: Sensorimotor (circular reactions and object permanence) S2: Preoperatinal (symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration) S3: _____________

Stage 3: Concrete operational: can understand conservation and also are able to think how other would feel. Can also deal with logical though processing so long as they are working with concrete objects or information. - ages 7-11 Still unable to think abstractly!

Ch 9 social interaction statuses - ascrib - achieve - master Role - performance role - role partner - role set - role conflict - role strain - role exit

Statuses: positions in society that are used to classify individuals - Ascribed status: one that is given involuntarily (race, gender, ethnicity) - Achieved status: those which are gained by choice and through effort (doctoral status) - Master status: status by which one most strongly identifies Roles: set of behaviors expected of individuals with some status - role changes based on who the interaction is with! - ex: doctoral status, roles include explaining illness to patient in comprehensible way, which some are better than others at. - Performance Role: carrying out behaviors associated with a given role. - Role partner: the person whom one is interacting with - Role set: ALL the various roles associated with a status - Role conflict: difficulty satisfying the requirements or expectations of a multiple roles. - ex: a mom also trying to work a job - Role strain: difficulty satisfying the multiple requirements of a single role! - Role exit: is the dropping of one identity for another

Ekman's Universal emotions (ch 5) evolutionary use? ... versus Basic model of emotional expression Appraisal model

Stems from Darwin work, says there are a few "basic" emotions across cultures both biological and physiological and consistent across different settings. All humans developed the same facial muscles to be able to show the same behavioral responses through facial expressions. Culture will greatly influence which emotional response is shown! Seven believed universal emotions across culture (hot debate): 1. Fear 2. Anger 3. Happiness 4. Joy 5. disgust 6. sadness 7. surprise Evolutionary: Emotions developed based on the circumstances humans faced... therefore fear would be likely one of the first emotions to develop, and social emotions like pride and guilt came later. ---------------- Basic model of emotional expression (Darwin): model which says many components like facial expression, vocal change, posture and physiological changes accompany an emotion and since these are consistent in expression with evolution, they are all identical across cultures! Therefore, there are universally experienced emotions and facial expressions we can recognize! Appraisal model: the theory that emotions are experienced after our evaluations of events that cause different reactions... was dived deeper by J-L, C-B, and S-S theorists!

Stereotype vs Prejudice vs Discrimination

Stereotype: cognitive, expectations, impressions, and opinions about the characteristics of a group vs Prejudice: affective, the overall attitude and emotional response to a group vs Discrimination: behavioral, the differences in actions towards a group

Stereotypes stereotype content model

Stereotypes: attitudes and impressions formed based on limited and superficial information about a person or group. - are not always negative! They help categorize and systemize information in a complex world to better identify items. Stereotype content model: idea that all group stereotypes form based off of two impressions: warmth and competence - Warm: groups which are trustworthy and friendly... high W = not competitive, low W = highly competitive - Competence: status and capability and assertiveness ... high C = high status Types of classifications in the SCM: 1. paternalistic: stereotypes where the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored 2. Contemptuous: group is viewed with resentment, contempt, lack of respect 3. Envious: group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness and mistrust 4. Admiration: group is viewed with pride and positive feelings

Drugs: 1. Depressants 2. Stimulants: mechanism of action - amphet - coc - "E" 3. Opiates 4. Hallucinogens

Stimulants: increase arousal in nervous system increasing frequency of action potentials! Increased physiological functions and metabolism 1. Amphetamines: highly addictive, increased dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin at the synapse and preventing re-uptake! - reduced appetite and tiredness, increased heart rate and euphoria. - high doses can lead to delusions of grandeur or paranoia 2. Cocaine: decreases re-uptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine at synapse. - Unique: Vasoconstrictive and anesthetic properties, sometimes exploited in surgeries - Crack: smokeable form of cocaine 3. Ecstasy aka MDMA: "E" it is an amphetamine (increased release, decreased re-uptake) and a hallucinogen. It causes increased heart rate, nausea, hyperthermia, etc. but psychologically causes euphoria, alertness, and connectedness.

Memory Three parts: 1. encoding: automatic and controlled (visual, semantic, auditory) 2. storage: - sens memory - experiment on flash letter array, partial/whole report) 3. retrieval

Storage: for information to be remembered it must be stored! A. Sensory memory: Memory obtained from iconic (visual) and echoic (Auditory) stimulus in the environment. It tends to be incredibly detailed with amazing precision but VERY short lasting (unless attended to)! Iconic Memory testing: 3 x 3 letter array flashed on screen 1. Partial-report: having participant report any row of letters 2. Whole-report: having participant report as many as he/she can (usually 3-4) -- Experiment shows iconic memory is SHORT lived but precise!

Prosencephalon- telencephalon- CEREBRAL CORTEX! 1. frontal 2. Parietal Lobe: 3. occipital 4. temporal - aud - wernick - mem,emo,lan

Temporal lobe: A. Auditory cortex: primary site of sound processing stimuli! B. Wernicke's area: language reception and comprehension - damage results in inability to understand language but can properly produce it! (broca is can understand but not produce) C. Also involved in memory (hippo is deep inside temporal lobe so makes sense), emotion (limbic system), and language!

Visual Pathway to the Brain (see upside down) - visual field vs spot hit on retina optic chiasm, tracts LGN, thalam, vis cor and occ, sup coll and deer in head

Temporal: A. temporal visual field paired with nasal retina Nasal: B. Nasal visual field paired with temporal retina Optic chiasm: point where nasal retina fibers (temporal field) cross in brain, temporal fibers DO NOT. Pathway: 1. Each eyes visual field is seen on the opposite side of the retina! (see img). Light entering from left side visual field will be on right side of retina for example. 2. Light from the NASAL half of each retina of left and right eye cross paths at the Optic Chiasm in the brain. - Left eye: right side, so the temporal field - Right eye: left side is nasal, so the temporal field 3. This explains why the LEFT visual field of each eye is sent to the RIGHT side of the brain (pink)! The right visual field is sent to the left side of the brain (green)! - Sent via the optic tracts once leaving optic chiasm! Now in the brain... 4. Send information to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus to relay the info to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe 5. Also, some input is sent to the midbrain, Superior colliculi which processes some visual stimuli and coordinates reflex arc! "deer in headlight:

