Bio 151 exam one Real

Be able to describe the function of melanocytes.

- give skin its color

Know the differences between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands - location, secretion, and control.

1. Apocrine - found in the armpits, around nipples, and in the pubic region Empty into hair follicles Secretions contain water and salts as well as fatty acids and proteins Initially odorless, but it decomposes rapidly Controlled by Hormones - doesn't help with body temperature regulation 2. Eccrine - most common type (Table 5.1) Coiled gland, duct goes up to the surface and opens through a pore Smaller than apocrine glands, but more numerous Sweat is 99% water - also contains salt, antibodies, proteins, and wastes d. Functions: Body temperature Regulation Excretion of Water and electrolytes Protection fromchemicalsand microorganisms

Be able to describe collagen fibers and reticular fibers, including their basic structure and where they're found

1. Collagen fibers - long and straight Protein fibers wrap around each other like a rope Very flexible, yet literally stronger than Steel Tendons - connect muscle to bone Ligaments - connect bone to bone 2. Reticular fibers - (network) Form an intertwining framework Resist forces from many different directions Stabilize blood vessels and nerves within an organ Elastic fibers- canstretchandrecoilto their original length

Be able to describe the 3 main parts of a cell - location and function (i.e. cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, forms the outer wall, separates internal environment from the external environment, regulates flow in and out of the cell, etc.).

1. Cytosol (intracellular fluid) - fluid portion of cytoplasm, Made of mostly of water, Also contains dissolved and suspended components, Site of chemical reactions 2. Organelles - specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions, Provide support, energy, transportation, protein synthesis, and other cell functions. Mitochondria - power plant of the cell, Ribosomes - make proteins 3. Inclusions - chemical substances that vary according to the cell type, Examples include lipid droplets in fat cells, pigment in skin cells, and glycogen (sugar) in the liver and muscles

Know the differences in structure and location between dense regular and irregular connective tissues

1. Dense regular connective tissue - collagen fibers are lined up parallel to each other and are packed tightly together Tendons and ligaments 2. Dense irregular connective tissue - fibers are close together, but aren't arranged in a pattern Forms a sheath around bone and cartilage (periosteum and perichondrium) Makes up capsules that enclose kidneys, liver, and spleen

Be able to describe the structure of a long bone - diaphysis, epiphysis, and the two membranes.

1. Diaphysis - shaft of the bone, Thick layer of compact bone that surrounds the marrow cavity 2. Epiphysis - end of the bone Usually wider than the diaphysis, Made up of spongy (or cancellous) bone, Ends are covered with hyaline cartilage, Epiphyseal plate - growth plate 3. Articular cartilage - hyaline cartilage that covers the end of a bone. Reduces Friction and is a shock absorber 4. Periosteum - dense irregular connective tissue that encloses bone, Contains bone-forming cells, provides protection, assists in repair, provides nourishment, and is an attachment point for tendons and ligaments 5. Medullary (marrow) cavity - space in the middle of the bone - contains yellow marrow in adults, red in children 6. Endosteum - membrane that lines the inside of the medullary cavity

Know the difference between the apical and basal surfaces of epithelium.

1. Exposed surface that faces the exterior of the body or an internal space (inside of the stomach) - called the apical surface 2. Base - attached to tissue underneath - called the basal surface

Be able to list and describe the 6 types of cells found within connective tissue.

1. Fibroblasts - always present a. Secrete proteins that helps hold epithelial cells together and form extracellular fibers 2. Chondroblasts - found in Cartilage 3. Osteoblasts - found in Bone 4. Adipocytes - Fat cells 5. Mast cells - produce Histamine as part of inflammatory response 6. Macrophages - "big eater" - part of the immune system that engulf pathogens and damaged cells

Know where each of the three types of cartilage can be found in the body.

1. Hyaline - most common Collagen fibers aren't visible under the microscope Found at the junction of the ribs and sternum, trachea, ends of bones that form joints 2.Elastic - has a lot of elastic fibers Forms the ear and epiglottis, larynx 3. Fibrocartilage - very little ground substance Found in the discs between the vertebrae, between pubic bones in the pelvis and in the menisci of the knee (pads of cartilage between femur and tibia)

Be able to list and describe the cells of the epidermis (keratinocytes, melanocytes, etc.)

