Beph 5018
Successive calendar days are displayed on the ___ axis of the Daily Standard Celeration Chart (SCC):
Horizontal
A behavior analyst would most likely use a statement of probability to express:
How likely an event will occur
A correlation may best be characterized as:
How two continuous variables are related to each other
Reinforcer assessments are important to conduct, in part, because we need to know
How well stimuli identified as "preferred" actually function as reinforcers.
All designs using basic inferential statistics should employ:
Hypothesis testing
Which of the following is always presented as a percent?
IOA
What is the accurate graphing consideration below that should guide a behavior analyst when determining how to chart one acceleration target and one deceleration target?
If the acceleration target is meant to be a replacement behavior, charting it along with the deceleration target can help determine if replacement is occurring
When behavior has the opportunity to occur, but it is not observed or recorded, this is called a(n):
Ignored day
Which of the following is not a way to plan for extinction-induced aggression?
Immediately place aggression on extinction; supervise caregivers in ignoring all functional equivalents
Merit increases are generally
Implemented in an inequitable way
Tom sits next to his son Matt at the baseball game and Matt is eating a hotdog. Tom looks at Matt and says, "hot dog", and Matt hands the hotdog to Tom, who happily takes a bite. Tom saying, "hot dog" to Matt is a(n)
Impure Mand
Decision rules in SPC are most effectively monitored by_____
Software analyzing on-going data
What is the goal of phase II of learning to communicate with PECS?
Increase spontaneity and range
Typically during the extinction phase of treatment, responding initially ______, and is followed by a gradual ______ in response rate across time.
Increase, decrease
Deprivation has the following effects: It momentarily ___ the reinforcer effectiveness of a stimulus and ___ the frequency of behavior that produced the stimulus as a consequence.
Increases increases
Some research suggests that when compared to traditional pay, pay-for-performance:
Increases performance for most employees, but not all employees prefer it
Maria has already taught Bart to initiate communication with PECS. Her goal now is to teach Bart to travel longer distance towards communicative partners and/or to retrieve PECS. To do this, she gradually moves away from him and waits for him to initiate communication without prompts. What phase of PECS training is Maria following with Bart?
Increasing spontaneity and range
Walter has been teaching Maggie to communicate with PECS. Since Maggie is already initiating communication, Walter asks Scott, a fellow BCaBA, to stop prompting Maggie and begins increasing the distance she has to travel to exchange a picture for preferred items and activities. Walter is implementing the following phase of PECS training:
Increasing spontaneity and range
On a monthly scorecard (table form), baseline performance is listed for each category of performance in the vertical column ...
Indicated by a "0" at the top of the column
While this category of preference assessment is least effortful, the results may be subjective, and do not always correspond with data-based methods.
Indirect preference assessment
The approach to research used in ABA is:
Inductive and quantitative
No matter what the schedule requirement might be, Ted engages in the target behavior as many times as necessary to earn a specific reinforcer. In terms of behavioral economics, one would say that changes in the price of this particular reinforcer produce little or no change in Ted's consumption of that reinforcer. This is referred to as a(n):
Inelastic demands
Which of the following uses hypothesis testing in its analysis of a phenomenon?
Inferential statistics only
All of the following are appropriate reasons to analyze data using inferential statistics, except
Inferential statistics provides the only effective analytical tool for identifying socially significant changes in behavior
Which of the following best conceptualizes reinforcement history?
Influence of past events on current behavior
Which of the following is not a specific sub-specialty of OBM
Instruction and training
Reinforcement is provided for the first response that follows a pre-determined amount of time. This describes a(n) ___ schedule:
Interval
___ or ___ are acceptable types of data in most research designs
Interval, ratio
Which of the following tends to be easiest for caregivers to implement?
Interval-based schedule
What term is used to refer to the type of reward that is naturally related to the responses that produce it?
Intristic
When using aversive taste treatment to decrease thumb-sucking, an important element of the process is to:
Involve the child in deciding to use "reminder fluid" to reduce thumb-sucking
An extreme case of sequential confounding can be characterized as _____.
Irreversibility
Trials-to-criterion is not done with which of the following dimensions?
Irt
Which of the following dimensional quantities is associated with both repeatability and temporal locus
Irt
Wolfie's "huffing and puffing" behavior is followed almost immediately by significant property destruction for approximately 80 percent of occurrences of "huffing and puffing". Thus, "huffing and puffing" behavior
Is a reasonably reliable precursor to property destruction
Ratio data is best distinguished from other data types by the fact that in ratio data, there...
Is a true zero
In job-based grounding, contingent upon misbehavior, the older child
Is assigned one or more menial jobs around the home, which must be completed before the child is no longer grounded.
To increase response diversity, a lag-3 schedule of reinforcement is utilized. This means that the current response is reinforced only if it...
Is different from the last 3 preceding responses (along the specified dimension)
oosely, an open system is one in which information:
Is freely shared among all members
Which of the following statements is true: Teaching someone to initiate verbal behavior
Is key to an individual producing verbal behavior that does not become prompt dependent
A probability of (- 1) ...
Is not possible, since negative numbers are not used in probability
Skinner defines verbal behavior as behavior that
Is reinforced through the mediation of others
What is NOT a consideration when selecting a preference assessment method?
Is the individual sensitive to contingencies
All of the following are potential reasons a behavior analyst may want to consider briefly reinforcing problem behavior on a FR1 prior to extinction, except:
It directly assesses the reinforcement history of the individual
All of the following are likely problems with using gain sharing, except
It does not promote cooperation among employees
Which of the following statements is true in relation to the idea of a partial reinforcement extinction effect?
It is highly variable across studies and may be influenced by several variables
Why is the recent decline in male fertility in the U.S. relevant to behavior analysts?
It is representative of a mainstream problem, of significant importance to many people, and one that behavioral science can assist in solving
Which of the following is an argument in favor of the use of social reinforcers?
It may be less subject to satiation
A key characteristic of functional communication is that ...
It requires an interaction with a "listener" to mediate reinforcement
Which of the following is always presented as a percent?
Iv integrity
Which of the following schedules of reinforcement has been used to increase response diversity?
Lag-reinforcement schedules
Skinner's use of the term, "verbal", focuses on
Language in general
In within-session choice the:
Learner selects a reinforcer from a small array each time the schedule requirement is met
In pre-session selection the:
Learner selects which reinforcer they would like to earn throughout the following instructional period
The closer the counting time floor is to the behavior floor, the result will be:
Less ignored minutes
According to the study cited by Dr DeLeon (Graff & Karsten, 2012) how often do most BCBAs conduct full-scale preference assessments?
Less than once a month
A company has decided to transition to a performance management system. They have contracted with an individual skilled in OBM, but have not yet implemented any performance management procedures. Which of the following levels will they move to next?
Level 1
During the phased-in transition to a pay for performance system, at which level should voluntary pay reductions for employees be implemented?
Level 2
In which phases of a transition to a pay-for-performance system are hiring freezes most likely to be implemented?
Level 3 and 4
Which of the following is the best use of discrete categorization?
Level of independence on each step in a shoe-tying task.
Which of the following is an example of an elastic demand curve? When the price of
Lobster increases by 50%, consumption declines by 90%
Alleman & Zeiler (1974) found that response rates tended to exhibit which of the following patterns?
Low during FT after exposure to a DRL
Alleman & Zeiler (1974) found that the presentation of a response dependent schedule of reinforcement (an FR or DRL) followed by a time-based schedule (FT) will likely have which of the following effects on response rates?
Low response rates in FT following a DRL
In the human service example from the lecture, during the final year of the transition to a pay-for-performance system, the company had payroll costs that were _____.
Lower than before implementing pay-for-performance
Dr. Friman discussed a "gap" in behavioral health care for children, with his emphasis pointing to which of the following?
Mainstream" market conditions that identify a need for ABA services
Which of the following verbal operants is not necessarily under the control of any specific antecedent stimulus in the immediate environment?
Mand
The Pareto Principle can be potentially useful to behavior analysts in that it
May provide information on where to focus intervention resources
Which of the following is a good way to examine partial reinforcement extinction effects (PREE)?
Measure the number of experimental sessions required to meet the predetermined extinction criterion
Which of the following is a measure of central tendency in statistics?
Median value
Dr. Friman lists 3 domains of behavioral pediatrics in primary care as follows: (1) common behavior problems, (2) behavior problems with significant medical dimensions, and (3) _______.
Medical problems with significant behavioral dimensions
An accurate way of stating a formula for calculating either percent occurrence or percent correct would be: Number of observations or trials that
Meet criterion, divided by number of all observations or trials, multiplied by 100
The behavior floor reflects the number of:
Minutes behavior can occur
Stimulus variation is likely to increase response rates if the stimuli selected as reinforcers are
Moderate to highly preferred stimul
According to the Graff & Karsten (2012), all of the following are commonly used as reinforcers by both BCaBAs and BCBAs, EXCEPT:
Money
Which of the following is not a common objection to a pay for performance system?
Money is unlikely to motivate employees
Performance scorecards are typically calculated on a ____ basis
Monthly
The standard practice is to calculate performance scorecards ________.
Monthly
In reviewing a variety of studies by Hanley et al., Dr. DeLeon discussed the effects of using contingent reinforcement during engagement in low preference activities, as well as pairing low preference activities with the availability of high preference stimuli. In these studies, which of the following was demonstrated to be true? An individual's engagement in a low preference activity is
More likely when non-contingent pairing of a low preference activity with established preferred stimuli can shift choices toward that low preference activity
Studies cited by Dr. DeLeon indicate that individuals diagnosed with autism tend to display _______ in stimulus preference assessments
More stability in preferences than individuals without an ASD diagnosis
Which experimental design may be less prone to extra-experimental history?
