BIO 201 Chapter Question Exam One (CH. 1,2,&3)

What is a hydrogen bond? Why do they depend on the existence of polar covalent bond?

A hydrogen bond is a type of polar covalent bond in which is slightly positive hydrogen atom is attracted to a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another molecule. Hydrogen bonds depend upon polar covalent bonds since they cannot be formed without the unequal sharing of electrons between hydrogen and nitrogen or oxygen.

How do solutions, colloids, and suspensions differ from each other? Give an example of each in the human body.

A solution refers to make sure of a saw you in a solvent. A colloid is a mixture of a protein and a water. A suspension, differs by size, they are cloudy, and particles are too large to pass through the selectively permeable membrane.

How is DNA related to nucleotides?

DNA is a nucleic acid, which is a polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides are the monomers that form together to build nucleic acid's. Nucleotide essentially serve as a building block of DNA, the largest of all nucleic acid's. Some nucleotides include ATP, GTP, & cAMP

Which is more likely to be changed by heating protein, its primary structure to its tertiary structure?

The proteins tertiary structure is likely to be changed then its primary structure. The primary structure refers to the protein sequence of amino acids, while the tertiary structure is the coiling and folding of proteins into different shapes. Tertiary structures to proteins are significant because they have the ability to change confirmation in response to influences such as heat. He will not directly affect the proteins primary structure since it's in coded and it's genes.

what is the difference between cytoplasm and cytosol?

cytoplasm refers to the fluid material between the nucleus and the membrane, and closing various organelles and compartments. The site is always different from the cytoplasm as it is the clear gel that embeds the organelles. The cytoplasm is a collective term to describe the site is all and it's embedded organelles

What is the importance of filtration to human physiology?

fill Traciann refers the process in which a fluid is forced to the selectively permeable membrane by physical pressure. And human physiology, the most important case of filtration is seen in the blood capillaries. During filtration of the blood capillaries. Fluid is forced to pass through the Caplerry wall due to blood pressure in the body, while larger blood particles are filtered from passing through it. This process is responsible for the transfer of important nutrients and solutes between the blood and the tissue fluid this is how the kidneys filter the voice from the blood

How does an ionic bond differ from a covalent bond?

if an atom shares electrons, in order to have a completely filled outer shell than the bond formed between the two Adams is called a covalent bond. Covalent bond is the strongest of all chemical bonds. Ionic bond is formed when Adams are held together by the attraction forces between oppositely charged ions

Why would cohesion and thermal stability of water be less if water did not have poor covalent bonds

if water did not have Polar covalent bonds, then the molecules will not be attracted to each other and will be less restrictive in their movement. As a result, water would not be cohesive because the individual water molecules would have less affinity to another making it easier for them to separate and disburse. Thermal stability of water would also decrease because it results from the restrictive bonds of water molecules. The increasing temperature requires molecules to move more rapidly thermal stability would be compromised because polar covalent bonds limit the movement of water molecules thereby allowing water to resist temperature changes.

Explain why modern anatomical terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin.

modern anatomical terminology is heavily based on Greek and Latin because scientific investigation first began in ancient Greece, which then quickly spread to Rome. The Greeks and Romans were the first to Pioneer many scientific discoveries related to modern anatomy today. Thus, they made heavy contributions to anatomical terminology by cleaning many of its terms such as: duodenum, uterus, sacrum, prostate, amnion, diaphragm & cerebrum

Explain why positive feedback is more likely than negative feedback to disturb homeostasis.

positive feedback is more likely than negative feedback to disturb homeostasis because it produces an even greater change in the same direction, opposite of negative feedback. By continuously amplifying itself, positive feedback will generate more and more changes to the internal state of the body away from its setpoint. Thus, by facilitating change and not reversing it, positive feedback is far likely or to disturb homeostasis than negative feedback.

Explain the statement "All proteins are polypeptides but not all polypeptides are proteins."