1. Keratinocytes - epithelial cells of epidermis Several layers of cells Produce keratin Protein that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues 2. Melanocyte cells- found in the deepest layer, produce brown/black pigment Melanin Contributes to skin color and absorbs UV light Projections transfer melanin to keratinocytes Melanin granules congregate over the nucleus to protect DNA from UV light 3. Langerhans cells - part of the immune system that responds to invaders that make it through the outer layer of skin 4. Merkel cells - connected to a sensory neuron called a Merkel disc Function together in the sensation oftouch

Be able to describe the four types of cells found in bone including their primary function.

1. Osteogenic cells - stem cells that develop into osteoblasts Found on the inside of the periosteum and endosteum and in canals that contain blood vessels 2. Osteoblasts - immature bone cells Make and secrete collagen fibers and ingredients of matrix Once they become surrounded by matrix, osteoblasts develop into osteocytes 3. Osteocytes - mature bone cells; found inside a lacuna Surrounded by layers of matrix called lamellae (singular is lamella) Receive nutrients from blood through the canaliculi Canaliculi are canals that travel through bone; connect osteocytes to central canal and each other Why is this important? Osteocytes need blood supply system to get rid of waste Functions: Maintain the bone matrix Repair damaged bone 4. Osteoclasts - cells that break down and remove bone Process is osteolysis or resorption Part of normal processes of development, growth, maintenance, and repair of bone Helps to maintain the calcium and phosphate levels in the blood

Know the 5 functions of hair.

1. Protects scalp from UV radiation 2. Cushions blows 3. Insulates the head 4. Traps particles (nose, ears, and eyelashes) 5. Acts as receptors

Be able to describe the skin color irregularities in the notes, including color and cause.

1. Redness (erythema) - indicates embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergies 2. Pallor (Blanching) - emotional stress, anemia, or hypotension 3. Jaundice - liver malfunction, causes skin and eyes to turn yellow 4. Addison's disease - Pituitary gland malfunction, causes bronzing 5. Vitiligo - immune system attacks normal melanocytes a. Causes skin to lighten in patches

Know the functions and locations of the 3 types of muscle, as well as whether each is voluntary or involuntary.

1. Skeletal muscles - cells (or fibers) can be 1 foot or more in length Proteins (actin and myosin) are arranged in a repeating pattern, giving it a striped appearance (striations) Voluntary - under our conscious control Muscle contracts, pulls on bone to produce movement 2. Cardiac muscle - located in the heart Striated Special connections between cells called Intercalated discs - bind cells together and allow ions to move between cells, Involuntary 3. Smooth muscle - located in the walls of blood vessels, hollow organs like the bladder, and respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts Still has actin and myosin, but no striations Involuntary

Be able to describe the three types of intercellular connections found in epithelium (tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes)

1. Tight junction - two cell membranes are held together by interlocking membrane proteins Impermeable - nothing gets through 2. Gap junction - two cells are held together by connexons, Channel proteins, so they allow movement of substances between cells 3. Desmosome - two cells are connected by cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) that form a "zipper"

Know the effect that exercise has on bones.

Ability to remodel allows bones to adpat to changes in the environment Bumps and ridges on bones mark where tendons are attached 1. Affected by force from muscles - if a muscle pulls on a bone repetitively or with a lot of force, that area of bone where the muscle attaches will need more strength More bone will be deposited to reinforce the area Regular weight-bearing exercise is important for maintaining a strong skeleton 1. Up to 1/3 of bone mass can be lost after just a few weeks of inactivity Use it or lose it!

Know how much spongy bone is replaced each year.

About 20% of the spongy bone is replaced each year; 4% of compact bone In some areas (distal end of the femur) spongy bone is replaced 2-3 times a year

Know the effects of sunlight on melanocytes - both normal exposure and excessive exposure.