Multi-element
Using a combination of designs when generalization may be a problem is a way to plan for history effects of which experimental design?
Multiple baseline
As described in the lecture, there may be times in ABA when using a repeated measures design (using inferential statistics) is more appropriate than using a _____ design. This eliminates the need for many of the test subjects in a research study to have to display incompetence at a target skill over many repeated trials as they await the start of the intervention.
Multiple baseline design
Calculating a percentage requires data on
Multiple observations or trails
A percentage must be interpreted most cautiously when:
Multiple percentages are compared between widely different numbers of trials
Moving up and down the y-axis of the SCC involves:
Multiplication and division
"Loss" or "penalty" are terms often used as a colloquial synonyms for:
Negative punishment
The vast majority of behavior problems that present in a pediatric setting are
Neither extreme or complex
What was the number one ranked behavior problem in both boys and girls for three-year old children?
Night wetting
Mode is the only measure of central tendency that can be used for what type of data?
Nominal
This type of data refers to named categories rather than numerical quantities
Nominal
If Billy is transitioning from using PECS to engaging in vocal speech, which of these would be considered a successfully completed transition? If Billy fluently uses picture cards to say, "I want half a banana", then when he engages in vocal speech....
None of these would be considered a successful transition
All of the following are determinants of stimulus value except
None; Delay, quality, and magnitude are all determinants of stimulus value
All of the following may cause treatment relapse to occur, except:
None; all of these may cause treatment relapse to occur
Which of the following conclusions about accumulated reinforcement is NOT true? Accumulated access, mediated through tokens
None; all of these statements are true Is preferred by learners Supports faster work Supports greater overall quantity of work
A measure of probability can range from:
O to 1
Conyers et.al. (2002), arranged a study of the accuracy of various types of stimulus preference assessments (as measured by how often a food item, identified as preferred, was chosen in trials offering a choice of two items). They looked at learners who demonstrated discrimination and other skills at a variety of functional levels (as evaluated under the Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities (ABLA) tool). The found, as logic might also suggest, that the ______ stimulus preference assessment was the most accurate when measured across ALL learners (both low and high functioning).
Object
Gottschalk, Libby, and Graff (2000) produced experimental results wherein preference rank changes were _________ were manipulated, relative to the control condition.
Observed when either the levels of food satiation or deprivation
Management by perception refers primarily to managers:
Often evaluating employees without quantitative measures
When managers employ the "management by exception" style they:
Often rely on excessive negative reinforcement and punishment
Precision Teaching was developed by:
Ogden Lindsley
The Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) was developed in 1970 by:
Ogden Lindsley and Eric Haughton
Katie's client Andrew constantly yelled out answers in class without being called on by the teacher. Katie, a BCBA, put Andrew's "yelling out" behavior on extinction, and only provided reinforcement by calling on Andrew when he quietly raised his hand. Katie began training a new behavioral technician on the procedures in place for Andrew. As Katie was observing, she noticed that the technician was ignoring "yelling out" but was not consistently delivering reinforcement for appropriate hand raising. This is an example of what type of treatment integrity error?
Omission
Studies show that during pediatric visits, a range of 11 - 15 minutes , on average, are spent:
On the entire office visit
If behavior occurred only one time a day, it should be graphed:
On the lowest line of the SCC
A data point on the lowest horizontal line on the Daily SCC indicates that a behavior occurred ___ time(s) per day.
One
Which of the following is a significant consideration when using the mean as a descriptive statistic
One or more significant outliers can result in a deceptive mean
The bedtime pass allows the child:
One request of the parents after bedtime
A data point on the top line of the SCC indicates that a particular response occurred ___ time(s) per minute
One thousand
In Phase IIIA of the PECS procedure, when an error (incorrect learner response) is corrected by a prompt (use of prompt hierarchy until the correct response is evoked), how many trials are recorded on the data sheet?
One trial (incorrect response)
Surveys are best used when
One wants anonymous information from a group of individuals
Nedra's favorite toy is a balloon. Nedra's mother buys her balloons at the park and at the zoo, and sometimes gives her balloons to play with at home. The behavior analyst determines that balloons would be a good item to use during experimental protocols as well. In behavioral economics terms, Nedra's access to balloons describes a type of:
Open economy
Open book management can be considered a conceptualization of a(n)
Open system
Which of the following statements is true regarding closed versus open systems?
Open systems are more responsive to external events
Eva appropriately raises her hand. Her teacher responds to the other children yelling out answers in class, but does not call on Eva when she has her hand raised. After several days, Eva stops raising her hand, and begins to yell out her answers in class. The change in Eva's hand raising is the result of:
Operant Extinction
______ data have an order, (e.g., 1st, 2nd, and 3rd). The maintenance of an equal difference between each data value is not an important consideration.
Ordinal
The pyramid approach to education is a way to
Organize and prioritize strategies to teach students effectively
The idea that extrinsic rewards will have a detrimental effect on intrinsic motivation, which will in turn lead to decreases in engagement, is known as the:
Over-justification hypothesis
Which of the following statements is true regarding over-justification?
Over-justification is more pronounced for behavior which is already occurring at a high level (e.g., rate or fluency)
The idea that extrinsic rewards have a detrimental effect on intrinsic motivation, and lead to a decline in some aspect(s) of an individual's performance is otherwise known as the _____ hypothesis.
Overjustification
Which of the following approaches to communication teaches students to exchange pictures for those things they want?
PECS
In this selection-based preference assessment method, two items are presented at a time until all items have been presented together.
Paired choice
To determine how many trials you have to do, you use the following formula: The required number of trials = N (N-1)/2. This formula applies to which of the following selection-based preference assessment procedures?
Paired stimulus (aka, paired-choice) preference assessment (PS)
Which preference assessment method is LEAST appropriate to use if the time available to complete the assessment is limited?
Paired-stimulus
Which of the following preference assessments would you avoid using if you only had a very brief amount of time to assess stimulus preferences?
Paired-stimulus assessments
Which of the following is not a dimensional quantity of behavior?
Percent
The discrete categorization data are compiled and reported as:
Percentage of coded responses in each category
Using a percentage to track behavior change has all of the following limitations except:
Percentages are overly mathematical and not usually accurate representations of actual data
Jimi does not do well when asked to fold flyers and place them into envelopes at his workshop. He takes nearly 15 minutes to complete even one envelope. A token program is put in place at the workshop, and within two days, Jimi is completing dozens of envelopes by the end of every 2-hour work session. This sudden improvement in Jimi's productivity indicates that Jimi's prior low rate of production was most likely due to:
Performance deficit
A good pay for performance process will always have a _____ component:
Performance management
The most straightforward application of ABA to business settings would be:
Performance management
Which of the following is not an alternative compensation strategy (as compared to PFP)
Performance-based pay
Simple discrimination is taught in which phase of PECS training?
Phase 3
Liana presents Mike with a picture of one of his favorite comic books, and a picture of a mascara brush, in which he has never shown an interest. When Mike selects one of the pictures, Liana gives him the pictured item. When he selects the picture of the mascara brush, and then rejects the actual mascara brush, Liana prompts him to touch the picture of the comic book. As soon as he touches it, she provides brief verbal praise for selecting a picture, and waits as he hands her the picture independently. At this point, she presents him with the comic book. Which phase of PECS training does this scenario exemplify?
Phase 3 A
In PECS training, the learner is FIRST presented with the question, "What do you want" during which broad phase?
Phase 5
If the student moves a picture of a preferred item to the sentence strip before handing it to the communicative partner, in which phase of PECS would this FIRST occur?
Phase IV- Building Sentences
If you are manipulating an aspect of the independent variable, a ___ line should be drawn to separate data paths.
Phase change
Three stimulus types used to present activities during preference assessments include
Picture, object, spoken
A qualitative change in learning can be either
Pleasant or unpleasant
Which of the following is an example of nominal data?
Political party affiliation
One of the most common behavior problems with 3-year old boys in the general population is
Poor appetite/picky eating
We use samples to make inferences about _______
Populations
Reward" has been used as a colloquial synonym
Positive Reinforcement
Asking the learner which reinforcer they would like to earn during the following instructional period describes:
Pre-session selection
When we provide treatment for already occurring behavioral problems, we are using the behavioral pediatrics intervention known as:
Prescriptive treatment
What is the main emphasis of behavioral pediatrics in primary care?
Prevention
In behavioral pediatrics related to primary care, the main emphasis is placed on...
Prevention of problems
A behavior program contains a specific restrictive procedure as the intervention to use whenever a certain dangerous target behavior occurs. Staff-persons are observed using this procedure even when that specific target behavior has NOT occurred. This non-programmatic use of a restrictive procedure could indicate any of the following, except:
Procedural drift has caused staff to implement the program incorrectly None: that is, all of these listed answers are possible explanations for this non-programmatic use of a restrictive procedure Staff were not effectively trained in the programmatic use of this procedure A new and possibly dangerous target behavior has emerged in the individual's repertoire, and staff have generalized use of the procedure to the new behavior
Charlotte's yelling at the grocery store appeared to be maintained by receiving candy. The BCaBA instructs mom to stop providing candy when Charlotte yells. Over the next month, Charlotte's yelling in the store gradually declines, and finally stops. Mom no longer providing candy to Charlotte when she yells would be an example of the ______ of extinction.