Gestalt principles: - law of _________________, which says what!!??! - law prox - law similarity - law good continuation - subjective conto - Law of closure

The ways the brain tries to make complex tasks simple using strategies of perception law of prägnanz: Elements that follow the same pattern tend to be grouped together ... which states that perceptual organization is always regular, simple, and as symmetric as possible! - the brain takes complex image and makes it as simple as possible! Book with title, shown book see title which is not there Examples of his elements: 1. Law of Proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit - in img: we see "triangle" and "square" and not just ten unrelated dots! 2. Law of similarity: similar objects tend to be grouped together! - in img: big dots forming a triangle separate from little dots! 3. Law of Good continuation: tendency for elements in a pathway with a pattern to continue in that pattern without abrupt changes - in img: look at what we do see instead of what we could see! We break image into wavy line and smooth live, not a wavy/smooth line 4. Subjective contours: perceiving contours (boundaries) which become shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus! - in img: boundary creating diamond appears when no boundary is actually there! We feel we should see circles and squares which are cut off by this diamond! 5. Law of closure: when an image or space appears to be closed by a contour, even with gaps we tend to see it as the complete figure - in img: we do not see four right angles, we see a contour (boundary line) in the shape of a square!

Somatic symptoms and related disorders: somat symptom disorder illnes anx convers disor (la belle indifférence)

This category involved somatic (motor/bodily) symptoms which cause significant stress and impairment. Somatic symptom disorder: have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, and results in elevated level of stress or time concerning this symptom. Illness anxiety disorder: consumed with thoughts of developing a serious medical condition - excessively check themselves for signs of illness - same thing as somatic symptom disorder EXCEPT no real symptom is present, the idea of symptom is causing stress Conversion Disorder: unexplained symptoms accompanying motor or sensory functions. - a woman going blind after watching her son die - usually results after a traumatic event - la belle indifférence: an individual being surprisingly unconcerned about an issue... the absence of psychological distress despite have a severe medical illness

Threshold aka _____ as a whole, - absolute - conscious perc - (subliminal percep) - difference thresh psychophys discrim test

Threshold: aka limina ... minimum amount of stimulus rendering a difference in perception or sensation! - may not notice gradual increase in temperature outside, but 50->70˚ jump you will! ------------------------- Absolute Threshold: How bright, loud, or intense a stimulus needs to be to be transducted or sensed via an action potentials! - Is a matter of sensation (will the action potential be fired), and is not a matter of perception. Threshold of Conscious Perception: Action potentials which reach the central nervous system must meet a certain limina, anything below that limina/threshold results in NO percetion. Anything above that point will result in higher level processing and perception. - Subliminal perception: stimulus is above absolute threshold (action potential fired), but below threshold of conscious perception Difference Threshold: aka JND (just-noticable difference) refers to the difference in stimuli needed to perceive some change. - example, most people will not hear change in sound from 440 Hz to 441 Hz, but will at 443 Hz... the JND is 3 Hz! ------------ (Psychophysical) discrimination testing: having participants listen or observe changing stimulus (noise, light, etc) and telling the presenter when they notice any change.

Types of problem solving: T and Err Algorithms Deductive (top-down) Inductive (bottom-up)

Trial-and-error: trying out various solutions to a problem to see which one works. Usually only effective when there are few possible solutions. Algorithms: A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem (mathematical or just a set of instructions like if, then). Deductive (top-down) Reasoning: A set of general rules/premises that support a conclusion based in the information given. TOP (general) -> bottom (specific) - always true! - only one possible solution can be derived based on the information given! Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning: reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion. Bottom (specific) to TOP (general) - sometimes true - basket of mangoes, take two out, determine they are raw, say the whole basket is raw - 1: mango is a fruit, 2: the box is full of fruits, conclusion: the box is full of mangoes... logically true but not definitely true!

Type and trait theorists: - early days (greek), humor and personality types - somatotypes (william sheldon, heights) - type a vs b

Type: categorize people by a taxonomy of personality types Trait: use clusters of behaviors to describe people --------- TYPE Greeks: Believed Humor (bodily fluid) determined ones personality type - phlegm, blood, black bile, yellow bile --------- TYPE Somatotypes: personality was based on body type - tall: high-strung and aloof - short: jolly --------- TYPE of people today: Type A: competitive and compulsive behaviors - more likely to have a heart attack Type B: laid-back and relaxed --------- also! - myers-briggs type inventory! classidied people by 4 types of dichotomies.

Perceptual organization

Uses gestalts principles (similar, subj cont, etc.) on identifying an object filling gaps of what is missing/out of view of an object grouping visual elements (organization) of an object together so one can more accurately determine the meaning as a whole (perception)

Values, beliefs, norms, and rituals cultural barriers?

Values: what a person deems important in life which dictates one's ethical principles and standards of behavior Belief: something an individual accepts to be true Norms: societal rules that define the boundaries for acceptable behavior Ritual: formalized ceremony usually involving specific material objects, symbolism, and mandates on appropriate behavior which tend to have an prescribed order or routine. Cultural Barriers: when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others

View on personality: Psychoanalytic Humanistic Type Trait Behaviorist Social cognitive Biological

View on personality: Psychoanalytic: personality is based on unconscious urges and desires Humanistic: personality comes from conscious feelings about oneself resulting from healthy people striving for self-realization Type: personalities are a set of distinct qualities and dispositions in which one is grouped (collection of traits) Trait: personality is assembled from having different degrees of certain qualities and behaviors -- more of a INNATE outlook on personality Behaviorist: Personality is a result of behavioral responses to stimuli resulting in reward or punishment Social cognitive: personality comes from interactions between an individual and their environment Biological: personality is based on genetic influences.

Lev Vygostky Theory of _________ vygotsky learning theory says

Vygotsky theory of cognitive development: educational psychologist Development is contingent upon social contributions! 1. Culture is significant in learning 2. Language, rules, and symbols are the root of culture 3. We learn from others as we develop into our role

Kinesthetic sense

aka propioception, the perception of one's body in space! Important in hand-eye coordination, balance, and mobility! Muscle cells and joints largely house these propioceptors

psychotherapy (person-ce, cli-c, nondirect)

humanistic approach... Coined the Ideal (what you want to be) and real (who you actually are) self, terms. Psychotherapy: Person-centered, client-centered, or non-directive therapy - transitioned away from unconscious motives saying WE consciously control our destiny, not unconscious forces, and analyzed a person's subjective experiences in order to tackle problems, form solutions, and achieve his or her own destiny. - Therapy tried to bring congruence with the real and ideal self to reduce stress from the conflict of the two Unconditional positive regard: therapy technique where the psychoanalyst accepts the person completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.