Accumulates in Freckles and age spots iii. Exposure to sun stimulates production - melanin provides protection for the nuclei of keratinocytes (gives us a tan) 1. Over-exposure can damage the DNA, which can lead to skin cancer

Know how large increases or decreases of blood calcium levels affect the body.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body - involved in many body processes 1. Body must monitor calcium levels very closely 2. Important to the membrane and intracellular activities of neurons and muscle cells 3. Increase of 30% causes muscles and neurons to become unresponsive 4. Decrease of 35% can cause convulsions 5. Decrease of 50% causes death Levels usually don't change by more than 10%

Be able to describe the effects of calcitonin and PTH on blood calcium levels (i.e. PTH raises calcium levels in one of three ways...).

Hormones - Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH) 1. Coordinate the storage, absorption, and excretion 2. PTH - secreted by the parathyroid glands; raises blood calcium levels in one of three ways: Stimulate the osteoclasts to remove some bone to release calcium into the blood Stimulates the digestive tract to increase the rate of calcium absorption decreases the rate of excretion from the kidneys 3. Calcitonin - secreted by the thyroid gland; decreases blood calcium levels in one of two ways: Inhibits osteoclasts Osteoblasts are still active, so no bone is removed, and new bone is laid down Increases rate of excretion from the kidneys

Which hormone increases osteoclast activity to raise blood calcium levels?

Parathyroid hormone

Be able to describe the 3 components of the mechanisms that maintain homeostasis (receptor, control center, and effector).

Receptor- sensor that detects changes in the environment (stimuli) control center-receives and processes information, makes a "_decisions", then sends out commands Effector-carries out the commands sent out by the control center 1. Example: You touch a hot stove - receptors in your hand send a signal to the brain about a temperature change; brain analyzes the information (hot is bad) and sends a message to the muscles in the arm to pull away

Know the divisions of the study of anatomy

Regional Anatomy- focus on the anatomy of one particular area, for example if we are studying the arm we would say the bones, muscles, nerves and blood vessels found in that area. Systematic anatomy- study of individual organ system, when we study the nervous system we'll learn the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Surface anatomy- study of general form and superficial markings when someone flexes there muscles for us we can see the outline of them. Microscope Anatomy- study of structures that cannot be seen with naked eye, cytology the study of cell, histology the study of tissue Developmental A- covers changes that occur overtime. Main division is embryology which is the study of development between conception and brith. Clinical anatomy- includes specialized studies used in a Clinical setting. Medical or Pathological- changes in the body during illness. Radiological anatomy- study of internal structures using x-rays Ct scan cell physiology-study of the function of cells pathological physiology- study of the effect of disease on the body

Know the difference between a sign and a symptom.

Symptions- subjective changes in the body function not observable Sign- Objective, measurable, things

epithelium appears to have multiple layers of cells, but all the cells are part of a single layer, and it is found in the trachea and upper respiratory system.

Transitional

Know the role melanocytes play in determination of skin color (i.e. we all have the same number, but...).

a. - brown, yellow/brown, or black pigment i. Produced by melanocytes ii. Transferred to keratinocytes - colors them temporarily iii. Color of skin is not determined by the number of melanocytes (about the same in all people) Determined by theamountof melanin produced and how long it persists in the keratinocytes

Be able to describe the differences between 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree burns.

a. 1st degree burns - redness, swelling, and pain (sunburn) Damages only the epidermis b. 2nd degree - same symptoms, with blisters Damages the epidermis and possibly the upper part of the dermis c. 3rd degree burns affect the entire thickness of the skin Appears gray or blackened, but it's not painful because nerve endings have been destroyed

Know the three main types of skin cancer - including appearance, metastasis, cell type affected, and treatment success. For melanoma, know the ABCDE rules

a. Basal cell carcinoma - affects the cells in the stratum basale; least malignant and most common (page 166) Affects 30% of white people Appears on the face and looks like a large pimple Doesn't metastasize before it's noticed Five-year survival rate is 95% b. Squamous Cell Carcinoma - affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum Appears as a scaly red mark on the head or hands Grows and metastasizes rapidly, but can be removed surgically or with radiation c. Melanomas - cancer of the melanocytes Highly Metastatic and resistant to treatment Can appear spontaneously, but 1/3 come from moles ABCDE rules - checking moles and spots 1. Asymmetry - two sides don't match 2. Border irregularity - border isn't smooth 3. Color - several colors 4. Diameter - larger around than a pencil eraser 5. Elevation - raised above the skin

Know what carotene and hemoglobin contribute to skin color (i.e. what color is each?).