Procedure
The essential feature of the ______ of extinction is discontinuation of the contingency between the response and the reinforcer.
Procedure
The ______ of extinction is the reduction in the response rate following a discontinuation of the response-reinforcer contingency.
Process
One advantage of the multiple-stimulus preference assessment is that it can:
Produce a preference hierarchy quickly, and thus may be used on a daily basis (to capture short term changes in preference hierarchies for that day)
Which of the following is considered a short-term organizational goal?
Productivity
Which of the following describes a reinforcement procedure in which response requirements increase following each reinforcement, until the participant ceases to respond for criterion amount of time, at which time the session ends?
Progressive Ratio schedule
Which of the following schedules is often used in research literature to study the relative (increasing) amount of work one is willing to complete to earn various stimuli as reinforcers?
Progressive ratio schedule (PR)
Which of the following is not considered a limitation of shaping as in intervention strategy?
Prompts must be faded in a highly consistent fashion, which requires highly trained program implementers
Shaping consists of gradually changing a(n)___________ by differentially reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior
Property of responding
All of the following statement-completions regarding paired-choice preference assessments are true, except: Paired-choice (aka paired-stimulus) preference assessments....
Provide neither false positives nor false negatives regarding reinforcer effectiveness
The book, Verbal Behavior focuses on
Providing an analytical tool related to language
Reviewing archival data can help in the behavior analytic process by...
Providing potential baseline data
Dr. Friman discussed the basic process of how learning occurs. He identified two broad characteristics of the change that follow a behavior, which play a key role in determining the speed and effectiveness of the learning experience. These two different characteristics of the change are:
Quality and quantity
A deductive research approach uses _____ data
Quantitative only
According to Dr. Bondy, which of the following words is likely to be the most difficult to teach to an individual diagnosed with autism? The word in question for each answer choice is in underlined capital letters.
REALLY big
All of the following are measures of central tendency except:
Range
Reinforcement quality is typically conceptualized as being directly related to:
Rankings in a preference hierarchy
A celeration slope indicates changes in:
Rate over time
Which of the following schedules pre-specifies a number of responses that need to occur for reinforcement to be provided?
Ratio
Research on schedules of reinforcement, and the effect of various histories of reinforcement, suggests that which of the following statements is FALSE?
Ratio schedules are far easier to implement than interval schedules, and require less staffing resources in most settings
Use of a changing criterion experimental design may help to avoid which of the following problems?
Ratio strain
What is the best of the following options for changing employee behavior:
Re-engineer the organization's performance system
According to the definition provided in the lecture, which of the following would NOT be an example of a restrictive procedure?
Redirection
Extinction used in combination with reinforcement is best used to:
Reduce one behavior while building another behavior
Which of the following should NOT be considered as a possible factor that could help account for apparent lessened "intrinsic" motivation after extrinsic rewards have been introduced into an environment?
Reductive effect of reinforcement ("punishment by reward")
In a study conducted by Zhou, Iwata, and Shore (2002) the effects of deprivation and satiation were evaluated under more natural arrangements than typical contrived experimental conditions. In this case, they looked at the effectiveness of food as a reinforcer right before or right after lunch. The presence of establishing operations or abolishing operations were presumed, due either to the time before a meal that the food was used (30 minutes before lunch was the deprivation-EO condition), or the time after a meal that the food was used (30 minutes after lunch was the satiation-AO condition). Results suggested that when food is used as a reinforcer under these conditions...
(Presumed) deprivation or satiation seemed to affect immediate rates of responding for some, but not all participants
When you calculate the sum of the deviations away from the mean of all scores in a distribution, that sum is always...
0
Which of the following probabilities indicates a behavior is least likely to occur?
0
Which of the following would be an expression of a mathematical probability?
0
In an organization's typical profit indexed performance pay™ system, the typical range of possible multipliers is:
0-3
What is the most conservative (i.e., the highest bar to clear for the researcher) p value listed below?
0.01
A common alpha level is
0.05
The range of a set of data is not very useful for analyzing variability because:
Regardless of the data set size, the range only accounts for two data point values
All of the following are short term organizational goals, except:
Regulatory compliance
The "direction of learning" is based on the quality of the environmental change that occurs after the behavior has occurred. "Direction of learning" thus relates directly to which of the following concept(s) in ABA?
Reinforcement and punishment
The reduction in a target response placed on extinction can occur much more quickly when combined with ______ procedures targeting alternative responses.
Reinforcement based
Response rates (measured relative to baseline rates), response allocation, and break points are all potential dependent variables when a behavior analyst is performing a ____ assessment.
Reinforcer
What are two functions of a specific motivating operation?
Reinforcer establishing and evocative
A T-test is used to examine the means between _____ samples:
2 and only 2
Estimate the IRT given a rate of 30 instances of aggression per hour
2 minutes
According to the Pareto Principle:
20% of the population is responsible for 80% of variability
Estimate the IRT given a rate of 20 instances of aggression during one hour
3 minutes
The minimum number of scores required to make a sample size large enough to be considered a reasonable representation (for sampling purposes) is:
30
Susie has a 30-minute session for practicing matching picture cards, but Karen only tracks data on the last 10-minutes of the session. The behavior floor would be:
30 minutes
At which phase is there usually a management hiring freeze?
4
Rebekkah wants to do a paired-stimulus preference assessment with Zac. She has 10 items she wants to compare to each other, to create a full preference hierarchy. What is the minimum number of trials Rebekkah has to run to be certain to compare each item to each other item at least once?
45 trails
Which of the following thumb sucking scenarios is most likely to require pediatric behavior treatment? When the child is
5-years old and sucks their thumb during kindergarten class
Approximately, _____ percent of all primary care child visits involve behavior problems of some kind.
50
A probability of .6 indicates that a behavior is ...
60%
The Pareto Principle may be stated as
80% of revenue comes from 20% of customers
If the learner tends to play with any item or picture they are presented, an effective alternative strategy for early trials in teaching discrimination in the presence of two pictures is to use
A blank card as the distractor
A data point just below the Record Floor would indicate:
A frequency of zero
According to Dr. Bondy, making a clear distinction, in terms of verbal behavior, between a handwritten note and a typed email is
A functionally irrelevant distinction
What did Dr. Friman discuss as the likely reason(s) for the significant lack of discussion of childhood behavior problems during pediatric visits with the physician?
A lack of time, training, and inclination by the doctor
Discrete categorization is primarily:
A method to classify responses
A behavior analyst doing research on reinforcement history can fully control the extra-experimental history of the research subjects only by using:
A non-humans animals
The range of a set of data is
A number representing the difference between the high and low data values
Which of these is an example of a simple discrimination during Phase IIIA? The teacher presents the student with
A picture of a preferred food item (or activity) and a picture of some neutral stimulus. When the student selects a picture, the teacher provides the pictured stimulus (preferred or neutral).
Which of the following is an example of ordinal data
A preference hierarchy
Extinction procedures can only be used on responses that have:
A previous history of reinforcement
Which of the following is the closest to the definition of "restrictive procedures" provided in the lecture by Dr. Wine?
A procedure designed to decelerate behavior or protect individuals that temporarily limits movement or access to reinforcers
An emergency procedure is most closely defined in the lecture as:
A procedure that is not in a behavior plan and is designed to protect an individual
According to Dr. Friman, use of an aversive tasting substance placed on the thumb to reduce thumb sucking is best characterized to caregivers as:
A reminder fluid
An unexpected finding in the study of PREE by Lerman and colleagues was the fact that two of the experimental subjects exhibited which of the following?
A reverse PREE effect
Probability measures are best used for describing the likelihood of:
A self-injurious contact to follow a precursor
In Phase IV of PECS Training, the PECS book adds...
A sentence strip
Results of a study conducted by Hanley, Iwata, Roscoe, Thompson, and Lindberg (2003) demonstrated that the delivery of non-contingent appetitive stimuli (presumed to be reinforcers) during engagement in non-preferred activities resulted in:
A shift in response allocation toward the low preference activity
Which of the following is not an element of the pyramid approach to education?
Relational frames
An observational study is one in which:
Relationships between variables are observed but not manipulated
A concurrent schedule reinforcer assessment may be effective at determining the _______ effects of stimuli as reinforcers. However, a single-schedule design may be more appropriate to determine ________effects, as the potential reinforcing effects of a lesser-preferred stimulus may be masked under a concurrent schedule.
Relative, absolute
When the target behavior treated by extinction returns in a different context, even though extinction procedures are still in effect, this phenomenon is known as:
Renewal
According to Dr. Friman, a simple way to explain to caregivers how their children actually learn, is to illustrate how learning takes place through
Repetition and contrast
PECS is considered a form of functional communication approach because it:
Requires an interaction with a listener
A(n) _____ is used to examine differences between more than two groups of participants
ANOVA
Endurance of responding means:
Resistance to distractions or fatigue
Dr. Deleon presented data indicating that individuals with a diagnosis of _____ tend to display more stability in preferences over time.
ASD
All of the following are signs of physical readiness for toileting, except:
Able to use buttons and zippers
What is a characteristic of units of measurement in natural sciences?
Absolute, standard, universal
For some types of reinforcement, such as access to an activity, the reinforcing value may be significantly altered by repeated interruptions. Therefore, activity reinforcement is often most effective when it is consumed as...