1- proteins are the long chain amino acids, which are linked together by peptide bonds. Amino acids contain one hydrogen atom and one amine group, when carboxylic acid group, and a side chain ( R group) attached to the central carbon atom. So, structurally, all proteins are polypeptides. 2- i'll polypeptides cannot be proteins, polypeptide of more than 50 amino acids in length are called as proteins. The small polypeptide such as oxytocin with fewer amino acids is not considered as a protein, but a peptide hormone.

Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today.

1. Vesalius improved medical education by performing dissections himself instead of letting a barber surgeon do it while he just sits and reads from Galen and Aristotle. He would do the dissections himself and point out the parts in which Galen was wrong about Anatomy. 2. He published a more accurate text of illustrations for teaching anatomy. He also published the first Atlas of anatomy that set the standard for new and updated atlases used today.

What is the difference between a mixture and a compound?

A compound is A substance that is composed of two or more elements or atoms in a fixed definite proportion. The bonds in compounds are very strong chemical bonds A mixture is a form of matter which is composed of two or more different types of Adams or molecules combined in a variable proportions. There is very less or no bonding between the molecules in a mixture.

microtubule

A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.

cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction control center

sodium-potassium pump

A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.

axoneme

A structure found in eukaryotic cilia and flagella and responsible for their motion; composed of two central microtubules surrounded by nine doublet microtubules (9 + 2 arrangement).

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells cell eating

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes. cell drinking

How does ATP change structure in the process of releasing energy?

ATP is the readily utilizable form of energy in the body during resting states, healthy person synthesize energy by aerobic metabolism of glucose that takes place in the mitochondria.

adenylate cyclase

Activated by a G-protein. Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.

Define adaptation & selection pressure. Why are these concepts important in understanding human anatomy & physiology?

Adaptation is a feature of an organism's anatomy, physiology, and behavior that has evolved in response to selection pressures and enabled the organism to cope with challenges of its environment. Selection pressures are natural forces that promote the reproductive success of certain individuals more than others.

Where do free radicals come from?

Aging, environmental pollutants, certain drugs and alcohol abuse, radiation exposure / damage, foods that are high in preservatives / charred meats.

metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

Distinguish between an eponym and an acronym, and explain why both of these are present in difficulties for interpreting anatomical terms.

An eponym is a term coined from the name of a person, such as a fallopian tube and duct of santorin. However, an acronym is a word composed of the first letter of a series of words, such as PET scan, or positron a mission tomography

What is the difference between anatomy & physiology? How do these two sciences support each other?

Anatomy is the study of human structure. Physiology is the study of function. A&P form a foundation for advanced study in Healthcare, exercise, physiology, pathophysiology, & other related fields.

Hydrophilic

Attracted to water

Name a method that would be used to listening to a patient's heart murmur.

Auscultation with a stethoscope

Centrioles

Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only

What are the basic principles of the cell theory?

Cells are the structural building blocks of all plants and animals, cells are produced by the divisions of pre-existing cells, cells are the smallest structural units that perform all vital functions.

Why can cells grow to unlimited size?

Cells canno grow to a limited size due to the relationship between surface area and volume. So it's typically have a surface area that is Proportional to its Diameter squared And it's volume is proportional To the cube of its Diameter. This Implies that the cells volume would increase greatly relative to its surface area when it grows. If the cell were to grow excessively, it would not be able to sustain itself and could rupture.

What advantage and disadvantage does anaerobic fermentation have compared with aerobic respiration?

Compared to aerobic respiration, anaerobic fermentation has an advantage since it does not depend on the availability of oxygen to produce ATP. Anaerobic fermentation occurs when there is no oxygen available for pyruvic acid, producing small amounts of ATP. However, this pathway is also disadvantages because it no longer extracts energy from pyruvic acid, instead converting into toxic lactic acid. Ultimately anaerobic fermentation is far less efficient than its aerobic counterpart.

cAMP

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells. It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.

Describe the general process involved in the inductive method.

Described by Francis Bacon Making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations & predictions. Knowledge of anatomy obtained by this method. Proof in Science Reliable observations repeatedly confirmed. Not falsified by any credible observation "Proof beyond a reasonable doubt" *** Make numerous observations until you feel confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them.

pericardium

Double-layered membrane surrounding the heart.