a. Carotene - Orange/yellow pigment Found in carrots and squash Carotene is converted to vitamin A, which is important to eye function b. Hemoglobin - red pigment found in red blood cells Gives skin pink color Skins turns red when blood vessels near the skin dilate Reduction in blood flow makes skin pale Sustained reduction can result in cyanosis Apparent in lips and nails Can indicate cardiovascular or respiratory problems

Be able to match types of breaks with their description (comminuted, compression, etc.)

a. Comminuted - bone is broken into 3 or more pieces b. compression - bone is crushed; common in vertebrae c. spiral fracture fracture - usually occurs with twisting of the bone d. Epiphyseal fracture - diaphysis and epiphysis separate e. Depression fracture - part of skull is pushed in f. Greenstick fracture - incomplete fracture; occurs in children g. Avulsion fracture - occurs when a tendon pulls part of the bone away

Know the immediate and secondary danger of severe burns.

a. Defined as tissue damage inflicted by heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals b. Cell proteins are denatured (structure is changed) and cell death follows c. Immediate danger is Fluid loss- leads to renal failure and circulatory shock (bad circulation because of decreased volume) d. Fluids and nutrients are given through gastric tube and/or IV e. Secondary danger is infection because of the loss of the protective coating

be able to describe the general location of the epidermis and dermis (i.e. which is more superficial?).

a. Epidermis - superficial epithelium b. Dermis - underneath, made up of connective tissue(hypodermis) - connective tissue; not part of the skin Made up of blood vessels, nerves, and fat

Also know the 6 functions of membrane proteins.

a. Form pores or holes for ions and transport molecules in or out of the cell b. Act as receptors so molecules can bind to the cell c. Provide support within a cell d. Help start or speed up reactions (enzymes) e. Join cells together f. Cell Identity - help cells recognize one another

what are nails made of

a. Modification of the epidermis b. Contain "hard" keratin - tougher and doesn't flake off c. Help in protection scratching, and picking up objectsa. Modification of the epidermis b. Contain "hard" keratin - tougher and doesn't flake off c. Help in protection scratching, and picking up objects

Be able to describe the structure of spongy bone (i.e. what are trabeculae?).

a. No osteons b. Matrix is arranged in trabeculae - thin columns of bone that form a network c. Found in areas of lower stress d. Can resist forces from many directions e. Much lighter than compact bone - reduces the weight of the skeleton f. Contains red bone marrow - red blood cell formation

Know the four ways that a fracture is classified (position, completeness, etc.).

a. Position of bones: Non-displaced - ends of bone are in the same position Displaced - ends are out of normal position b. Completeness of break: Complete break is all the way through the bone Incomplete - break isn't all the way through the bone c. Orientation of break to the long axis: Linear - parallel to the long axis. Transverse - perpendicular to the long axis d. Penetration of the skin: Compound (or open) fracture - broken bone breaks through the skin. This can be very serious, because of increased blood loss. In fact 30% of people with a compound fracture of the femur die, mainly because they damage the femoral artery and vein.

Be able to describe bone conditions mentioned in the notes ("Bad to the Bone"), including causes and manifestations (i.e. Rickets is caused by Vitamin D deficiency and causes bones to be too soft).

a. Rickets - lack of vitamin D; causes bones to be too soft; legs are bowed b. Osteoporosis - bone resorption happens faster than bone deposit Caused by hormonal changes, lack of calcium, lack of exercise, and smoking Can lead to compression fractures in the vertebrae, or a broken hip c. Paget's Disease - osteoblasts and osteoclasts are hyperactive i. Not enough compact bone is formed Reduced mineralization Causes weakening of bones, but they become larger and more rugged Cause is unknown, but a virus may bring it on d. Tuberculosis - condition of the lungs - caused by a bacterial infection If it gets to the skeleton, it can cause compression fractures in the vertebrae. e. Osteomyelitis - is inflammation of bone Caused by bacteria that usually gets in through a wound Causes swelling of bone and lots of pus is formed Can be fatal f. Ankylosing Spondylitis - immobility in a joint Usually affects the spinal column Ligaments around the spine ossify, sointervertebraljoints become immobile

Know the difference between simple and stratified epithelium and be able to describe the 3 types of epithelial cells (squamous, etc.).