Object Relations theory

the psychodynamic theory that views the desire for relationships as the key motivating force in human behavior - objects refer to the caregivers and parents in our early childhood, which we form subjective experiences with that influence our outlook on others late into adulthood. - we are driven by relation to others both whole organ humans or objects like breast milk!

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia: 1. disturb of affe - blunting - flat affect aka emo fla - inappropriate affect 2. avolition

(disturbance of) Affect: experience and display of emotion - Blunting: severe reduction in affect expression (experienced or displayed emotion) - Flat Affect/Emotional Flattening: no signs of emotional expression - inappropriate affect: the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-oriented actions

Decision-making: 1. Heuristics (ex w chess) a. availa (ex with letter K) b. represent (ex w coin flip, also old lady) - base rate fallacy

1. Heuristics: simplified principles used to make decisions. GREATLY help to speed up decisions! - also called rules of thumb (guide or principle created based on experience!) - in chess: would take forever to truly think every move and moves ahead, so general heuristics such as protect the king must be used! A. Availability Heuristic: making a decision based on how "available" or easy something comes to mind! - Ex: more words with letter K or K as third letter? people often answer based on what comes to mind (more words starting with K they can think of) B. Representative heuristic: making a decision by comparing the present to your most similar prototype, stereotype, or representative image. - Ex: judging an old lady as sweet because she reminds you of your grandma... - Ex: thinking a coin flip which hit tails 10x in a row MUST be more likely to hit heads, but it is 50/50 The coin flip is an example of base-rate fallacy: An individual's tendency to ignore the base-rate or probability of something in favor of certain facts presented, rather than integrating the two!

Attribute substitution

A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution, using a heuristic, or perception. we do not have easy access of information in our brains for a complex task so instead we use a heuristic/short cut of easily available info. - racism ex: is julius smart? He is black so no

Paul Broca

Added to knowledge of physiology! Found an individual unable to talk had a lesion in the brain in a region (L brain) now known as the Broca's area!

Alfred Adler - personality shift from sexual to... - inferior comp (major part of theory) - creative self vs style of life - fictional finalism

Alfred Adler: shifted the dynamic theory of personality away from sexual drive towards more of a social (inferiority) drive! Inferiority complex: Adler developed this idea to describe an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially. - striving for superiority drives personality! Creative self: the part of you that establishes, maintains, and pursues goals (driven by strive for superiority) which leads to our style of life versus Style of Life: the manifestation of the creative self, and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority. Largely shaped by family. - the unique and repetitive way one responds to living (work, friendship, love, etc.) Fictional Finalism: an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences. - "life would be perfect if only..."

Altruism Empathy altruism-empathy hypothesis

Altruism: form of helping behavior which is done for someone else and at a cost to his or herself Empathy: ability to vicariously (imagine through another person) experience the emotions of another Altruism-empathy hypothesis: explains the relationship between empathy and helping behavior, more empathetic people are more likely to engage in more altruistic acts. - the worse someone feels for someone else, the more likely that person is to act to help them.

associative learning (definition) part 1: classical - pav - US, UR,NS, SS, CR, CS, acquisiton, extinction, spont. recovery, generalization, discrimination Part 2: operant

Associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). - we associate two stimuli or behaviors to a response! 1. Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov... linking a biological or instinctual response to some stimuli!!! - unconditioned stimulus: Any stimulus that brings about some innate or reflexive response (smell of food) - Unconditioned response: any innate response due to some stimulus (salvation) - Neutral Stimuli: a stimulus which brings about NO response (a chair) - Signaling Stimuli: A neutral stimulus which has the potential to become a conditioned stimulus ----------------------------- Acquisition: using an unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a signaling stimulus - Extinction: not pairing a CR with a reward results in loss of CR. when a conditioned stimulus (bell ringing) is done enough times without the unconditioned stimulus pairing (meat delivery), the response will eventually be lost! ... loss of response due to ending reinforcement! (vs habituation: which is loss of response due to repeated exposure) versus - Spontaneous recovery: when a conditioned response that was extinct is suddenly exhibited! Ringing bell no longer works, all the sudden though try it later and dog does salvate! - Generalization: Little albert! When conditioned to be afraid of WHITE mice, little albert became afraid of white rabbits too versus - Discrimination: being able to tell two very similar stimuli apart! (opposite of generalization). ex is a dog being conditioned to a specific TONE of a bell, while a separate tone does no response. ----------------------------- Pavlovs experiment: Unconditioned stimulus: meat Unconditioned response: salvation Conditioned stimulus: ringing bell (was a neutral stimulus turned signaling stimulus) conditioned response: salvation

Attribution theory (heider) - dispositional (internal) vs situational (external) vs Correspondent inference theory Actor-observer Bias fundamental attribution theory vs self serving vs

Attribution theory: the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviors founding father Fritz Heider: two categories of attributions - dispositional (internal): those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics. - Situational (external): those relating to features of the surroundings/social context including threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure. Actor-observer Bias: tendency for people to blame others actions to internal causes (dispositional), and blame own actions on external causes (situational) considers others and self! Self-serving Bias: only considers attribution of self! Fundamental attribution theory: we are biased toward make dispositional attributions over OTHERS situational attributions, especially in negative situations - the person did not meet today due to laziness! (dispositional) and not because of illness (situational). only considers others Correspondent inference theory: people are motivated to find meaningful explanations for OTHERS behaviors, gives us stability to be able to predict what may occur in the future - Waiter dropped food, maybe clumsy or dumb -------- - Attribution theory: like to explain others behavior - Correspondent inference theory: like to explain others behaviors, and explains why: to accurately predict future - Fundamental attribution bias: explain OTHERS behavior situational (+) or dispositional (-) - Actor-observer bias: explain self (external) and others (internal) - self-serving bias: explain self only, internal (+) and external (-)

DO babies develop motor skills around the same age? what does this reveal? gross vs fine motor skills

Babies all develop motor skills around the same age, this reveals an innate behavior/trait! Gross motor skills: sitting, crawling, walking using large groups of muscles Fine motor skills: drawing, catching, waving using smaller muscles of fingers, toes, and eyes

Whorfian Hypothesis and ling relativ hypoth... - what is it, who came up with it?

