BIO 182 Practical 1

L5.Q3 What is the equation for photosynthesis?

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) + light yields C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g)

One of the obvious indications that a sperm has fused with an egg

A fertilization membrane that can be seen outside the plasma membrane along with the loss of the egg's distinct nucleus. This membrane results from a series of chemical reactions within the jelly coat or zona pellucida following the first sperm to penetrate the egg's plasma membrane

L3.Q5 Recognize a fertilized egg

A fertilized egg lacks a nucleus and have a visible fertilization membrane that appears as a ring around the complete egg itself. No nucleus is visible

Ovum (unfertilized)

A haploid (n) female reproductive cell or gamete. The supplier of cellular organelles such as the mitochondria along with storing the nutrients and other substances needed to sustain development.

L3.Q4 Why might a human egg have much less yolk compared to a sea urchin egg even though they are both similar in size?'

A human egg may have much less yolk compared to a sea urchin egg because it is constantly attached to the mother for feeding and nutrients during development, while the sea urchin embryo is free-living and develops quickly to a stage where it gets nourished on its own.

Mean

A measure of the central tendency, or average, of a normal distribution of values or measurements in a sample AVERAGE (range)

L2.Q3 How is an ecomorph different from a species?

A species is a type or kind of organism while an ecomorph is a local variety of a species whose appearance is determined by its ecological environment.

t-Test

A statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means. We use this test for comparing the means of two samples (or treatments), even if they have different numbers of replicates (numbers in each group). Use Student's t-test when you have one nominal variable and one measurement variable, and you want to compare the mean values of the measurement variable.

Paired t-Test

A t-test performed on a repeated measures two-group design

Z-test

A test to compare two proportions

Zona Pellucida

A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.

L2.Q9 Different groups of organisms can independently evolve similar traits by adapting to similar environments or ecological niches in a phenomenon known as

Convergent evolution

L3.Q14 What are the adaptive disadvantages of internal fertilization?

High energy is required for mating. It is also a time-consuming process to find a mate. Offspring are produced less in number. Larger contribution from the female parent is required.

L5.Q4 In addition to leaves, what are 3 other organs (and their) functions found in most plants?

Stem: "supports the leaves and flowers. It also transports water and nutrients between the roots and the leaves." Roots: "keep a plant in the ground. They also take in water and nutrients from the soil." Reproductive Organs (flowers etc.): "allow a plant to produce new plants."

Stomatal Transpiration

Stomata are minute pores present in the epidermis of leaves, young stems, etc. The loss of water vapor through stomata is called stomatal transpiration. About 93% of water loss takes place through the stomata only

Homologous Structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

Induction

Some regions of the embryo induce the formation of adjacent organs and are said to be an organizer and are believed to carry out their organizing effects through the release of one or more chemical substances.

Sperm Movement

Sperms move by rotating their tails like a jump rope in a spiral three-dimensional motion and not in a two-dimensional wave

Stomata

Surface openings or pores

L1.Q3 Some Caminalcules went extinct without leaving descendants. In the real world, what factors might increase or decrease the probability of a species going extinct?

The probability of a species going extinct might increase with habitat destruction, invasive species, overhunting, glaciation, volcanic activity, lack of evolvability, temperature, and more

Embryogenesis

The process by which a single-celled zygote becomes a multicellular embryo

Morphogenesis

The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.

Mesoderm

middle germ layer; develops into muscles, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems (only in triploblasty)

Biosystematics

study of reproductive compatibility and gene flow

Blastocoel

the fluid-filled cavity of a blastula

Endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems

Ectoderm

the outer germ layer that develops into skin and nervous tissue

L5.Q11 What are some hypothetical morphological differences of Sun vs Shade leaves?

"In sun leaves, the photosynthesis layer is thick, and the cells are packed tight. In shade leaves -- larger in size and surface area -- the layer is thin, and cells are less dense." "Sun leaves are small in area, but they are thick. Shade leaves are large and thin."

L5.Q16 What is the function of phloem? Think about why phloem fluid is sticky.