a. Simple Squamous Epithelium Very thin and delicate Found in the respiratory system, kidneys, blood vessels, and heart . Includes pleura pericardium, and peritoneum Functions: Reduces Friction. Controls entry and exit points in blood vessels . Perform absorption and secretion b. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Located in areas of high stress Found in the skin, lining of the mouth, and the esophagus Function: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack a. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Square shaped cells Found in ducts of the kidneys and the thyroid gland Functions: Provides some protection Absorption and secretion Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Relatively rare Found in the lining of ducts of Sweaat glands and mammary glands c. Transitional Epithelium Able to stretch and recoil without damage Found in the urinary bladder, urethra and ureters Appears multilayered and cells are large when bladder is empty Cells become flattened when bladder is full Simple d. Columnar Epithelium Tall, slender cells Found in lining of the stomach, intestines, and gall bladder Functions: Secretions protect the stomach and large intestines against chemicals Small intestine - absorption e. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Appears to have several layers; nuclei are at different levels Secrete mucus to trap foreign particles Cilia - cilia beat in unison to move mucus and particles up and out of the respiratory system f. Stratified Columnar Epithelium Relatively rare Found in the pharynx (throat) salivary glands, and epiglottis G. Glandular Epithelium Collections of cells that are specialized for secretion - glands Two types: i. Endocrine glands - release secretions into the interstitial space (space between cells) Secretions are hormones - travel in the blood to a target Exocrine glands - release secretions onto a surface through a duct Sweat glands, tear glands, and mammary glands

Know the composition of the hypodermis

a. Stabilizes the skin in relation to muscles and other structures, but still allows movement b. Made up of Adipose and areolar tissue c. Liposuction - removes subcutaneous adipose, but damaged tissue can repair Without lifestyle change, fat will still be deposited in other areas and in new cells

Know where stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, transitional, and pseudostratified epithelial tissues are found in the body (i.e. simple cuboidal found in the kidneys and thyroid).

a. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Located in areas of high stress Found in the skin, lining of the mouth, and the esophagus Function: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack b. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Square shaped cells Found in ducts of the kidneys and the thyroid gland Functions: Provides some protection, Absorption and secretion a. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Appears to have several layers; nuclei are at different levels Secrete mucus to trap foreign particles Cilia - cilia beat in unison to move mucus and particles up and out of the respiratory system

Be able to describe the four steps of fracture repair.

a. Treatment - setting a bone is called reduction Closed reduction is done with the hands Open reduction - done with pins or rods b. Repair - 4 steps (page 191): Hematoma - clump of clotted blood from breaking blood vessels around the break site; becomes swollen and hurts Fibrocartilaginous callus forms: Phagocytes come in to clean up the mess Fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and osteoblasts start forming new collagen, cartilage, and bone All this together is called the fibrocartilaginous callus iii. Bony callus forms:New trabeculae begin to show up and the fibrocartilaginous callus is replaced by bone Bone remodeling- Bony callus is reformed and refined until the bone looks similar to the way it did before the fracture.However, it is often possible to tell on X-ray and sometimes by palpation where a break occurred

Know the function of sebaceous glands and the three functions of sebum.

a. oil glands Discharge oil into hair follicles Arrector pili muscle contracts, squeezing gland and pushing oil onto the surface of skin, Oil is called Sebum 1. Inhibits growth of bacteria 2. Lubricate and protects hair shaft Conditions skin

Be able to describe an osteon - lamella, Haversian canal, etc.

a. osteon - functional unit of compact bone; each one looks like a cross section of a tree Central (or Haversian) canals - middle of the osteon Contain blood vessels, nerve, and a lymphatic vessel Run parallel to the surface of the bone ii. Perforating (or Volkmann's) canals - travel perpendicular to the central canals Provide blood to the osteons and bone marrow tissue iii. Lamellae - layers of matrix Contains collagen fibers that run at angles to add strength and resilience iv. Lacunae - "little lakes" - spaces in between lamellae that contain osteocytes v. Canaliculi - "small channels" - canals that connect lacunae with one another and the Haversian canal

Be able to define anatomy and physiology.

anatomy- the study of the body and their relationships to one another Phisology- function: study of how body parts work and carry out activities

Be able to describe the difference between thin and thick skin and where each is found on the body.

b. Thin skin - covers most of the body Four layers of keratinocytes c. Thick skin - palms of the hands and soles of the feet "Thin" and "Thick" refer only to the epidermis, NOT the integument as a whole

Vitamin D is necessary for ___________________.

calcium absorption

Know the order of the structural organization of an organism (from chemical to organism). You won't have to list them, but you will have to be able to put them in the proper order.