Accumulated reinforcement
When reinforcers are not consumed following each completion of a scheduled requirement, but are collected and consumed later, this is referred to as:
Accumulated reinforcement
Will earns a token following each class worksheet he completes. Each token is worth a minute of trampoline or swing time. Will never asks to cash in his tokens until he has collected at least 10 of them. This is an example of
Accumulated reinforcement
Presenting a conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus leads to:
Respondent extinction
Which of the following must be tracked and graphed?
Response cost procedures
What is the main effect of extinction?
Response reduction
Which of the following is NOT considered a response-generative effect of extinction?
Response reduction
Interviewing caregivers and reviewing possible response-class hierarchies are ways to plan for:
Response variation
Individuals who are self-employed probably do not require performance management to manage their own behavior because:
All contingencies in the company are aligned
Which of the following must be tracked and graphed?
All uses of a partition timeout
In comparison to a target behavior for reduction that is simply annoying or irritating, dangerous or destructive problem behavior is:
Almost always more difficult to consistently treat with extinction procedures
In the 4th step of the 4-step error correction procedure, the teacher prompts and obtains a correct response from the learner. Thus the learner has engaged in at least one incorrect response and one correct response during this 4-step sequence. In terms of data collection, how many trials does this represent?
Always only one trial (incorrect)
In general, reinforcement delays have :
An abolishing effect on the value of reinforcers
According to Dr. Bondy, protocols change in the PECS system according to
An analysis of pure and multiply controlled verbal operants
Emily, a BCBA, began working with Jeb about four months ago, but has been unable to obtain much information on his past. Jeb has responded to several treatment efforts in unpredictable ways. Which of the following may be the best explanation?
An idiosyncratic reinforcement history
What do behavioral economists call the condition where changes in price (the number of responses required to produce a reinforcer) produce little or no change in consumption of a reinforcer?
An inelastic demand function
Functional mastery criteria are derived from:
Analysis of data on rates of responding
Which of the following is a common misconception about PECS?
Any use of pictures constitutes a form of PECS
The term, "effectiveness of a reinforcer" refers to all of the following characteristics of a stimulus, except its
Appetitive characteristics for the organism
Dr. Bondy states that the first goal of communication is to teach students to:
Approach others to initiate communication
Which one of the following statements regarding common behavior problems presented in primary care is true? These behavior problems ...
Are generally responsive to prescriptive behavioral treatments
The "rule of thirds" was discussed in terms of how many children:
Are likely to be a significant market for behavior analysis services
All of the following are arguments in favor of use of praise/social reinforcer, except that they
Are likely to take more time to deliver
Which of the following statements is true regarding time delays as a variable in the effectiveness of reinforcement? Time delays....
Are most likely to decrease the value of a reinforcer
To identify the median score on a distribution with an odd number of scores,
Arrange scores in ascending order, and find the score with an equal number of scores above it and below it.
Martin engaged in skin picking throughout the day. Owen, the BCBA on the case, put Martin's skin picking on extinction. Martin then began to engage in skin scratching, nail biting, and even scraping his skin on sharp objects. Owen had never previously observed these responses. The emergence of Martin's scratching, biting, and scraping is most likely due to which extinction effect?
Response variation
The delivery of stimuli known to be reinforcers in other contexts, strictly based on the passage of time, describes a(n) ___ schedule:
Response-independent
During a selection-based preference assessment, Shelia presents Dylan with an array of 10 objects. When he chooses one, she allows him to manipulate it for a short time, and then removes it from the table. He now may choose from an array of 9 objects. This process continues until he makes a choice between the final two objects. Shelia keeps track of the order in which the objects are chosen. Which of the following statements is true?
As an MSWO, this will provide a reasonably sensitive preference hierarchy, with less effort for Shelia than a paired choice procedure
Which of the following is the first step in transitioning to a pay-for-performance system?
Assess current management practices
Trials-to-criterion are typically used to:
Assess the efficacy of different teaching strategies
A form of treatment relapse associated with increased exposure to extinction is referred to as:
Resurgence
In regard to variability in data, behavior analysts should expect...
At least some variability in almost every data sets
Vocal verbal stimulus preference assessments are best used with individuals who exhibit skills in the area of
Auditory match-to-sample
Which of the following verbal operants is likely to be most difficult to learn for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autoclitics
In terms of toileting readiness, proprioceptive awareness is otherwise known as:
Awareness of urge to urinate/defecate
RESAA is an acronym for:
Retention, endurance, stability, application, adduction
Corporate socialism refers primarily to the tendency of typical pay structures to:
Reward underperformers and not reward top performers
According to a stimulus preference assessment, Stimulus A and Stimulus B are equally preferred. Stimulus A is provided non-contingently every day for a month. For the same month, Stimulus B is only provided contingent on completing effortful tasks. Subsequently, another preference assessment is conducted. According to results of past studies, what is likely to result?
B will be preferred over A
Cicely is 2 and ½ years old. While playing with her mom in the living room, Cicely grabs a cord connecting a table lamp to the wall outlet, and begins to pull the lamp over. Her mom immediately lifts her up and places her in time-out (a play-pen). When the time-out is over, her mom lifts her out of the play-pen and should place Cicely...where?
Back into the living room in play time, near the lamp she almost pulled over
Rob is hired to work with Jon, a non-verbal child with developmental disabilities. Rob asks Jon's mother to hold a small pretzel in front of Jon. When Jon reaches for the pretzel, Rob prompts Jon to get a picture, reach towards his mother, and release the picture to gain access to the pretzel. On subsequent trials, Rob only prompts Jon to get the picture and reach towards his mother. Soon after, he only prompts Jon to get the picture. Jon begins to follow these steps independently by the end of the session. Rob is using ___ to teach Jon to __
Backward chaining; Initiate communication
Functional activities, powerful reinforcers, functional communication, and contextually inappropriate behaviors are all considered to be _______ elements of the pyramid approach to education.
Base
According to Skinner, an autoclitic is behavior which is
Based upon or depends upon other verbal behavior
Which of the following is not a traditional alternative compensation strategy (as compared to pay-for-performance)
Batering
According to Dr. Friman's lecture, after a time-out period for a toddler is over, the toddler should:
Be presented with the opportunity to engage in "dangerous" behavior once again, because repetition is important for learning to occur
Classroom teacher Mr. James was not able to provide each of his students reinforcement after every 5th correctly spelled word (as had been suggested by a BCBA), because he could not keep track of every student's completion of every spelling word. What might Mr. James do to maintain his students "correct spelling of words" behavior in class?
Begin with an FR schedule, then switch to an FI schedule
Josh has 20-minutes for practicing his SAFMEDS, but Anita only tracks data on the last 5-minutes of the session. 20-minutes would represent the:
Behavior floor
The amount of time in which a behavior can occur would be indicated on the SCC by the:
Behavior floor
Dr. Friman refers to the core of behavior analysis - that is, the thing we hold as our organizing principle, and which we must keep relevant in all interactions, regardless of the language we use to disseminate our knowledge based on that core principle. That core is as follows:
Behavior is a function of its circumstances
Parents who are experiencing behavior problems with their children may not choose to obtain services from mental health providers for all of the following reasons, except:
Behavior services have only proven effective for children with below average IQ scores.
Operants may be accurately defined as:
Behaviors that are defined by their impact upon the environment
Where is a frequency of "zero" plotted on the Standard Celeration Chart?
Below the Counting Time Floor
The first employees to switch from base pay to pay-for-performance should be the
Best performers
Which of the following statements are true regarding determinants of stimulus value as related to reinforcement?
Better quality items may function as more potent reinforcers
According to a stimulus preference assessment, Jenn shows equal preference for access to puzzles and access to blocks. Access to puzzles is provided non-contingently every day for a month. For the same month, access to blocks is only provided contingent on completing effortful tasks. Subsequently, another preference assessment is conducted with Jenn. According to results of past studies, what is likely to result?
Blocks are preferred over puzzles
To transition to a pay for performance system, the following are required: X = Managers well-versed in pay for performance Y = A formal transition plan
Both X and Y
What might you conclude from the following scorecard? X = This employee may not be performing well Y = This scorecard may not have been developed correctly
Both X and Y
Which is an essential property of behavior? X= Count Y= Intrinsic Z= Time
Both X and Y
Specific motivating operations can have which of the following effects? X = Evocative Y = Discriminative Z = Reinforcer establishing
Both X and Z
Functional mastery consists of responding:
Both accurately and quickly
Celeration values of X2, or greater, have been shown to be:
Both clinically and statistically significant
When developing organizational goals, they should include:
Both long and short term goals
The way data appear on a chart can be manipulated by changing:
Both the X-axis and the Y-axis
Which of the following statements is true regarding the use of verbal or pictorial stimulus preference assessments?
Both types (verbal and pictorial assessments) should only be used with individuals who have demonstrated high levels of discrimination skills
Cumulative records can be used:
Both within and between sessions
Phase IV of PECS training is known as
Building sentences
Which of the following is a use for archival data?
Rule-out ineffective treatments
Which of the following statements is true regarding stimulus preference assessments (SPAs)?
SPAs are typically conducted under low effort requirements, and evoke simplistic responses
Which of the following is not generally considered an organizational target?
Safety violations
When the mean values we compute for a set of samples do not match the actual mean value for the entire population, we call this a
Sampling error
Frequent reinforcement during shaping can result in
Satiation-based reduction in responding
Which of the following is an example of operant extinction
Satoru smiles at Cain but Cain never smiles back, so he stops smiling at Cain
Which of the following is NOT true of phase 5 of PECS training?
Self-initiated mands no longer need to be encouraged during this phase
Which of the following is NOT true of ratio data?
Can be sorted into named categories without numerical values
Measurement of multiple dimensions of a single target behavior ...