"Phloem helps in the food conductance like sugar, amino acids etc. from leaves to the other parts of plants. It can also help in the transportation of proteins and mRNAs. The sieve tubes of phloem give strength to the plant against cell bursting." "The glucose that is made in photosynthesis needs to be transported to other parts of the plant where it's needed - this happens in the phloem vessels in a process called translocation."

L5.Q15 How is transpiration involved with water movement up to leaves?

"Transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the spongy mesophyll cells in leaves, followed by loss of water vapor through the stomata. Transpiration produces a tension or 'pull' on the water in the xylem vessels by the leaves. Water molecules are cohesive, so water is pulled up through the plant."

L5.Q13 Explain how water moves from roots up to leaves?

"Water enters the plant through the root hairs. It is then conducted upward in the stem via the xylem. Water exits the plant through the stomata located on the leaves. Osmosis is the process used for the water to enter the root hairs. Cohesion-tension theory is believed to be the method that water is conducted upward via the xylem. Think of adjacent drops of water, which when their exterior barriers are broken, move & merge into one larger drop."

L3.Q9 Number the stages of development in the correct order: gastrula, morula, zygote, blastula

1. Zygote 2. Morula 3. Blastula 4. Gastrula

Excel t-Test

==TTEST (range 1, range 2, tails, type)

L2.Q9 This is a structure or function that confers greater ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

Adaptation

L2.Q10 This occurs when an ancestral species diversifies into many descendant species that occupy different environmental niches.

Adaptive radiation

Degree of Risk

Alpha cutoff or significance, usually at a value of 0.05

Egg Activation

An increase in egg metabolism and protein synthesis that begins within minutes after fertilization. Triggered by calcium release or parthenogenetic activation

Anti-transpirants

Applied to the plant for cutting down the rate of transpiration. It is also used for crop plants, which fetch good returns.

Morula

At approximately 16-32 cells, cleavage has produce a solid cluster of cells. The major event taking place is the compaction of the cells into a tighter cell mass that will lead to central cavity forming in the next stage

Items to include in a graph

Axes, error bar, axes labels, treatment labels, figure, legend, and descriptive title

Leaves

Chief organs of photosynthesis and gas exchange in plants and are linked to plant biological fitness

Synapomorphies

Derived or specialized characters shared by two or more groups which originated in their last common ancestor.

L2.Q1 Develop a hypothesis about why different species with similar ecomorphs are found on many of the different islands in the Caribbean.

Different species with similar ecomorphs are found on many of the different islands in the Caribbean because the habitats in the islands are similar which effect the morphological being of the lizards to minimize competition for food and resources and improve environmental fit for the differing species under similar conditions

Early and Late Cleavage

Early refers to the 2 to 4 stage while late is the 8 cell stage.

L1.Q1 You will notice that some lineages (e.g. the descendants of species 56) branched many times and are represented by many living species. Discuss the ecological conditions that you think might result in the rapid diversification of some lineages (A real world example would be the diversification of the mammals at the beginning of the Cenozoic, right after the dinosaurs went extinct.)

Ecological conditions that might result in rapid diversification of some lineages may include for climate or environmental change in which the descendants must adapt to differing terrain, temperature, and predators. These fluctuations relate to how the changes in appendage structure and blotching pattern may interconnect with such environmental standpoints as ground makeup and sunlight exposure.

L2.Q2 What is an ecomorph?

Ecomorphs are organisms that are similar in morphology and habitat or living style but do not have close phyletic relationships. An example of an ecomorph from the virtual lab would be the twig anoles that occupy tree branches with short legs and shared characteristics that allow them to fit their habitat and niche. The same goes for the brush anoles with their longer tails and grassy environment.

Protostome Embryogenesis

Follow a spiral cleavage pattern and the mouth forms from the blastopore.

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species or group of species. Branching diagram showing relationships between species (or higher taxa) based on their shared common ancestors

Stomata Function

Exchange of gasses with the atmosphere and regulation of water vapor in and out of the leaf

L5.Q1 State some possible differences in stomata numbers you would expect to occur in sun and shade leaves and why?