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

fractures are completely internal; the broken ends of the bone do not break through the skin.

closed

Know the function and location of Sharpey's fibers.

collagen fibers from tendons, ligaments, and periosteum that attach them to the bone Attachment is so strong that tension on a tendon or ligament is more likely to break the bone than pull the collagen fibers away from the bone (avulsion fracture)

Which of the following is NOT a function of the skeletal system?

communication

Be able to define homeostasis.

defined as the existence and maintenance of a stable internal environment in an ever changing external environment. Homeostasis is critical to survival and must be maintained b. This does not mean that our internal environment doesn't change. Rather, our body strives to maintain a balance, and has mechanisms to correct any imbalance

The three main components of all types of connective are:

ground substance, fibers, and cells.

Know the definition of tissue.

groups of similar cells that have a common function Four basic types of tissue

Know the function of calcitrol.

hormone made by the kidneys 1. Needed for absorption of calcium and phosphate Dependent on VitaminD

Know the chemical composition of bone matrix (½ hydroxyapatites, ¼ collagen, and ¼ water) and know the function of each part (collagen resists tension and gives bone some flexibility).

i. )- very dense, made up of mineral salts, water, and collagen, About ½ of matrix is composed of hydroxapatite, Compound made up of calcium, phosphate, oxygen, and hydrogen. Deposited around framework of collagen fibers, crystallizes and hardens, Makes bone very hard to resist compression, Also very brittle and inflexible 2. About ¼ is made up of collagen, Helps resist tension (pulling), Gives bone some flexibility 3. About ¼ is water - shock absorption

Know the three types and basic functions of loose connective tissues.

i. Areolar tissue - very open structure and viscous ground substance Acts as a shock absorber Forms a layer under the skin Provides oxygen and nutrients for epithelial tissue ii. Adipose (fat) Provides padding, shock absorption , acts as insulation to slow heat loss Stores energy White fat - most of fat in an adult Brown fat - found in infants, provides warmth iii. Reticular tissue Provides support for spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow Filters blood and removes old red blood cells Filters lymph and removes bacteria

Be able to list the four functions of connective tissue.

i. Binding and support - bone and cartilage ii. Protects organs - bone and cartilage iii. Insulates - Fat iv. Stores energy - fat v. Transports substances - blood

Be able to define the three parts of cell theory.

i. Cells are the smallest unit of life ii. All organisms are made up of one or more cells iii. Cells only arise from other cells

Know the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands and be able to give an example of each.

i. Endocrine glands - release secretions into the interstitial space (space between cells)Secretions are hormones - travel in the blood to a target ii. Exocrine glands - release secretions onto a surface through a duct Sweat glands, tear glands, and mammary glands

Be able to list the 4 types of tissue and be able to give an example of each type.

i. Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities, ducts and forms glands (skin, inside of kidneys) ii. Connective tissue - protects and supports the body, binds organs together, and stores energy (fat, blood, cartilage) iii. Muscle tissue -generates force to move body structures; includes skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle that forms the walls of hollow organs (esophagus, intestines) iv. Nervous tissue - carries messages from one part of the body to another (brain, spinal cord, nerves)

Be able to describe long bones, short bones, sesamoid bones, flat bones, sutural bones, and irregular bones and be able to give an example of each.

i. Long bones - longer than they are wide Examples include the humerus, ulna, radius, and femur ii. Short bones - small and boxy; length and width close to equal Carpal bones of the wrist and tarsal bones of the ankle iii. Flat bones - have thin parallel surfaces Cranial bones, ribs, and sternum Sutural (Wormian) bones - flat bones found in the suture lines of the skull Number, size shape, and location vary from person to person iv. Irregular bones - complex shapes Vertebrae, bones of the pelvis v. Sesamoid bones - small and flat; develop inside tendons Patella (kneecap), also commonly found in the hands, feet, and knees