Benjamin Whorf: Whorfian hypothesis aka linguistic relativity hypothesis: - Language effects the way we think about the world (not the other way around) - EX: Languages with more words to describe snow will have a better understanding of snow when they see it - More complex framework of language results in more specific vocabulary for more sophisticated processing of information.

Gordon Allport three types of traits - cardinal - central - secondary functional autonomy

Cardinal traits: traits around which one organizes his or her life Central traits: major characteristics of the personality, usually easy to infer or very outward - honesty or charism Secondary traits: aspects of one's personality that are only present or noticeable in certain social situations, much less common Also, allport came up with this theory: functional autonomy: a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally sparked the behavior! - A hunter killed a deer, but still wants to hunt - that which began as a means to obtain a goal, became the goal itself

Personality disorders clusters A: paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid Cluster B: - antiso - borderlin (splitting) - histrionic personality dis - narcissistic

Cluster B: Wild, dramatic, emotional, or erratic behavior 1. antisocial personality disorder: 3x more common in males, disregard for and violating others rights. - illegal acts with lack of remorse, serial killers 2. Borderline Personality disorder: 2x more common in females, pervasive instability in mood and behavior leading to uncertainty about values, goals, self-image etc. - Splitting: one symptom where an individual sees ALL good or ALL bad, angel vs devil mentality 3. Histrionic personality disorder: excessive attention seeking behavior - may wear bright clothes, be dramatic, exceptionally extroverted 4. Narcissistic Personality disorder: grandiose sense of self-importance, constantly wanting admiration and attention. - usually have low self-esteem and deeply care how others view them.

Conflict theory

Conflict Theory: how power differentials contribute to the development and maintenance of a social structure.. says the wealthy are more powerful and use economic and social domination (jobs/government) to silence the poor Macro level - focuses on the competition between groups in a society for a limited resource. - The powerful try to control the masses to prevent change Power: a form of influence over people

Consciousness (define) States of consciousness: 1. alert

Consciousness: One's level of awareness of both the world and one's own existence in the world 1. Alertness: awake and able to think. We can perceive, process, access information, and express information verbally - the prefrontal cortex in frontal lobe keeps us awake and communicates with the reticular formation (brainstem)

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia 1. Delusions - refer - persec - grandeu - thought broadc - thought insert 2. hallucinations

Delusions: false beliefs discordant with reality despite strong evidence in the contrary! A. Delusions of reference: belief common elements in environment are directed toward the individual. - cartoon characters on TV are "talking" to that person directly B. Delusions of Persecution: belief that one is being threatened, plotted against, or discriminated against. - thinking there is a spy out to get them C. Delusions of Grandeur: belief someone is remarkable in some significant way - I am famous inventor, painter, historical figure, or religious icon, etc. D. Though broadcasting: the idea that someone's mental thoughts are "broadcasted" and can be heard by the external world E. Thought Insertion: the belief that thoughts are being placed into one's head Hallucinations: perceptions that are NOT due to external stimuli, but have a compelling sense of reality! - auditory are most common ("hearing" voices in one's head) - olfactory, gustatory, tactile, visual are all less common

Deviance - stigma _____________ labeling theory Differential association theory strain theory

Deviance: violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society - deviant: individual who violated norms Stigma: perceived differences of a group from the rest of society, often resulting in disapproval or dislike. - involves behaviors, physical features, abilities, and beliefs - they also can spread over time, ex: family of convicted felon may be stigmatized themselves. ---- Labeling theory: the idea that labels given to people affect not only how other's see them, but also how they see themselves Differential association theory: others behaving deviantly around someone causes that person to be more likely to engage in deviant (CRIMINAL) behavior themselves. - a learning theory of deviance! - a criminal becomes a criminal due to exposure to deviant criminal behavior .. observational learning outlook Strain Theory: pressures derived from social factors and goals will drive an individual towards deviant behavior, often criminal activity - american dream is wealth and education but not everyone is able to experience this, so driven towards deviant behavior.

Dominant hemispheres vs nondom - faces, creativity, language, math, complex movement, direction?

Dominant: Typically the left, more heavily stimulated during language reception and production, and movement! - location of most active wernicke and broca region! - language, logic, and math skills pre-dominantly found here! - language content - complex movement - Letters and words! Nondominant: usually the right, associated with creativity, intuition, music cognition, and spatial processing! - language emotional tone/MOOD detection - sense of direction - FACES

Franz Gall

Earliest theorists on PHRENOLOGY: A person with some well-developed trait must have the portion of the brain it is linked to expanded or enlarged! - Can feel around head to determine brain!

Ego-syntonic vs ego-dystonic

Ego-syntonic: individual perceives illness as normal - personality disorders - OPCD Ego-dystonic: patient sees illness as being a burden - somatic symptom - PTSD - anxiety - depression - usually OCD - Bipolar - schizophrenia **** OCD is dystonic while OPCD (people with personality like the order) is syntonic!

Social Interactionist theory

Explains language as both bioloigcal and social, individuals learn language to be able to communicate in a social manner. Babies groups sounds and meanings together and as the child interacts, certain neural circuits are reinforced while some are deemphasized (atrophy of those circuits) We learn to communicate to be able to say what in the environment we want

Ch 5: Motivation (extrinsic vs intrinsic)

Extrinsic Motivation: A driving force to do something coming from outside, usually in the form of reward-driven behavior, or avoiding punishment. - Result in external tangible awards - study for test grade, work hard for boss appraisal, etc. - work to avoid being fired, or avoid punishment - competition is a strong external motivator! Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that comes from internal factors - Wanting to read because one enjoys a book - Wanting to study math which is fun is intrinsic, getting a good grade in math is extrinsic.

family studies, twin studies, adoption studies concordance rates***

Family studies: Study a whole family to assess for nature vs nurture! Limited in family usually shares similar environments - control group = unrelated individuals Twin Studies: Use either monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (fraternal) to assess nature vs nurture - Concordance rate: the likelihood that both twins or biologically related individuals exhibit the same trait! - control = dizygotic twins using mono as experimental group Adoption Studies: great for nurture studies. Finds IQ and criminal behavior is hereditary - biological family = control, family raising kid = experimental

Pierre Fluorens (1794-1867)

First theorist that different parts of the brain had different functions! - Studied this through ablation aka extirpation experiments: Take out parts of the brain of mice and see the resulting behavioral differences!