Can demonstrate important changes in a target behavior that may not be revealed by measuring a single dimension
Studies examining the efficacy of teacher reports (i.e., Cote et al., 2007) have generally found that indirect teacher assessments
Can sometimes identify certain high preference stimuli, but not as consistently or accurately as systematic preference assessment methods
Each of the following may account for certain examples in the literature of apparent lessened intrinsic motivation when extrinsic rewards are utilized, except:
Carry-over effects (continuity of rates across phase changes)
Multielement designs may be more prone than other designs to which of the following?
Carryover/alternation effects
The fact that behavior changes exponentially is the reason ___ is so important as a measure of behavior.
Celeration
What is used as an index of learning on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC)?
Celeration slope
Which of the following has been most closely correlated with changes in reinforcer value?
Changes in assessed preferences
Research has shown that changes in preferences are most highly correlated with:
Changes in the value of items as reinforcers
Which experimental design is most likely to help avoid ratio strain?
Changing criterion
Which of the following procedures can be effectively used to promote independent responding?
Changing reinforcement schedules and using different quality of reinforcers
Which of these is not part of the steps to complete a daily record?
Chart the percent correct at the intersection
Dr. Friman describes parents as being, "on their own" when dealing with even the most common childhood behavioral problems. He cites all of the following reasons for this lack of support for parents, except:
Childhood behavior problems are not generally understood by any professionals
Which of these satisfies the requirements of Phase IIIA of PECS training? Mike loves salty items, but dislikes sweets. Liana should present Mike with a picture of potato chips and a picture of
Chocolate
A particular reinforcer is exclusively available within an experimental context. This statement describes a(n):
Closed economy
Cashews (a type of nut) are highly preferred by Lily. Lily is only allowed to earn and consume cashews during experimental sessions. Cashews are not available to Lily at any other time. In behavioral economics this describes a:
Closed economy
There is greater defense of consumption (less elasticity of demand) under which type of economy
Closed economy
Which type of economy shows a greater defense of consumption (i.e., a less elastic demand)?
Closed economy
Which of the following is not a role of management when a pay for performance system is in-place:
Closely monitor employee performance
The goal of Phase VI is to have the learner engage in
Commenting
The most common objections to a pay for performance programs include all of the following except:
Company management should never use monetary incentives
Which of the following is a good example of including a behavioral dimension as part of a response definition?
Compliance: Following a directive from a teacher within 30 seconds of the verbal instruction
Functional relations between skills are referred to as:
Component/composite relations
Skinner's book, Verbal Behavior, may accurately be described as containing
Conceptual analysis but no research or teaching techniques
Which of the following statements is true regarding the likelihood for a BCBA to conduct a preference assessment, according to the survey conducted by Graff and Karsten (2012)? BCBAs are most likely to
Conduct full preference assessments less than once a month, but mini preference assessments far more often
Juan is collecting data for his client Jesse. Jesse engages in spitting (which occurs an average of 40 times per day) and scratching (which occurs only once or twice a day). Juan is deciding if he should graph the target on one graph. Juan should...
Consider graphing on a single graph with two differently scaled Y-axes
Which of the following techniques may be used to promote the rapid acquisition of independent responding? Prompted responses are...
Consistently provided with less reinforcement than unprompted, independent responses
Each of the following is very likely an effect of a specific reinforcement history, except:
Contingency-shaped behavior that exhibits an extinction-burst
In a preference assessment study, Kuhn et.al (2006) compared (1) allowing an individual to indicate their preference between two verbally described items or activities without obtaining the item, versus (2) providing that individual with the actual tangible item or activity contingent upon that individual selecting that item. What differential effect does providing the actual item following its selection have on the resulting preference hierarchy as a predictor of how various items will function as reinforcers
Contingent delivery of selected items leads to the identification of stimuli more likely to function as reinforcers
In contingent pairing procedures, which are used to establish social reinforcers, _______.
Contingent on task completion, primary reinforcers and attention are simultaneously provided
"PREE" refers to a phenomenon where response reduction typically happens more quickly after ______ reinforcement rather than ______ reinforcement.
Continuous, intermittent
Which of the following variables was identified by Dr. Friman as determining the direction of behavior change?
Contrast of the experience
Management by exception refers, in part, to
Controlling performance primarily through negative reinforcement contingencies
Before teaching the use of attributes in making requests, it is MOST important that the student
Correctly discriminates the attribute
Two essential properties of behavior are
Count and time
One divided by the number of minutes spent recording indicates where to chart the:
Counting Time Floor
The term, __________, refers to the small rectangular mark on a horizontal line on a Daily SCC which indicates the length of the period during which the behavior was measured (as indicated by the value of that horizontal line indicated on the right hand vertical axis):
Counting time floor
The number one cause of child abuse, as indicated by Dr. Friman's lecture, is the child engaging in
Crying as an infant
The Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) is a direct descendant of the:
Cumulative record
This is a data display that is produced from automated, continuous, on-going recording:
Cumulative record
Experimenters study the effects of reinforcement history by looking at how past experience with different reinforcement schedules can impact the _____ responding of various experimental subjects.
Current
Which of the following is not a sub-specialty of OBM
Curriculum design
When one phase follow another, such that the observed effects in latter phases cannot be separated from history with previous phases, this is referred to as:
Sequential confounding
All of the following are variations of the Standard Celeration Chart, except:
Session SCC
Differential reinforcement in which a response is reinforced only if it occurs within a pre-specified period of time since a previous response
DRH
All of the following illustrate different types of differential reinforcement schedules, except:
DRJ
Operant extinction is a component of which of the following procedures?
DRO
What is a potential problem with equal-interval line graphs?
Data displays are partially a function of the construction of the chart
On the DAILY chart, thin vertical lines indicate:
Days
Satiation has the following effects: It momentarily ___ the reinforcer effectiveness of a stimulus and ___ the frequency of behavior that produced the stimulus as a consequence
Decreases, decreases
Which is not a characteristic of natural sciences?
Deductive approach
Which of the following is true regarding treatment integrity? Errors of commission are:
Defined as occurring when a treatment component is inappropriately applied
When a reinforcer follows a response, its effect depends on its relation not only to that specific response, but also to other responses preceding it. This spread of the effect of the consequence to other prior responses illustrates the effect of:
Delay contingencies
A study conducted by DeLeon et al. (2001) indicated that conducting frequent preference assessments is most necessary when an individual:
Demonstrates unstable preferences
Descriptive statistics may be used for interpretation or _____ of samples
Description
The goal in Phase III-A of PECS training is for the learner to discriminate between pictures of
Desired items and undesired items
What is the correct sequence of action for a behavior analyst when using trials-to-criterion?
Determine a trial; decide how to report; record count; present data
The first step in conducting trials-to-criterion is:
Determine what one trail will be
The durability of history effects varies significantly across various studies. This is most likely a result of:
Differences in experimental procedures or extra-experimental histories
Without having access to behavioral pediatrics to provide some guidance, parents are most likely to try to reduce the "behavior problems" of their young children by using one or more of the following tactics, except for the use of...
Differential reinforcement, to shape good behavior
While this category of preference assessment is most accurate, it is also typically the most time-consuming method.
Direct assessment
The quality of experience (i.e., the feeling one gets after doing something) determines the:
Direction of learning
When teaching attributes, we teach where to place the picture, and also teach:
Discrimination between variations of specific attributes.
Oliver's teacher gives him a half a biscuit each time he correctly identifies 5 pictures. He eats the piece of biscuit as soon as he earns it. This is an example of
Distributed reinforcement
When an individual consumes the reinforcer immediately after completing each schedule requirement, this is known as
Distributed reinforcement
A no chance day is when behavior:
Does not have the opportunity to occur
An increase in duration on a Standard Celeration Chart would be indicated by a pattern of slashes moving:
Down the vertical axis
In this method of preference assessment, items are presented to the individual either together or individually, and the amount of time spent engaged with each item is recorded.
Duration-based assessment
When an individual has difficulty scanning an array, and often picks up whatever is put in front of them, a preference hierarchy can be still developed by using a _______ preference assessment.
Duration-based single-stimulus
To promote spontaneity during PECS training, the teacher should ask the question, "What do you want?" _______________.
During some trials, balanced by many unprompted manding trials during phase 5 and on
The Counting Time Floor is charted by dividing 1 by the number of minutes:
During which a behavior is recorded
Which of the following is the best use of discrete categorization?
Severity rating of episodes of self-injury
Response variation forms the basis for:
Shaping new behavior
Which of the following is a difference between operant and respondent extinction?
Each distinct type works on different types of responses
Whether or not a particular reinforcer is appropriate, and not disruptive to ongoing behavior in a particular environment, is directly related to the...
Ecological fit of a reinforcer
What does Dr. Friman discuss as an "intrinsic" aspect of behavior that might affect the likelihood of littering?
Effort involved in the response
Inductive research designs can use _____ data
Either quantitative or qualitative
When an individual persists in exhibiting position biases during a direct preference assessment, a behavior analyst might effectively complete a preference assessment by using __________
Either single-stimulus approach-based procedures, or duration based procedures, but not a paired-choice procedures
Allen is obtaining attention on an FR5 schedule for appropriate behavior. When the schedule requirement is increased to an FR7 schedule, Allen stops engaging in appropriate behavior. In behavioral economics, Allen's sensitivity to the "price" of attention can be described as:
Elastic demand
"Sensitivity to price", or the extent to which changes in the price of a commodity influence consumption of that commodity, refers to
Elasticity of demands
Adduction refers to:
Emergence of new repertoires
Which of the following is considered a primary response-generative effect of extinction?