Be able to describe the 5 classes of connective tissue (loose, dense, cartilage, etc.).

i. Loose connective tissue - fibers are loosely intertwined, many cells present ii. Dense connective tissue - more fibers and fewer cells than loose iii. Cartilage - dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in ground substance iv. Bone - osteocytes (bone cells) and extracellular matrix v. Liquid connective tissue - blood and lymph

Be able to describe the three sets of blood vessels found in a long bone.

i. Nutrient artery and vein - main artery and vein that invade during development Enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen Branches extend the length of the bone - travel through the perforating (Volkmann's) and central (Haversian) canals ii. Epiphyseal vessels - provide blood supply to the developing bone at the epiphyseal cartilage iii. Periosteal blood vessels - provide blood to the superficial osteons iv. All three sets of vessels become interconnected v. Nerve supply is also extensive - sensory nerves enter the bone with the nutrient artery and vein

now when burns are considered "critical".

i. Over 25% of the body has 2nd degree burns ii. Over 10% has 3rd degree iii. 3rd degree burns on the face, hands, or feet, Burns on the face can indicate burns affecting the respiratory system

Be able to describe the papillary and reticular layers of the dermis, including components and function.

i. Papillary region - made up of loose areolar connective tissue Contains the blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that supply the skin Dermal Papillae- projections up into the epidermis Contain Meissner's corpuscles, blood capillaries, and free nerve endings ii. Reticular layer - made up of dense irregular connective tissue Contains both collagen and elastic fibers Elastic fibers provide flexibility, collagen fibers allow some flexibility, but limit it to prevent damage Water content also helps skin maintain Flexibility and resilience and resilience i. Dehydration - skin that is pinched won't bounce back right away Collagen fibers extend into the papillary layer and the hypodermis - holds the body together

Be able to list the six functions of epithelium.

i. Physical protection - protect exposed surfaces ii. Absorption - absorb needed substances from digestive system iii. Filtration - controls permeability iv. Excretion - glands produce sweat, kidneys filter blood v. Provide sensation - touch, smell, taste, sight, equilibrium, and hearing Produce secretions -glandcells

Know the six functions of the skin and hypodermis.

i. Regulates Body Temperature ii. stores blood iii. Protects body from the external environment iv. Detects cutaneous sensations v. Excretes and absorbs substances vi. Synthesizes vitamin D

Be able to describe the parts of hair - shaft, root, follicle, plexus, arrector pili, bulb, and papilla.

i. Shaft - projects from the skin ii. Root - part deep to the shaft that penetrates down into the dermis and sometimes the hypodermis 1. Medulla - core of hair 2. Cortex - surrounds the medulla 3. Cuticle - outer surface of hair iii. Hair follicle - extend from the surface to the dermis and hypodermis iv. Root hair plexus - bundle of sensory nerves Feel the movement of a single hair v. Arrector pili - muscle connected to each hair Makes hair stand on end vi. Hair bulb - made up of epithelial cells Responsible for producing hair vii. Hair Papilla - peg of blood vessels and nerves that nourish growing hair viii. Hair color - determined by

Be able to list the three components of connective tissue.

i. Specialized cells ii. Extracellular protein fibers iii. Ground substance Ground substance and protein fibers make up the matrix

Be able to describe the five layers of the epidermis, including location, types of cells found there, and function.

i. Stratum Basale - deepest layer Main cells are basal cells - single row of stem cells that reproduce to replace keratinocytes that are shed Stratum Spinosum - made up of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes that migrate from the stratum Basale Cells have lost some cytoplasm - look "spiky" when under a microscope, but spines are not present in life ii. Stratum Granulosum - "Grainy" layer Contains keratinocytes from the stratum spinosum Cells are undergoing apoptosis - programmed cell Death Cells are too far from blood supply b. Nuclei break down so cells can no longer carry on normal cell functions 3. Lamellar granules - found within keratinocytes Release Lipid-rich secretion Fills in spaces between cells and provides waterproofing iii. Stratum Lucidum Only present in thick skin Cells are flattened, packed together, and full of keratin iv. Stratum Corneum Most superficial layer; 20-30 layers of cells Made up of dead cells filled with keratin that are tightly connected by desmosomes a. Provides extra protection We shed 50,000 dead cells every minute and 40 lbs over a lifetime II. The Dermis