Form and constancy

Form: is the recognition of visual elements of objects, specifically those to do with shapes, patterns and previously identified important characteristics. Constancy: elements of an object that remain the same despite a changing environment! - white paper looks white in sunlight, light bulb, etc. - rectangular paper same shape no matter where it is

Limbic system

Group of neural structures in the forebrain responsible for emotion and memory. Aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain!

Drugs: 1. Depressants 2. Stimulants 3. Opiates 4. Hallucinogens - lsd Other: marijuana - active element

Hallucinogens: Enhancement of sensory experience, alter perception Lysergic acid diethylamide: LSD, club drug Serotonin possibly? or Glutamate (depolarize) receptors --------------------- Marijuana: acts on cannibinoid receptors, opioid receptors, and glycine receptors. Active element is Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - inhibits GABA activity and increases dopamine (cause pleasure) Symptoms: red eyes, dry mouth, fatigue, increased hunger, low blood pressure, increased heart rate ---> fall into stimulant, depressant, and opiate categories

Patient H.M. and amnesia studies

Henry Molaison (H.M.) had his hippocampus and amygdala (limbic system) removed! Intelligence largely intact, but suffered irreversible anterograde amnesia: could not remember anything AFTER the brain injury, old memories spared, cannot form new ones! Retrograde amnesia: Cannot remember anything before the accident, can remember stuff from after

Retrieval studies by Herman Ebbinghaus

Herman Ebbinghaus: Noticed that when he studies a list one day, he could not really recall it the next. BUT, the next day, he was able to learn it again but this time faster! - famous for this idea of relearning: easier the second time around since it is stored in the long-term memory! Found in more research: Spacing Effect: when relearning is done at a greater time lapse apart, the relearned information can be recalled/remembered for a longer period of time! - explains why cramming when studying is bad! Forgetting curve: Found that recall of information learned falls off very quickly, but then plateaus for awhile! - found adding new lists was difficult, since they competed with the old!

Karen Horney view on (neur) personality

Horney was a student of Freud, said neurotic personality individuals are governed by neurotic needs which are governed by interpersonal relationships. - Neurotic need: restrict one's life within tight borders, a bad thing Personality is the result of interpersonal relationships, mostly parents, resulting in basic anxiety (inadequacy) or basic hostility (neglect) leading to personality components which are neurotic. 10 Neurotic Needs: examples - Self-sufficiency and independence - need for affection and approval - need to exploit others Issues develop when any of criteria are met: 1. disproportionate in intensity 2. indiscriminate in application 3. partially disregard reality 4. tendency to provoke intense anxiety Someone with neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence: would so ANYTHING to avoid being obligated to someone else, becoming an unhealthy, neurotic need. ----------------------- Horney believed children early perception of self is reliant on parents... Basic Anxiety: vulnerability and helplessness feelings, inadequate parenting result Basic Hostility: anger due to parent neglect and rejection overcoming basic anxiety and hostility in children for security results in... moving towards people, getting the upper hand on all people, or moving away from people for security.

Hypnosis - hypnotic induction Meditation

Hypnosis: A state where an individual appears to be awake and in control of his or her behaviors, but is in a highly suggestible state. - Requires patient to be non-skeptical and willing 1. Hypnotic induction: hypnotist relaxes patient and increases their concentration 2. Hypnotist can then make suggestions! Meditation: relaxed state of mind, usually resembles stage 1 of sleep with lower HR and RR.

Self-presentation and impression management - three selves (authentic, ideal, tactical) - IM strategies (self-disc, manag appear, ingratiat, aligning act, alter-casting) dramaturgical approach (front stage and back stage Mead, the I and Me (Preparatory, play, game)

Impression Management: our attempt to influence how others perceive us (same thing as self-presentation), by controlling information revealed in a social interaction - Self-presentation: the outward culturally accepted behaviors one displays in social settings for a positive appearance Three selves: 1. Authentic self: who the person actually is, the good and the bad 2. Ideal self: who we would like to be under optimal circumstances 3. Tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others expectations of us (like the ought self) Impression management strategies: A. Self-disclosure: giving information about oneself to establish desired identity (I.e. I am a premed student) B. Managing Appearances: using props, appearance, or association with others to create positive self image (wearing white doctor coat, hanging with cool people, keep calm while dealing with difficult patient) C. Ingratiation: agreeing, using flattery to win someone over (a suck up, blindly agreeing with someone else opinion, complimenting, etc) D. Aligning Actions: excuses, justify bad behaviors with excuses... align action with a reason for it (excuses for being late) E. Alter-Casting: gossip, impose identity onto another person --------------- explanation of IM by Erving Goffman: Dramaturgical Approach: using the metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how an individual creates images of themselves in various social situations. - front stage approach: when the individual is in front of the audience and adheres to certain roles and a script based on what they think the audience wants to see - Back stage approach: when an individual is in the absence of peers and can behave how they want without fear of losing the image they wish for the audience to see. ----- George MEad: I develops before the ME! Three phases: 1. Preparatory (imitation of others, start I develop) 2. Play (role-taking, preschool, start me develop) 3. Game (generalized other, understanding roles and rules (school age) Me: part of self responding to the environment, the object and expressive self ... how you act based on societal standards - studying hard for school I: impulses, the individual's response to the me, subjective thinking about the ME ... the I RESPONDS to the ME to subjectively think about the individual! - realizing maybe school and studying isn't the only path to a goal.

Inclusive fitness

Inclusive fitness: measure of organisms success in population based on ability to produce offspring, take care of offspring, and ability of offspring to support others. - involves protecting or altruistic behaviors of the group at large - likely explained by ensuring success of relatives/similar genes to go on.