Emotional outbursts
A pay for performance system equitably aligns both:
Employee and organizational performance
All of the following are accurate statements of problems associated with the common practice of paying for time, except one. Which one is NOT a problem with paying for time?
Employees almost never prefer a pay for time-based pay structure
All of the following are positive impacts on management after transition to a pay-for-performance system , except:
Employees are more likely to rise to management positions
The "response-generative" effects of extinction are also known as the ____ effects of extinction.
Side
In Skinner's analysis of language, the term, social reinforcement is sometimes referred to as education. Skinner's uses the term education in this way based on his analysis that the verbal community:
Enlists new members by teaching correct verbal responses
In a pay for performance system the main job of a manager is to:
Ensure that employees can engage in work effectively
The y-axis (vertical axis) on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) uses a ___ scale.
Equal-ratio (logarithmic
According to Dr. Friman, which of the following is one of the most effective procedures in behavior analysis for dealing with bedtime resistance?
Escape Extinction
The most empirically supported treatment in all of mainstream clinical psychology according to Dr. Friman, is known as "exposure and response prevention", and is actually a repackaged form of the behavior analytic procedure known as
Escape extinction
Response-generative effects are typically known as ______ of extinction.
Side effect
Phase IIIA of PECS training focuses on:
Simple Discrimination
Z-scores may only be calculated if:
Every value is known for the entire population
When a pay-for-performance system is in place, managers are not generally expected to:
Examine worker clock in-and-out times closely
According to Dr. St. Peter, multiple baseline designs may be desirable clinically, but can have problems in:
Experimental control
The SCC is better at capturing human behavior, because changes in rates of human behavior are typically:
Exponential
Escape Extinction is a behavior analytic synonym for a treatment in clinical psychology which is widely known as:
Exposure and Response Prevention
Weiner demonstrated which of the following reinforcement history effects on responding during FI schedules?
Exposure to FR schedules before FI dramatically affected FI performance
Stu hits and screams when his mother asks him to clean up his toys. Sarah, a BCBA, implements a treatment procedure to eliminate this problem behavior. When treatment is implemented following baseline, Stu's hitting/screaming immediately reduces to zero instances. Stu never once engaged in a hitting/screaming response in the treatment condition. Therefore, this immediate response reduction is LEAST likely due to:
Extinction
When Billy whispers to his Dad in the library, Dad does not answer him. Billy then begins to speak louder and louder until his Dad answers him and tells him to keep his voice down. The increase in Billy's volume may be best explained as an effect related to which of the following behavioral processes?
Extinction
A previous history of reinforcement is necessary in order to utilize a(n):
Extinction schedule
Which treatment procedure is most likely to produce a potential reduction in extinction bursts?
Extinction with reinforcement
Which of the following behaviors is most likely respondent behavior elicited by the initiation of extinction procedures?
Extinction-induced aggression
Which of the following is a key reason why non-human animals, rather than human beings, are often used to study the effects reinforcement history?
Extra-experimental variables with non-human animals can be more easily controlled
Using a physically restrictive emergency procedure would be inappropriate when an individual is repeatedly engaging in which of the following target behaviors?
Extremely loud screaming
What term is used to refer to the type of reward that is arbitrarily related to the responses that produce it?
Extrinsic reward
Each of the following is a characteristic of a fixed Interval schedule that makes it particularly sensitive to the effects of reinforcement history, except:
FI schedules result in a steady, moderate response pattern that is easily altered
All of the following are advantages of PECS, except:
Facilitates the emergence of listener behavior
According to data from Friman (1999), when the bedtime pass is implemented to reduce bedtime resistance, the use of escape extinction, in conjunction with the bedtime pass, results in extinction bursts being _____.
Far less likely to occur
Dr. Friman uses the word, "contrast" to refer to a change in the child's experience, which he loosely calls __________.
Feeling
What is often the first step in completing a daily record on the SCC?
Finding the Counting Time Floor
In the 4-step error correction procedure, step 3 is "Switch", which means switching the
Focus: have the child do something else
When comparing food and leisure items, which of the two tend to show greater stability over time?
Food
Preferences for ________ have been demonstrated as more likely to be stable over time.
Food items
If problem behavior is maintained by access to tangible reinforcers, which SPA would be most appropriate and least likely to evoke problem behavior?
Free operant
If problem behavior is strictly maintained by access to attention, which stimulus preference assessment technique would be least appropriate (most likely to evoke problem behavior)?
Free operant
Rate of responding is the most sensitive measure of __ behavior
Free operant
This type of responding can be emitted at any time:
Free operant
Wendy is collecting data on short duration, but high intensity, aggression of a client. Provided there are adequate data collectors, which of the following would be the best data collection system?
Frequency recording
The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is based on a ___ analysis of language.
Functional
Which of the following is not linked to over-interpretation in practice in children's mental health services?
Functional analysis
When a group of employees successfully reduce costs over the previous year, and the savings are split amongst the employees as a form of pay incentive, this practice is known as ____ sharing.
Gain
Emergency procedures are:
Generally not considered part of a behavior treatment plan
When the learner gives the non-preferred or neutral item to the instructor during simple discrimination training, the simplest correct teacher response is to:
Give the non-preferred item to the student
While pay-for-performance procedures are highly recommended, alternative strategies are often used instead. The alternative to pay-for performance (from the list below) which is most likely to be effective at producing positive organizational outcomes and improved employee performance is :
Goal sharing
The implementation of extinction procedures typically produces a(n) ______ reduction in responding.
Gradual
Which of the following is described as a way to plan for extinction bursts?
Gradually thin the reinforcement schedule
Marcia's behavior program for Andre targets 3 behaviors for reduction: self-injury, elopement, and tantrums. Currently Andre engages in each of these behaviors no more than a few times per week. Marcia is considering using a single graph to display data for all three behaviors. She should...
Graph the targets on one graph with a single Y-axis
Results from Clement, et al. (2000) indicated pigeons showed a strong preference for whichever stimulus, which in training had required ____ effort to obtain.
Greater
When using large pictures vs. small pictures for PECS discrimination training, one must
Have a range of sizes for the pictures, in order to fade to the actual sizes that will be used.
One reason why it is important to discuss sleep with parents is that many parents
Have no real information regarding how much sleep children need
Stimulus preference assessments typically utilize
Simplistic responses
The preference assessment requiring the individual to be fluent in the least number of pre-requisite skills, and thus the one most likely to be used with individuals with severe functional deficits is the __________ assessment.
Single stimulus
Which preference assessment procedure is most appropriate if an individual's motor skills are intact, but the individual cannot visually scan an array of stimuli?
Single stimulus
In the studies comparing differing methods of assessment, which of the following common methods used in stimulus preference assessments has been most reliable in predicting stimuli that actually function as reinforcers?
Single-stimulus or choice-based preference assessments
The SCC has ___ counting cycles.
Six
When task materials and relevant instructions do not occasion predetermined levels of performance in the absence of prompts, and supplementary reinforcement has no effect on increasing that individual's level of performance, this is called a ___ deficit:
Skill
Dr. Friman states that for the most part, behavioral pediatrics should focus on common behavioral problems. Which of the following general areas of concern would be the most likely focus of an intervention related to behavioral pediatrics?
Sleeping
Which is true regarding learning?
Small changes in a child's experience, each time the target behavior happens, necessitate more repetitions than when large changes occur
Which of the following is a possible solution when a response-reinforcer contingency was arranged but was never contacted by the individual due to the response being too difficult to complete accurately?
Smaller, less stringent steps may be needed to shape the response and bring the behavior into contact with the contingency
In referring to consequential operations related to language, Skinner sometimes uses the term "education" to represent
Social reinforcement
When teaching commenting, the PECS teacher should provide _________, contingent on a student making a correct comment (usually regarding a stimulus).
Social reinforcement (such as praise)other than access to the item itself
Which of the following is the best intervention when parents are having difficulty dealing with the crying episodes of their newborn daughter?
Health education
The Pareto Principle may be important to behavior analysts in that it can:
Help identify how to effectively allocate clinical resources
Which of the following constitutes an impure mand?
Henry signs, "cookie" to ask for a cookie he sees on a plate
Descriptive statistics in single-case ABA designs can
Hide trends in data Be used to summarize data for program evaluation All the listed answers are correct Complement visual analysis
Common behavior problems exhibited in primary care are ___-frequency and ___-intensity.
High, low
Studies on quality of reinforcement equate "higher quality" with which of the following?
Higher preference
In the study conducted by DeLeon et al. (in press) on token reinforcers, how did the rates of responding compare between the accumulated reinforcement condition and the distributed reinforcement condition?
Higher rates during accumulated reinforcement
In general, the thinner the schedule of reinforcement, the ___ needs to be to maintain responding.
Higher the magnitude of reinforcement
A "break point" refers to the _______ before responding ceases for a set amount of time (the session-termination criterion).
Highest schedule requirement (thinnest reinforcement schedule) completed
The range is typically calculated as the (highest value in a data set) minus (the lowest value in that set) (i.e., High - Low = Range). However, Dr Sigurdsson presented another way to derive the range for the purposes of some statistical calculations. What is the formula for this second method, which was the focus Dr. Sigurdsson's discussion on range in the lecture?
Highest value) MINUS (the lowest value) PLUS 1 High - low + 1 = Range
What is not a good strategy for changing employee behavior:
Hire only good employees
In using statistical process control (SPC) we would want to intervene if _____ is identified
Special cause variation
Variability essentially measures how the scores are _____ in terms of one another.