For example, to reduce water loss, plant leaves from exposed outer canopy areas might have fewer stomata per leaf area compared to more shade locations. Shade leaves may have more stomata because their amounts of water encountered may be greater It could be the other way around with shade leaves having less stomata for water to continuously be more allocated towards leaves in the sun.

Egg before Fertilization

Haploid -- 1n. 23 chromosomes. Made by oogenesis (in ovaries). Arrested in metaphase II

Nominal Data

Values or observations can be assigned a code in the form of a number where the numbers are simply labels. You can count but NOT order or measure nominal data (ex. Eye color). Often summarized as proportions or percentages

L3.Q1 Provide a hypothesis as to why human sperm have a greater number of mitochondria in the tail region compared to a sea urchin sperm.

Human sperm likely have a greater number of mitochondria in the tail region compared to a sea urchin sperm because the human reproductive pathway is much longer and physically demanding of the sperm when it comes to navigating the female portion, thus there should be more mitochondria in the human sperm that has to produce energy and undergo cellular respiration at high levels to allow successful reproduction, while the sea urchin sperm merely has to align on the outside of the fellow mate

Unpaired t-Test

If the measurements from the two groups are not related to each other in any way

Hierarchial Classification

It is a system of grouping organisms in levels. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

95% Confidence Interval

It means that if the same population is sampled from your experiment on numerous occasions and interval estimates are made on each occasion, the resulting intervals would bracket the true population parameter in approximately 95 % of the cases. CONFIDENCE(0.05,STDEV(range),COUNT(range))

Numerical Data

Values or observations can be measured. These values can be placed in an ascending or descending order

Sea urchin and sea star eggs have a colorless "jelly" coat around them that serves them in many ways such as

It prevents too many sperm from fertilizing the egg at the same time (polyspermy), because of its viscosity. Proteins in the jelly initiate the acrosome reaction in sperm so they are ready to fertilize the egg. It provides a sort of "shock absorber" to prevent injury to the egg from wave action.

L5.Q2 What are two major functions of a leaf?

Leaves are the chief organs of photosynthesis and gas exchange. They also capture light

L5.Q10 How do the microenvironments differ from outer to inner canopy of a plant with dense numbers of leaves?

Leaves on the outer canopy of a plant are more exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day than the leaves on the inner canopy. Likewise, it may even be more humid in the inner canopy of a plant than in the outer canopy.

Lenticular Transpiration

Lenticels are small openings present in woody stems, twigs and fruits. Loss of water vapor through lenticels is called lenticular transpiration. It accounts for 1% water loss.

L5.Q8 How might leaves differ in morphology as a result of their location within a plant?

Light availability and wind exposure for leaves growing high and on the outside margins of the leaf canopy (sun leaves) may show more robust characteristics to withstand the direct light energy and feature more thick leaves than the leaves growing lower and in the interior portion of a tree (shade leaves) which may be more thin and wider in comparison to the light exposure. Leaves may also differ in morphology by vascularity and so forth.

The two most common measures of central tendency

Median and Mean

L3.Q3 Provide a hypothesis as to why meiosis in males produces 4 functional cells but, in a female, it produces one large, functional cell.

Meiosis in males can produce 4 functional cells because the sperm are all composed of the same size and material with compact space for mostly including a nucleus and mitochondria, while the egg must be composed of a relatively larger cell with various components to house the necessary machinery and materials to supply cellular organelles such as the mitochondria, store the nutrients, and perform other functions needed to sustain development of the eventual zygote

L2.Q4 Do species from the same ecomorph group together on the tree?

No

L4.Q3 You are asked to determine the blood types of 20 people as either type O, A, AB or B. How would you classify the type of data you will obtain? (numerical, nominal or ordinal data).

Nominal with similarity to eye color example.

L4.Q2 A researcher is going to measure isopod (isopods are like a roly-poly bugs) head widths using an ocular micrometer that has a precision of 0.01 mm. The possible results for adult isopod heads could range from 3 to 5 mm wide and might look something like 3.00, 3.01, 3.02, 3.03... 5.00 mm, what type of data set would the researcher obtain? (numerical, nominal or ordinal data).