Ch 10 social thinking Interpersonal attraction - simi - self-disc - reciproc -proxim (mere ex/familiarity) golden ratio

Interpersonal attraction: the phenomenon of individuals liking each other (friendship, romance, etc.) which is explained by several factors-- - attractiveness: Golden ratio: 1.618:1, and more symmetrical - Similarity: people more similar to us or have similar interests we like better... explains opposite attract, someone is a nurtured, the other like to be nurtured - Self-disclosure: sharing of one's feelings, fears, thoughts, and goals without being met by judgement - Reciprocity/reciprocal liking: people like others better when they believe the other likes them. - Proximity: being close to someone/exposed to them more... also explained by the mere exposure effect or familiarity effect saying we prefer stimuli we have been exposed to more frequently

Decision-making: 1. Heuristics... availability, representative (basal rate fallacy) 2. Bias and overconfidence... disconfirmation principle, confirmation bias, belief perseverance, overconfidence 3. Intuition recon primed dec model 4. emotion

Intuition: the ability to act on perceptions that mat not be supported by available evidence! - a person "feels" to be correct recognition-primed decision model: helps explain intuition, individuals unconsciously sort through memories for experiences similar to the situation they are in, helping them come up with a hunch or "feeling" in their gut (intuition). - Doctor may look at a patient in the ER and after seeing 1,000s of heart attack patients, is primed to have this intuition this patient will have a heart attack soon. ---------------------- Emotion: the subjective (based on feelings) experience of a person in a situation. - likely to influence behavior! - Even future behaviors can be influenced by emotion (cars make me feel strong, I am more likely to purchase a car)

Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles - kids spend more time in? why make sense - change time of cycle from ... - early in night vs later in night...

Kids spend more time in slow-wave sleep because in this form of deep sleep with delta waves, growth hormone is released! Cycle length: 50 minutes in kids, 90 minutes in adults Early to later in night: - Early: slow wave sleep predominates (NREM) - Late: REM sleep predominates

Ch 11 Social structure and demographics macro vs microsociology social structure

Macrosociology: large groups and social structure Microsociology: small groups and the individual Social Structure: a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships

Depression biological markers - glucose (amy) - hippo - cortis - monamonie theory depre bipolar biological markers - gene. epi/NE, mult scler

Markers associated with depression - Excess glucose metabolism in amygdala (intense emotion) - Hippocampus atrophy from illness - Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) - decreased norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin (monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression) in brain --> studies show low [neurotransmitter] = low production Bipolar markers: - increased epinephrine and norepinephrine (monoamine theory) - higher risk if parent has it - high risk if patient has multiple sclerosis

Type and trait theories: Traits... - pen model (psychoticism, extrav, neurotic) The big five N-Ach trait... low will and high will...

More on traits: using behavioral patterns to describe people Hans and Sybil Eysneck: grouped together certain behaviors that were likely to occur together and gave these common behavioral trends a term (a TRAIT) - ex: less outspoken, prefer solitary activities, avoid overstimulation = introversion They created the PEN model: - characterizes individuals based on three traits 1. Pyschoticism: measure of nonconformity or social deviance... aloofness, aggression, impulsivity, sign of psychopathic disorder 2. extraversion: measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation 3. neuroticism: measure of emotional arousal around stimuli ------- Big Five: OCEAN - more recent theory expanded to include 5 different personality traits/dimensions - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism ------- N-Ach: Need for achievement trait - High N-Ach: will tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in accomplishments. Avoid high risks (afraid of failure) and low risk (now sense of achievement). Set realistic goals and stop if likely to fail.

Intelligence theories and measurement: - Multip intelli (whose theory is this) - Spearman (G-fac) - Alf Binet (IQ) - stanf-iq test equation?

Multiple Intelligence: There are seven types of intelligence people have to a different extent: - 1 and 2 are most heavily emphasized in American culture (they are the components of the IQ test) - theory by Howard Gardner 1. Linguistic 2. Logistical-mathematical 3. musical 4. visual-spatial 5. bodily-kinesthetic 6. interpersonal 7. intrapersonal ------------ Measurement: Spearman's G-factor: general intelligence factor Intelligence quotient: obtain from general tests, set forth by Alfred Binet. Stanford-Binet IQ test: stanford professor took binet's IQ to create this new testing scheme IQ = mental age / chronological age * 100 EX: four year old with the intelligence of a 6 year old has an IQ of 150! 6/4 = 150.

Influences on behavior: Nuerotrans and endocrine... neurotransmitters: 1. Ach 2. catecholamines/monoamine/biological amine A. epi/NE B. Dopamine 3. serotonin 4. GABA, glycine, glutamate 5. Neurpeptides aka .... two exs

Neuropeptides aka neuromodulators: - Endorphins and their relatives enkephalins Neuropeptides are much more complicated, and are much longer acting and slower to cause a response! endorphins/enkephalins = natural painkillers! Like morphine or other opioids!

Nativist (biological) theory of language - who -what - transf gramm - LAD belief on age of lang/period?

Noam Chomsky developed the nativist (biological) theory: - there is some innate capacity for language allowing children to learn laws of a language Transformational Grammar: changes in word order that retain the same meaning. Kids pick up on this super quick! - I am taking the MCAT vs the MCAT was taken by me Language Acquisition Device (LAD): the "how" of the nativist theory by Chomsky, says there is a theoretical pathway in the brain allowing infants to process and absorb language rules. Nativists believe there is a critical period of language from 2 years of age until puberty.

Observational Learning (bobo doll ex) Modeling --- neurological factors of OL: - mirror neurons (help with?)