Spread out
The Standard Celeration Fan depicts ___ slopes.
Standard
What depicts standard celeration slopes on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC)?
Standard Celeration Fan
In most sets of data, the best statistical measure of variability is the _______
Standard deviation
Many researchers, including Carr et al (1996), argue that behavior analysts should always consider reporting the ____ of IOA scores in published research.
Standard deviation
All of the following are elements of the pyramid approach to education, except:
Standard measurement and celeration
Calibrating a start date on the SCC allows for all of the following, except:
Standardization of the Counting Time Floors
Carl suffered a traumatic brain injury in an accident, and soon began to demonstrate severe aggression. His parents inadvertently reinforced his assaultive behavior, resulting in an increase in both its rate and intensity. He was placed in a temporary residential facility with intensive behavioral services, and Carl's assaults decreased significantly. After his parents were trained in the behavior program procedures, Carl was eventually sent home. In spite of his parents accurately and consistently following the program procedures, Carl's assaultive behavior immediately returned after he got home. Which of the following rationales most likely explains this return Carl's assaultive behavior?
Stimulus conditions at home were correlated with a past DRH schedule
After conducting a stimulus preference assessment, one should still conduct a reinforcer assessment because
Stimulus preference assessments provide only a prediction of the efficacy of stimuli as reinforcers
The broadly outlined two-step process for clearly identifying reinforcers involves conducting:
Stimulus preference assessments, followed by direct reinforcer assessments
Which term correctly describes procedures in which a different reinforcer is selected and delivered by the therapist each time a schedule requirement is met?
Stimulus variation
All of the following alternatives to pay for performance are most likely non-contingent and inequitable, except:
Stock options No exceptions; all of these tend to be non-contingent and inequitable "Merit-based" pay Annual bonuses
An effect size might be thought of as a metric relating to how:
Strong an impact the IV had on the DV
Demand for a specific reinforcer is more likely to show greater elasticity when the potential available alternative reinforcers are ...
Substitutable, by sharing key functional characteristics
On the DAILY chart, thick vertical lines represent
Sundays
Thick vertical lines on the Daily Standard Celeration Chart represent:
Sundays
When we teach caregivers how to use effective parenting strategies, how learning occurs, the importance of sleep, etc., we are using the behavioral pediatrics intervention known as:
Supportive health education
Interventions in behavioral pediatrics generally fall into which of the two following categories?
Supportive health education and prescriptive treatment
The two types of intervention in behavioral pediatrics involve which of the following?
Supportive health education, and prescriptive treatment
To assess the differences between two, and only two sample groups (while only one independent variable is being tested), which of the following statistical tools would be the most appropriate to use?
T test
Which of the following is not an example of a type of descriptive data?
T test
Which of the following steps in transitioning to a PFP system is likely to come the latest (compared to the other steps listed)
Teach management how to improve the measures
Which of the following is not a likely organizational target:
Team sheet accuracy
Which of the following is an advantage of an open system (versus a closed system)?
Tends to promote continuous improvements
An interval schedule of reinforcement specifies an interval of time
That needs to elapse before the next target response is reinforced
When a reinforcer follows a response, its future effect relates to:
That target response, and possibly some other responses which precede the target response (typically in close temporal contiguity)
As the number of samples increases, the distribution of those samples gets closer to a normal distribution." This statement describes:
The Central Limit Theorem
Using SPC to monitor data over time is especially important when:
The analyst provides services to the same individuals over a long period of time
The term, "effectiveness of a reinforcer" refers, at least in part, to which of the following?
The capacity of a stimulus to support response(s) that just preceded it
A benefit of using the Standard Celeration Chart is that:
The chart will always look the same, no matter who is using the chart
A threshold score of 0 indicates that:
The company did not make enough profit to share with employees
A great many parents and children would be likely to benefit from ABA services. We can base this assessment on the following assumption: Of those children exhibiting common behavioral problems, only about one third will likely benefit from common parenting tactics, one third will stay the same, and one third will get worse. This assumption is derived from ...
The concept in psychology known as the "rule of thirds"
When would be the best scenario to use the median?
The data set contains at least one significant outlier
When we refer to the ecological fit of reinforcers, we are actually referring, in part, to...
The degree to which a reinforcer works as a natural component of a specific setting
The matching law refers to the robust natural phenomenon wherein an individual allocates response rates across different conditions, which match:
The different schedules of reinforcement in effect in each condition
In competing stimulus preference assessments, the following two measures are recorded:
The duration of stimulus engagement, and rate of problem behavior
Sequential confounding in the reversal experimental design typically occurs when one phase follows another, and:
The effects of the current phase cannot be separated from the history with the previous phase
Many parents often avoid the use of escape extinction because
The extinction bursts can be very difficult to manage
Which of the following reinforcement schedules has been most commonly used in studies on reinforcement history?
The fixed-interval schedule
Dr. Friman uses the term "Gerber babies" in reference to:
The idealized version of a child as perpetually well behaved and without problems
What did Dr. Friman describe as "Gerber babies"?
The idealized version of a child as perpetually well behaved and without problems
When engaging in hypothesis testing, the "alternative hypothesis" states that:
The independent variable is predicted to have an effect on the dependent variable
According to Cohen-Almeida, Graff, and Ahearn (2000), the effective use of verbal preference assessments depends on:
The individual's language abilities
Roscoe, Iwata, & Kahng (1999) compared rates of responding when consequated by high-preference and low-preference stimuli in concurrent schedules. They then assessed low-preference stimuli alone, in single-operant schedules. They found that...
The low-preference stimuli produced low rates under the concurrent schedule, but often produced high rates during the single-operant schedule
Which of the following is an example of a median?
The middle value in a set of test scores
The smaller the difference between the Counting Time Floor and the Behavior Floor:
The more representative the measurement
In selection-based preference assessments, preference hierarchies are created based on percentages. Higher percentages indicate stronger preferences. For some forms of preference assessment, hierarchies are created by dividing:
The number of times an item was approached, by the number of times that item was available
Programmed delivery of "reinforcement" can result in a decrease in responding when a contingency is arranged where:
The participant prefers a task more than the stimulus identified by assessment as highly preferred
What is the best explanation for why you probably don't need pay for performance interventions if you own your own business?
The personal and business contingencies are naturally aligned
Charlotte's yelling at the grocery store appeared to be maintained by receiving candy. The BCaBA instructs mom to no longer provide candy when Charlotte yells. Charlotte continues to yell for four more weeks with a gradual reduction in duration of this behavior. The gradual reduction in duration of yelling represents ______ of extinction.
The process
What is a potential reason why "reinforcement doesn't work"?
The reinforcer followed the wrong response
All of the following are considered to be procedural mismatches between a target response and its consequence (outcome), and thus may prevent that consequential stimulus from functioning as a reinforcer, EXCEPT:
The response-reinforcer contingency was arranged, but was contacted too frequently
When charting data, it is important to keep all the session lengths:
The same, as much as possible, to avoid misleading data paths
When using descriptive statistics, a behavior analyst must ensure that:
The sample is large enough to make any measurement meaningful
Communicating via PECS typically requires the speaker to do all of the following except:
The speaker must do all of these responses in PECS
In the Lerman et al. (1997) study, the reinforcer selected by the experimenter was yoked to:
The specific order and magnitude of reinforcers chosen by the learner in a previous condition
An effect size is:
The strength of a phenomenon
The term, stimulus variation refers to
The teacher rotating delivery of reinforcers following target responses
During Phase 6 of PECS training, one goal is for the learner to discriminate between the teacher's question, "What do you see?" and
The teacher's question, "What do you want?"
An example of continuous measurement would be when a behavior analyst records...
The time between the end of one response and the beginning of the next
The Counting Time Floor is:
The time spent recording the behavior
Variability is typically assessed in relation to:
The trend
What is Dr. Bondy's critique of categorizing verbal behavior as either topography-based or selection-based?
The verbal behavioral analysis of the response unit does not require the distinction
Reporting a median over a mean is best when:
There are extreme values in a data set
A researcher reports that there is a significant difference between two treatments at the .05 level of significance. This means that __________.
There is a 5% probability (or less) that the difference occurred simply by chance without any treatment effect
In several studies, Weiner (1962, 1964, 1965, 1969) demonstrated that when an organism is exposed to an FR schedule, versus a DRL schedule, prior to exposure to an FI schedule:
There is a clear differential effect between schedules in the FI condition
What is a potential reason why "reinforcement" may not "work"?
There is some kind of mismatch between the target response and the programmed consequence, which thus fails to function as a reinforcer
A key concern relating to piece rate - based pay is that:
There must be a demand for the product that matches production
Dr. Bondy discussed the Schreibman and Stahmer (2013) study, comparing test subject acquisition of words when using Pivotal Response Training versus words acquired using PECS. Their results indicated that:
There was no significant difference between the two groups in the number of words acquired
How are the days of the week represented on the Daily Standard Celeration Chart (SCC)?
Thin vertical lines
An ANOVA is typically used to examine the difference in or between:
Three or more groups of participants
The y-axis on the right of the Standard Celeration Chart is used to depict:
Time periods
If an individual prefers an activity or task more than the toy that is presented as a presumed reinforcer for completing that task, the contingent access to that toy may function as a form of:
Time-out from the preferred activity
In his study, Lovaas used IQ as a main dependent variable. What is the likely answer for why he selected this DV?