Numerical data as it is literally given as measurements

L3.Q11 What are the adaptive advantages of external fertilization?

Offspring are developed in much abundant number. Less amount of energy is consumed in mating. Competition between offspring and parents is less.

L3.Q13 What are the adaptive advantages of internal fertilization?

Offspring survival chances are enhanced within the safe environment inside the body of the mother. Chances of successful fertilization are also enhanced. Offspring can survive even in a harsh environment.

L4.Q1 A person is visiting the emergency room with abdominal pain. The attending physician asks the patient to indicate the level of pain she is experiencing by using the chart below. What type of data is the physician obtaining? (numerical, nominal or ordinal data).

Ordinal data because it is a scaled rank.

Leaf Anatomy

Organs with integrated tissues consisting of a system of cells that vary in structure and function, but which constitute the covering of the plant body called the epidermis

Deuterostome Embryogenesis

Patterns of cellular cleavage are radial and the mouth arises at a site distant from the initial point of gastrulation called the blastopore.

L4.Q4 A researcher compares the number of male and female toothpick grasshoppers (Leptysma marginicollis) on a cattail plant by counting how many of each she finds. Her results were 60% females and 40% males. What type of data would the percentage of male and female grasshoppers be considered?

Percentage of males and females as nominal because the values represent gender nomination.

L2.Q11 Adaptations are measured at the blank-level not the blank-level.

Population-level not individual-level

Convergent Evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

Fertilization

Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell (internal or external)

Sperm

Products of meiosis and are motile male reproductive cells that contain half (n) the genetic material of an organism

Adult Echinoderm Reproduction

Release egg and sperm into water and exhibit external fertilization

L2.Q12 When two groups of individuals do not interbreed, they are considered

Reproductively isolated

Although sperm are motile, ocean currents Fertilization accomplishes the following

Restoration of a diploid genome by uniting the two haploid genomes of the oocyte and sperm. Species-specific sperm-egg binding. Egg activation. Contribution of paternal centrosomal material by the sperm, required for proper mitosis..

Cuticle Layer

Restricts transpiration and is variable in thickness depending on the environment in which the plant exists (i.e. desert vs rain forest)

Analogous Structures

Similarities among unrelated species that result from convergent evolution

L3.Q2 State two differences between sea urchin and mammalian eggs

The Sea Urchin egg is only 100 um in diameter and only appears to consist of a nucleus with cytoplasm and/or the jelly coat. The Human egg is a bit larger in size, but the nucleus and the cytoplasm appear to be the same size with the main difference being the plasma membrane layer and the zona pellucida

Phenotypic Plasticity

The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment

In response to signals presumably transduced by receptors on the surface of the sperm that bind to components of egg jelly

The acrosomal vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing enzymes from the tip of the sperm that aid digestion of egg jelly. This entire process takes only a few seconds to complete.

L3.Q10 If some of the cells in the ectoderm are mutated, what organs could be affected?

The areas that could be affected are the skin and the nervous system.

L3.Q8 Explain the role and function of the calcium wave during fertilization.

The calcium wave goes from the initial point of contact and spreads across the egg. It is followed by formation of the fertilization envelope that protects the egg from the outside environment and prevents the entry of additional sperm. The rise in cytosolic Ca triggers an elevation of the fertilization envelope through the process of exocytosis when hydrolytic enzymes stored in vesicles are released.

L3.Q12 What are the adaptive disadvantages of external fertilization?

The chances of survival of the offspring are greatly reduced because of the harsh external environment. Less care and protection of the offspring leads them to death. The offspring can survive only in the wet or moistened environment.

L3.Q7 What is the function or functions of the NOS reaction?