Observational learning: process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others - learning can teach to perform a behavior OR teach not to perform a behavior - Modeling: learning by observational learning and then imitation alone - parents: do as I say, not as I do is FLAWED Bobo doll experiment-- 1. adults were in a room with a doll and began punching and inflicting violence on it, kids watched on a screen in another room 2. Kids put in same room were likely to follow this same violent behavior ... 1. Separate test group watched an individual treat a bobo doll violently, and then get scolded! 2. This test group was LESS likely than control group to perform violent behavior. ------- Mirror Neurons: Neurons in the parietal and frontal cortex which fire when an individual performs an action or sees someone else performing that same action, they help with both motor processes AND empathy! - mirror neurons fire in baby monkeys which will imitate facial expressions of the caretaker respond equally to performing an action, or watching someone else perform the same action

Stimulus Adaptation

Our detection of a stimulus can change over time! - Ears: hair cells constrict to reduce intensity - thermoreceptors: get used to cold - photoreceptors: eyes dilate/constrict for constant light exposure

Sleep disorders: parasommnia types - terrors (which stage, why make sense) - somnabulism - Sleep deprivation (REM Rebound)

Parasommnia: Night terrors: Periods of intense anxiety that occurs during slow-wave sleep (NREM S3/S4) - since occur during SWS, child is no paralyzed, will thrash and/or scream! Is very hard to wake the child up! - Child seldom remembers the terror the next day Somnabulism: aka sleepwalking, occurs during SWS and they may eat, drive, or even have sexual intercourse, usually no recollection in morning. It is not a bad thing to wake a sleepwalker up. ------------- Sleep deprivation can result from one bad night or frequent shorter nights... REM Rebound: sleep deprived individuals often enter REM sleep earlier and for longer duration compared to normal.

Prosencephalon- telencephalon- CEREBRAL CORTEX! 1. frontal 2. Parietal Lobe: - somatos (projecti, registers, location) - central region for...

Parietal Lobe: A. Somatosensory Cortex: located on POSTCENTRAL gyrus (right behind precentral gyrus/primary motor cortex). Involved in somatosensory informational processing. - projection area which registers touch, pressure, temperature, and pain! - Somatosensory Homunculus: different regiones of somatosensory cortex occupied more by more sensitive regions like face and lips! C. Central region of parietal lobe: spatial arrangement, allows seeing in three dimensions, and can help read and interpret a map!

Hindbrain: A. Medulla Oblongata B. Pons

Pons: sensory and motor pathways between the cerebral cortex and the medulla! developed by rhombencephalon -> metencephalon

Prejudice - proaganda social factors influencing prejudice (3)

Prejudice: irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to any real experience with that entity! - propaganda: method by which an organization or political group attempts to create prejudices in others. - propaganda posters invoke feelings fear/hate/etc. Three social factors of prejudice: Power: ability of people or groups to achieve goals despite obstacles, and ability to control resources Prestige: level of respect shown to a person by others Class: socioeconomic status (SES)

Motor Homunculus

Primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe: - different muscles need finer motor control so take up more space in the brain accordingly!

Forebrain: Telencephalon-- A. c B. b C. l Diencephalon A. h B. t C. p D. p

Prosencephalon... Telencephalon-- CBL A. Cerebral cortex: complex perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive processes (more later) B. Basal Ganglia: movement (more next slide) C. Limbic system: fear, aggression, pain, pleasure (more later) Diencephalon-- A. Hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and emotion... subdivided shown on next notecard! B. Thalamus: Sensory relay station! "train station", all sense but smell! C. Posterior pituitary gland: oxytocin, ADH D. Pineal gland: circadian rhythm through melatonin secretion, direct signals from retina (sunlight) for release!

response bias and signal detection tests hit, miss, false alarm, corr neg. catch/noise trial response bias is more likely present when... ex in library

Response bias: a tendency for an individual to respond based on nonsensory factors (motives, memories, experience) aka to use beliefs, thoughts, attitudes etc. to influence how one responds! Signal detection testing: Many trials take place with an individual! 1. Catch trials: trials where the signals are presented! 2. Noise trials: trials in which there is no signal! - participant is told to alert experimenter when they believe a signal was fired. Hit: observer correctly perceives signal which is present Miss: observer missed the signal present False alarm: observer reports a signal which is not present Correct negative: Observer correctly confirms no signal is present High proportion of misses, or false alarms may be sign of a response bias! EX: In library, you think your phone buzzed, did it?

Cognitive appraisal theory of a situation

Stress: our response to challenging events Cognitive Appraisal: The subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress. 1. Primary appraisal: initial evaluation of the environment and associated threat into one of three categories... A. Irrelevant (no implication to well-being) B. Benign-positive (+ implication to well-being) C. Stressful (- implication to well-being) 2. Secondary appraisal: If primary appraisal finds a threat, now we determine our ability to cope with the stress by evaluating... A. Harm: damage caused by the event B. Threat: potential for future damage caused by event C. challenge: Potential to overcome or even benefit from the event Reappraisal: The act of re-evaluating one's thoughts about some stressor, whether the response is/was rational and going through the appraisal process again. ----------------- Different individuals handle stress differently: - some people scared by spider (stressful appraisal) while others do not care (irrelevant appraisal) - individuals better able to cope with an event experience less stress

Which controlled encoding mechanism is the strongest? Weakest? What phenomenon/term explains this? SR effe

Strongest: Semantic Encoding -- putting things into context is the strongest encoding mechanism -- This is explained by Self-reference effect: We learn best and can recall information the best when we put it into context of our own lives! Weakest: Visual encoding

Subculture and counterculture

Subculture: groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong - race, gender, ethnicity, etc. - emo, hippie, orthodox, etc. Counterculture: when a subculture gravitates towards an identity at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the majority cultures mores (customs).

Symbolic interactionism - symbol

Symbolic interactionism: how we use symbols to interact with one another a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another Micro level - symbols: things to which we attach meaning, are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate to one another - language, gestures, behaviors, etc. all become symbolic how we use symbols to interact with each other

Taste what is flavor? taste b/pap short pathway...

Taste types: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami! - Liquid/Solubilized compounds Flavor: smell and taste together! affected by mood, texture too Taste buds: cells which register taste on bumps of the tongue called papillae PATHWAY: 1. taste buds -> Brain stem -> Thalamus -> high order brain parts

Bystander Effect

The idea that the more people there are, the less likely someone is to intervene in a problematic situation (inverse relationship between people and likeliness to help) - due to social etiquette, rude to observe other people - due to others not responding, individual perceives situation as less of a threat. Factors: - Degree of severity: more severe or dangerous individuals are more likely to intervene - degree of responsibility felt: Is victim deserving of aid? relationship to victim? competency in situation?