To increase acceptance among non-behavior analytic researchers
Jayne is teaching her sister Mary to request preferred items and activities. Using PECS to teach her sister, Jayne uses a 3 step sequence, as follows: (1) Pick-up a PEC card, (2) reach towards a communication partner, and (3) release the picture. She uses one picture at a time to establish each of the early responses in Mary's repertoire, and fades her prompt from step 3, then step 2 and finally from step 1. Jayne is teaching her sister:
To initiate communication
Dr. Friman described sleep deprivation as a possible causal factor related to all of the following except:
Toilet readiness
Which of the following statements is false regarding performance-based promotions
Top performers are almost always great managers, since they know the job so well
George & Hopkins (1989)demonstrated that when the waitpersons' hourly pay was replaced by a form of pay-for-performance:
Total money earned increased
Which of the following would be considered an intervention in OBM rather than a specific sub-specialty of OBM?
Training and instruction
Recent history effects in experimental design may define:
Transition states
What is a common problem with data review and analysis, when it is done through reporting only the mean (or the median) in a set of data? It is illustrated by the graph below, in which the means are exactly the same for each separate data path (as are both medians).
Trends get ignored when only the mean or median values are used to describe a set of data
The cumulative record is:
Typically produced from automated, continuous recording
Which of the following is a key problem associated with survey data
Typically the truthfulness of responses can not be accurately assessed
Which of the following is not one of the domains of care in behavioral pediatrics in primary care?
Uncommon/strange behavior problems
Three-year old Jimmy sucks his thumb excessively, and so his parents take him in to see a childhood specialist. He comes out of the specialist's office still exhibiting a thumb-sucking behavioral excess, but also now has a newly identified diagnosis of "self-stimulatory syndrome". His parents are told that this internal disorder must first be resolved before Jimmy will stop sucking his thumb excessively. This would exemplify the concept Dr. Friman referred to as:
Underlying problem syndrome
Studies cited in this unit demonstrated that the partial reinforcement extinction effect is:
Unpredictable and potentially influenced by a variety of variables
A decrease in duration on a Standard Celeration Chart would be indicated by a pattern of slashes moving:
Up the vertical axis
What is a key technique to use when teaching caregivers about behavior change procedures?
Use every day language to describe and discuss behavioral procedures
Which of the following statements is true regarding the use of PECS?
Use of PECS may have a secondary effect of helping to reduce problem behavior
What is the goal of the pyramid approach to education as described by Dr. Bondy?
Use the methods of science to develop effective educational strategies
O. I. Lovaas conducted certain studies that were unique in behavior analysis because he:
Used a statistical design, leading to publication in a mainstream psychology journal
Prerequisites for toileting readiness for a toddler include most or all of the following skills, except
Uses toilet paper independently
When teaching attributes, it is important to
Vary the attributes as we teach
The Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) is also called a Six-Cycle Chart, because its ___ contains six cycles.
Vertical axis
Variability is typically assessed in behavior analysis via:
Visual analysis
Operant extinction is, in part, defined by:
Voluntary responses and broken contingencies
Which of the following is an example of an inelastic demand curve? When the price of
Water increases by 50%, consumption is not affected
An example of discontinuous measurement would be the recording of
Whether or not Bryn is playing appropriately when a timer goes off
During most of his school day, Michael engages in nearly continuous hand wringing (i.e., rubbing his hands together hard enough to cause skin irritation and sometimes minor abrasions). He takes brief breaks for such activities as prompted work, hygiene activities, and eating. He is in a class with one teacher and 2 other students. Of the following choices, which would be the best type of discontinuous data for the teacher to collect to obtain a baseline on Michael's handwringing?
Whole interval recording
When a student is taught to mand primarily under the control of such questions as "what do you want" or "pick something you would like", which of the following is a potential problem? The student...
Will be less likely to learn to initiate language over time
When a learner selects a reinforcer from a small array each time the schedule requirement is met this describes:
Within- session choice
The main reason to avoid using SPC techniques for evaluating most baselines is that performing an SPC analysis...
Would require an extended baseline condition
The probability for any event ranges from X to Y .
X = 0 Y = 1
Dr. Friman referenced Estes and Skinner (1941), who characterized X as "conditioned suppression"; this is directly related to the behavior of a person experiencing a Y .
X = Anxiety Y = phobia
The matching law predicts that organisms will distribute behavior among X available alternatives in same proportion that the Y is distributed among those alternatives.
X = Concurrently Y = Rate of reinforcement
In Dr. Friman's use of common language, the word "loss" would indicate a change in the quality of a(n) X that is considered Y .
X = Consequence Y = negative
When an older child misbehaves, parents often "ground" the child for a specific period of time. This sets up a situation where the child is more likely to engage in problem behavior that has led to X in the past—and as such the "grounding" can actually function as a(n) Y for even more misbehavior.
X = Escape Y = Establishing operation
Teaching attributes occurs after Phase X of PECS training, and is a way to increase the student's Y .
X = IV Y = vocabulary
The extinction component of shaping tends to X response Y .
X = Increase Y = Variability
In general, ABA research is both X and Y .
X = Inductive Y = quantitative
If a data set has one or two significant outliers, a behavior analyst may choose to report the X rather than the Y .
X = Median Y = Mean
As demonstrated by DeLeon (2001), when several preference assessments are conducted over time, the stimuli most often selected on the X preference assessments tend to be the stimuli which are Y likely to function as reinforcers.
X = Most recent Y = most
"Defense of consumption" is greater for X , and is greater when the demand is Y .
X = Necessities Y = Inelastic
Textbook case bias is an example of X in practice, in which the practitioner places emphasis on the Y cases
X = Over-interpretation Y = most extreme
A progressive ratio schedule is a reinforcement schedule in which the ratio requirements increase following each X . Sessions continue until the participant ceases to respond for a(n) Y that meets a pre-determined criterion.
X = Reinforcer delivery Y = amount of time
After conducting a study demonstrating a clear treatment effect, a researcher would state that her data led her to X , and Y .
X = Reject the null hypothesis Y = accept the alternative hypothesis
In the lecture, cumulative records were presented as methods used to compare X and evaluate Y .
X = Teaching strategies Y = choice
Berkson's bias may best be conceptualized as follows: Many research studies in therapeutic interventions tend to focus on X individuals, and then use the information derived from those studies to try to extrapolate to Y .
X = The most impaired Y = the general population
When first introducing stakeholder pay, it should be X and offered to Y performers.
X = Voluntary Y = top
Demand is more likely to be elastic when (1) alternative reinforcers are X available, and/or when (2) they Y important functional properties with the current reinforcer in use.
X = concurrently Y = share
Traditional management tends to X undesirable behavior and Y desirable behavior
X = punish Y = ignore
The goal of inferential statistics is to use X data as the basis for answering questions about a Y .
X = sample Y = larger population
Dr. Friman suggests extending applied behavior analysis beyond its already well-documented and highly successful applications in the area(s) of X , and applying the same principles of behavior to Y settings.
X = self-injury reduction and autism Y = pediatrics primary care
A deductive research paradigm is considered to take a X approach; an inductive research paradigm is considered to take a Y approach.
X = top-down Y = bottom-up
Studies regarding the effect of satiation and deprivation on the ranking of stimuli in preference assessments (e.g., Gottschalk, Libby, and Graff (2000)) suggest that differences in stimulus preference ranking X observed when the levels of food Y were manipulated.
X = were Y = satiation and deprivation
What is necessary to teach spontaneous communication with PECS? X = Increase distance to communicative partners and materials Y = Teach discrimination between pictures from the outset Z = Fade-out prompts quickly
X and Z only
Descriptive statistics describe: X = Properties of a data set Y = How a sample data set relates to a larger population
X only
In 1996, the Lerman et al. analysis of PREE utilized: X = Continuous and intermittent baselines Y = A single subject exposed to multiple historical reinforcement schedules
X only
Natural Sciences are characterized by: X= Experimental analysis Y= Inductive approach Z=Standard measurement
X, Y, and Z
Teaching students to communicate with PECS typically requires: X = A communicative partner Y = A physical prompter Z = A reinforcer
X, Y, and Z
Natural sciences are characterized by units of measurement that are: X= Absolute Y= Standard Z= Universal
X,Y, and Z
The value of celeration that has been shown to be both significantly impactful and visually significant is at, or greater than:
X2
Parents do NOT typically seek traditional mental health services to address common behavioral problems in their children for which of the following reasons? X = Lack of research on childhood behavior problems Y = Quality of mental health care has a reputation of being highly variable at best Z = Stigmas are related to receiving mental health care
Y and Z only
The goal of increasing spontaneity and range is to teach students to travel: X = On public transportation Y = To a communicative partner Z = To get a picture from book
Y and Z only
Which statement is TRUE concerning yoking procedures in studies on choice?
Yoking is not perfect, since preferences can change over brief periods of time (e.g., between sessions
Parents are "on their own" to deal with common behavioral issues because: X = Common parenting tactics (employed by society at large) are never effective Y = There are no professionals who provide assistance with childhood problems Z = Childhood behavior problems arise primarily from skill deficits, not pathologies-- so are not covered by insurance
Z only
In almost every process on which we take data, we would expect to find _____ variation.
common cause
What is the most conservative p value which is commonly used in statistical analysis (i.e., the highest bar for a researcher's data to clear to demonstrate significant results)?
p < .01
The null hypothesis _____.
states that the treatment has no effect
In learning, a quantitative change following a behavior may be either large or small. A X change requires Y repetitions in order for learning to occur.
x= large y=few