The cytoplasm of the sperm contains NOS (Nitric Oxide Synthase) which is activated along with the acrosome reaction by contact with egg jelly. Activated NOS produces Nitric Oxide. Upon fusion with the egg, NOS is released into the egg, whereby the NO produced activates Ca release. Ca activates NOS already present in the egg, releasing more NO, which releases more Ca, etc. Starting a wave of calcium throughout the egg

L1.Q2 Some lineages (e.g. the descendants of species 58) changed very little over time. A good example of this would be "living fossils" like the horseshoe crab or cockroach. Again, discuss the ecological conditions (did they change or remain stable) that might result in this sort of long-term evolutionary stasis

The ecological conditions for long-term evolutionary stasis had less changing ecological conditions.

Archenteron

The endoderm-lined cavity, formed during gastrulation, that develops into the digestive tract of an animal.

L5.Q6 What is transpiration?

The functions of the stomata (including the guard cells) are exchange of gasses with the atmosphere and regulation of water vapor in an out of the leaf. The loss of water vapor out of leaf is known as stomatal transpiration. More than 90% of the water taken into a plant may be lost this process and can lead to plant dehydration and eventually death. However, transpiration may have a secondary effect of cooling the leaf through the process of evaporation.

Larval Stage

The gastrula continues to develop into an immature stage prior to metamorphosis called a larva (pluteus larva for sea urchins)

What determines the phenotype of a plant or any other organisms?

The genotype typically determines most of the phenotype. The environmental effects also play a role

L2.Q6 Let's review the two hypotheses discussed earlier. One hypothesis is that each ecomorph evolved once, and the species belonging to the same ecomorph are closely related to one another. An alternative hypothesis is that the ecomorphs evolved repeatedly and independently on each of the islands. Which hypothesis is supported by the DNA analysis?

The hypothesis supported by the DNA analysis shown in the tree is that the ecomorphs evolved repeatedly and independently on each of the islands. This follows the phylogenetic tree because the ecomorphs do not compare in phylogenetic stance as they are not shown as relatively related based on analyzed DNA. On the other hand, the island species from either Hispaniola or Puerto Rico indicate a strong correlation between species type and evolution. Thus, the implication behind repetitive evolution and morphological conformation to environmental factors fits the case for the ecomorphs in Anolis lizards more accurately than the former hypothesis.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

The hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some non-random cause or that two groups are different from one another not by chance but by the variable under question

Null Hypothesis (H0)

The hypothesis that the data groups or sets bring compared result purely from chance and are therefore not different

Blastula

The large number of cells in the morula, rearrange to around 128 cells. It is usually a spherical layer of cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity called the blastocoel

Microenvironment

The local environment surrounding an individual plant varying from a few feet above the ground at its trunk compared to 30 feet above the ground at its crown can be vastly different

Transpiration Advantages

The main factor influencing the upward movement of water through xylem. Hence it contributes to ascent of sap. The evaporation of water during transpiration is said to have a cooling effect on the leaves.

L5.Q7 What are the major cells of a leaf?

The major cells of a leaf are in the mesophyll. "Mesophyll cells are a type of ground tissue found in the plant's leaves. There are two types of mesophyll cells: Palisade mesophyll cells and spongey mesophyll cells. The most important role of the mesophyll cells is in photosynthesis. Mesophyll cells are large spaces within the leaf that allow carbon dioxide to move freely." There are also the epidermal cells that "...are parenchyma, with a small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall, and a large vacuole." This is not to mention the "two specialized epidermal cells called guard cells [that] form and regulate surface openings or pores called stomata." Additionally, the lower epidermis has similar cells to the epidermis.

Mode

The most frequently occurring numbers in a distribution Mode (range)

L3.Q6 What happens during the acrosome reaction?

The receptors on the sperm encounter the egg jelly. This induces the acrosome reaction causing the acrosome to fuse with the plasma membrane of the sperm. The actin goes from a globular state to a filamentous state pushing the front of the sperm outward exposing the binding receptors. The binding receptors can now bind with the egg

Standard Error

The sample's standard deviation divided by sqrt(n) STDEV(range)/SQRT(COUNT(range))

Taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms into natural categories. Modern system from Carolus Linnaeus

Statistics

The study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data

Guard Cells

The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore. Contain chloroplasts

L5.Q14 What is xylem and what role does xylem play in the role of water movement?