Experiencing Emotion using the Limbic System: - components 1. am 2.th 3.hyp 4.hip - external/internal(emotional)

The limbic System: 1. Amygdala 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Hippocampus/fornix 5. Septal Nuclei 1. Amygdala: interpretation of external cues! Associated with strong emotions like fear - facial expressions 2. Thalamus: relays sensory information to different limbic components in brain 3. Hypothalamus: After signals from the thalamus, hypothalamus will release hormones which affect emotional states! 4. Hippocampus: storage and retrieval of long term memories! In dictating some emotional response, memories are critical to determine some type of context for feelings. - Explicit memories: episodic/emotional experience of the situation, conscious memory, the "story" of a past experience - Implicit memories: unconscious processing of long term memory, aka the emotional memory which are the underlying emotions associated with the stories experience.

Demographics 1. ageism 2. gender (gender vs sex? inequality vs segregation) 3. race (racializati, racial formation theory) + ethnicity (symbolic ethnicity) 4. sexual orientation 5. immigrant status intersectionality

The statistics of a population, mathematical applications of sociology. 1. ageism: discrimination by age, currently the largest growing age cohort is the 85+ club. 2. Gender: set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits - Sex: the biological gender, male (XY) or female (XX) - Gender inequality: empowering one gender over another - Gender segregation: separations of individuals based on perceived gender (bathrooms, schools, etc) 3. Race and Ethnicity: A. Race: social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people (skin color) - racial factors are ALWAYS on display, no choice - Racialization: establishment of a group as a particular race (jewish people turned into the jewish race) - Racial formation theory: racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economical, and social factors B Ethnicity: also a social construct, sorting people by cultural factors including language, nationality, religion, and other factors - one can choose to display ethnic factors - Black (race) skin but could be Latino, African American, etc. which is not on display. - Symbolic ethnicity: a nostalgic allegiance to or love for a cultural tradition that can be felt and lived without having to be incorporated into the person's everyday behavior - ex: holidays and parades 4. Sexual orientation: homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual - Kinsley scale: 0-6, 0 being fully heterosexual, 6 being fully homosexual, says sexuality is fluid and on a spectra 5. Immigration status: growing! intersectionality: the interconnected nature or race, ethnicity, gender, class, immigration status etc. which all play a role in identify an individual, often leading to discrimination

Social Loafing

The tendency of individuals in a group to put in less effort than when working alone. - physical effort (lifting), mental effort (idea generating), or initiative (coming up with solutions)

Three parts: 1. encoding: automatic and controlled (visual, semantic, auditory) 2. storage: - long-term memory and 2 types (implc/expli and two types of explic) 3. retrieval

Using elaborative rehearsal (semantic processing), one can commit a short-term memory to long-term memory! Two types: 1. Implicit, nondeclarative, procedural memory: Consists of skills and conditioned responses, effortless recall! - swatting a bee every-time it is near - also called procedural memory: knowing how to do things/motor skills! 2. Explicit/declarative memory: consists of memories that require effort and thinking about to recall - remembering the immune system for the test A. Episodic (long-term, explicit) Memory: Experiences in our life B. Semantic (long-term, explicit) memory: facts, ideas, and knowledge we know

vestibular sense

Vestibular sense: Linear and angular acceleration detection in ear for BALANCE

Weber's law

Weber's law focuses on the ratio between a change in stimulus needed to detect noticeable difference (difference threshold). That ratio stays the same so as you increase sound per se, you must increase it by an ever larger amount at higher thresholds to detect a differnce! EX: ratio of sound 440 -> 443 Hz... 3 Hz 3/440 = .068% 1000 Hz * .068% = 6.8 Hz... larger frequency start = more change needed for difference threshold to be met! Higher magnitude stimuli requires a larger difference to reach the JND!

Wernicke's and Broca's Area - found where, both are in the?, connected by - aphasia (cond, wern, broc) - connected by

Wernicke: superior temporal gyrus, temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension connected by the Arcuate Fasciculus bundle if axons Broca's Area: Superior frontal gyrus, frontal cortex, controls the MOTOR function of speech (speech production) Both regions are found only in the DOMINANT HEMISPHERE (usually left) ----------------- Speech pathologies: Aphasia: issues in speech production or comprehension - Broca's (expressive) aphasia: inability to produce speech (feeling its on the tip of patient's tongue) - Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia: Trouble in language comprehension, patient will think everything they hear and saw makes sense, but it actually makes no sense and is gibberish. - Conduction aphasia: damage to the arcuate fasciculus, production and comprehension intact, but patient cannot repeat something just said

innate behavior learned behavior adaptive value

YES, behavior is heritable! Innate behavior: Behavior genetically programmed as a result of evolution in ALL organisms of a species regardless of experience or enviornment! Learned behavior: Not based on hereditary, but on experience and envrionment! Adaptive value: the extent to which a trait, behavior, or characteristic POSITIVELY benefits a species and leads to a more fit species, leading to evolutionary success and will become more prevalent via natural selection!

Parkinson's disease

characterized by bradykinesia (slow movement), resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor (weird activity with hands), masklike fascies (static expressionless facial features with staring eyes and open mouth), cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that halts movement), shuffling gait (shuffles feet when walking) with stooped posture Basis of the disease: - Low dopamine levels in the substantia nigra: layer of cells in brain which function to produce dopamine for the basal ganglia (critical for initiating and terminating movements and smoothening movements + posture) Treatment: L-dopa: precursor to dopamine that can be converted to dopamine once in the brain

Midbrain: collicu

mesencephalon: receives motor and sensory stimuli form the rest of the body! - controls involuntary reflex triggered by auditory or visual stimuli! Colliculi: Nuclei (collected CNS neuron cell bodies) - Superior Colliculus: Visual sensory input! - Inferior Colliculus: Auditory sensory input!

Preparedness vs instinctive drift (in operant conditioning techniques)

preparedness: animals are predisposed to learn/not learn certain behaviors based on natural abilities and instincts. - It is easier to train a bird to peck (a natural feeding behavior) then to get them to rotate in circles Instinctive drift: A difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors which results in having a hard time conditioning a new behavior. - overcome an instinctive behavior! - Dogs may be taught to sit and be quiet when guests enter, but because of their natural tendency to bark under stress they have instinctual drift and begin to bark at guests again.