Know the seven main functions of bones.

i. Support - provides structural support for the entire body ii. Protection Surround soft tissue - ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs, skull protects the brain iii. Movement - skeletal muscle is attached to bone so it pulls on the bone when it contracts iv. Mineral homeostasis - stores calcium and phosphorus Minerals are released into the blood when need v. Blood cell production Red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and other blood elements vi. Storage of lipids Yellow marrow stores Fat vii. Hormone production - produce osteocalcin Hormone involved in insulin secretion and glucose balance

Know what Vitamins C, D, A, K and B12 are needed for (i.e. Vitamin C needed for collagen synthesis).

i. Vitamin C - needed for collagen synthesis and osteoblasts differentiation ii. Vitamins A, K, and B12 - needed to make proteins iii. Growth hormone and thyroxine - made by the pituitary and thyroid glands, Promote protein synthesis, cell growth, and osteoblasts activity

Know the definition of appositional growth.

increase in the diameter of the bone osteoblasts near the periosteum secretes matrix. Osteoblasts are surrounded and become osteocytes Osteoclasts destroy bone inside the medullary cavity, increasing the diameter

Be able to describe the steps in intramembranous and endochondral ossification.

intramembranous- a. Development of center of Ossification - stem cells gather and differentiate into osteogenic cells and osteoblasts Gathering spot is the ossification center Osteoblasts secrete osseous tissue until they're surrounded b. Calcification - osteoblasts develop into osteocytes Calcium and salts are deposited and osseous tissue hardens Stem cells continue to produce osteogenic cells c. Formation of trabeculae - trabeculae fuse together to form spongy bone Red marrow develops from connective tissue d. Development of Periostum - embryonic tissue develops into the connective tissue of the periosteum Osteoblasts lay down a layer of compact bone Endochondral- a. Bone collar forms around diaphysis Osteoblasts lay down bone against cartilage Growth of cartilage model - chondroblasts get "buried" in matrix and develop into chondrocytes Chondrocytes reproduce and continue secreting cartilage Center of model begins to calcify - causes chain reaction of cell death because nutrients can't travel through calcified areas Periosteal bud invades E. Artery penetrates the perichondrium - causes osteogenic cells to differentiate into osteoblasts Osteoblasts begin to secrete compact bone tissue Osteoclasts erode calcified cartilage More blood vessels invade the inner portion of calcified cartilage Stimulate formation of the primary ossification center - bone tissue replaces cartilage d. Medullary cavity - primary ossification center expands toward the ends of the bone Osteoclasts break down existing bone in the middle to form the cavity e. Secondary ossification centers - blood vessels invade the ends of the bones Process is the same as primary centers, but no medullary cavity is formed ii. Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate Cartilage on the epiphyses remains and is the articular cartilage Cartilage between epiphysis and diaphysis remains as the epiphyseal plate

The vertebrae are examples of __________________ bones.

irregular

Be able to describe the functions of the periosteum.

membrane that covers every bone 1. Functions: a. Isolates bone from surrounding tissues b. Provides route for blood vessels and nerves c. Helps in bone growth and repair 2. Made up of dense irregular connective tissue Fibers intertwine with tendons

Know the difference between negative and positive feedback loops and be able to give an example of each.

negative feedback- the action of the effector shuts off the original stimulus when normal conditions return. Example - Receptors in the body send signals to the brain about body temperature. If the temp is too high, the brain sends signals to sweat glands and muscles - sweat glands release water to the surface, and blood from muscles travels close to the skin. Sweat evaporates and heat radiates from the skin to cool us down positive feedback- the action of the effector increases the intensity of the original stimulus. For example - during child labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released, which intensifies contractions. Contractions of the uterus cause more oxytocin to be released, which again causes more contractions. a. Cycle ends with the birth of the child

Be able to define responsiveness, metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism.

responsiveness-ability of the body to detect and respond the changes in the environment ability of the body to detect and respond the changes in the environment Metabolism- sum of all chemical processes in the body Catatbolism-Breaking down of proteins into amnio acids Anabolism- building up from simple to complex