The xylem is "the vascular tissue in plants that conducts water and dissolved nutrients upward from the root and also helps to form the woody element in the stem." "The main function of xylem is to transport water, and some soluble nutrients including minerals and inorganic ions, upwards from the roots to the rest of the plant. Xylem cells form long tubes that transport materials, and the mixture of water and nutrients that flows through the xylem cells is called xylem sap."

Reductive Cleavage

This means that (a) the average diameter of a cell decreases as cleavage continues, and (b) there is a huge increase in surface area relative to cellular volume

Median

To find the median, we arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest value. If there is an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values MEDIAN (range)

Echinoderm Gametes

They are haploid. They are similar in size to human gametes. Echinoderms and chordate have similar steps involved with fertilization and early development

Transpiration Disadvantages

Transpiration creates water deficit in the plant which results in wilting of plants. Persistent wilting can lead to death. Higher rate of transpiration reduces the rate of growth. The metabolic activities of the plant are affected. Stunted growth is observed in plants if transpiration is very high.

Cuticular Transpiration

Transpiration taking place through the cuticle -outermost layer of stems, leaves is called cuticular transpiration. It accounts for 0.1% water loss.

L2.Q7 True or False. Evolution can repeat itself in similar habitats.

True

L2.Q8 True or False. Experiments with Anolis lizards demonstrate that body traits can change in a few generations.

True

Calculating the number of stomata per centimeter

Using the average number of stomata of the three counts, divide by the area of the field of vision under 40x which is 0.0017 square centimeters. X# of stomata/0.0017 cm^2

Ordinal Data

Values or Observations can be ranked or put in an order or have a rating scale (simply labels). You can count and ORDER but NOT measure ordinal data (Ex. Pain level or Reaction scale)

L5.Q12 What path does water travel to get to the leaf from the roots? How are the functions of xylem and phloem different?

Water travels a path from the inside of the leaf to the atmosphere down a water potential gradient. As water exits the leaf, the humidity of the spaces inside the leaf drops, causing water to evaporate from the menisci that exist at the air-water surfaces. The resulting tension created at the menisci pulls water from the surrounding mesophyll cells, which in turn pulls water out of the xylem. Tension is transmitted from water in leaf xylem through stem all the way to root xylem by cohesion. Tension pulls water from root cortex cells into root xylem. Tension pulls water from soil into roots. "Unlike xylem (which is composed primarily of dead cells), the phloem is composed of still-living cells that transport sap. The sap is a water-based solution, but rich in sugars made by photosynthesis. These sugars are transported to non-photosynthetic parts of the plant, such as the roots, or into storage structures, such as tubers or bulbs."

Cutin

Waxy coating on the leaves that helps prevent excess water loss from the plant

Gastrula

When blastula cells fold to form two layers with the archenteron, outer ectoderm, and inner endoderm until the late stage occurs as the coelomic sacs form by out-pocketing from the endoderm to become the coelom and walls for the mesoderm.

Differentiation in development

When cells become specialized in structure and function

Growth in development

When cells divide, get larger, and divide again.

L2.Q5 Do species from the same island group together on the tree?

Yes

L5.Q9 Describe how one can determine if the one is looking at the upper portion of a leaf when examining microscope slide of a cross section?

You can determine the upper portion of a leaf when examining a microscope slide of a cross section by the cuticle, the upper epidermal layers of cells and the palisade parenchyma cells. Below that one then be the intracellular space in the spongy parenchyma layer and vascular bundles of the xylem and phloem. Since the palisade layer repeats, that order showed demonstrate the upper leaf portion.

If p>0.05

fail to reject the null

Sperm Anatomy

head: covered by acrosome (derived from Golgi apparatus) containing 23 chromosomes middle piece: mitochondria tail: flagellum

Bindin

protein on the sperm's surface that attaches to receptors on the zona pellucida surrounding the ovum

If p<0.05

reject the null hypothesis

Divergent Evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

Standard Deviation

σ is simply the (positive) square root of the variance STDEV (range)

Variance

σ^2 is a measure of how far each value in the data set is from the mean VAR (range)