What is dynamic equilibrium? Why would It be wrong to say homeostasis prevents internal change?

Dynamic equilibrium is the internal state of the body in which there is a setpoint for a given variable and conditions fluctuate around this point. It is wrong to say homeostasis prevents internal change because internal conditions will constantly fluctuate and are not necessarily constant. Homeostasis is the process in which the body to text change and opposes it to maintain internal conditions. However, this does not imply as it prevents internal change instead, it activates mechanisms to respond to these changes in efforts to maintain a relatively stable internal condition.

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Microvilli

Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorbtion, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney

In what way did the followers of Galen disregard his advice?

Galen made it clear that he did not know everything there was to know about the human body because he did not have the ability to dissect the human body. He mostly had to make inferences based on his dissection of animals. He told those who were studying and teaching to make new observations and trust their own findings, however they disregarded this by continuing to teach students about what they read in Aristotle's work and his work. The advice applies to me when reading this book by encouraging me to make my own observations during dissection lab and compare my findings to their works in order to notice the similarities but also note new discoveries.

How does a gate differ from other channel proteins? What three factors open and close membrane gates?

Gates Are different from channel proteins since they open and close depending on the circumstances, where as other channel proteins are always open. That's calm and gates control the entry of solute's through the membrane. There are three types of stimuli that determine whether a gate will open or close: 1. Chemical messengers, which stimulate ligand-gated channels. 2. Changes in electrical potential across the membrane, which stimulate voltage gated channels. 3. Stress on the cell, which stimulate mechanically - gated channels.

What is the chemical name of blood sugar?

Glucose

What carbohydrate is polymerized to form starch?

Glycogen

Cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion

integral proteins

Have one Or more segments that are in bedded in the phospholipid by layer. Hydrophobic

Hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.

hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

Name a method that would be used to study the microscopic structure of the liver:

Histology

Name a method that would be used for microscopically examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis.

Histopathology

Why should medical students observe multiple cadavers and not be satisfied to dissect only one?

In order to understand effectively the human body in anatomy, medical students must be aware of the differences in uniqueness to each person.

Why is reductionism a necessary but not sufficient point of view for fully understanding a patients illness?

It neglects a possibility of a bodiesemergent properties or physiological factors of illness. It is necessary for understanding the physiological causes and symptoms of a patient's illness through breaking up the body into its individual components and studying them on a simple level.

Use the lock-and-key analogy to explain why excessively acidic body fluids (acidosis) could function

Lock and key model of enzyme catalyst hypothesize that the substrate possess a specific geometrical shapes that exactly fit into the groove of an enzyme. Means, the substrate structure is complementary to the active site of an enzyme. Once the substrate binds to the enzyme it forms temporary bonds and fits into the groove. The enzyme substrate complex now triggers a specific reaction, and results in the formation of a product. Excessively acidic fluids alter the structure of amino acids, thus the structure of peptides is also altered. Altered structure of proteins result in a change in the shape of an enzyme, so the substrate cannot bind or fit into the groove. This means excessively acidic fluid destroys the function of enzymes

catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

anabolism

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

facilitated diffusion

Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Select any two human characteristics and explain how they may have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat.

Opposable thumbs and forward facing eyes may have originated from primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat

In the hierarchy of human structure, what is the level between organ system and tissue?

Organ

In the hierarchy of human structure, what is the level between cell and molecule?

Organelles

List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion. Explain how a person could be clinically dead but biologically alive.

Organization Cellular composition Metabolism Responsiveness and movement Homeostasis Development Reproduction Evolution A person can be clinically dead but biologically alive because there are different requirements between clinical and biological death. The person who has declared clinically dead may show no brain waves for an extended time, have no reflexes, respiration, or heartbeat, but remain biologically alive.

How are tissues relevant to the definition of an organ?

Organs are made out of tissues. An organ is defined as a structure composed of two or more tissues working together to carry out a function.

How does osmosis help to maintain blood volume?

Osmosis is the process in which water moves from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other side, due to differences in the water molecule concentration. The net flow water is from the side with a higher concentration of water molecules to the side with a lower concentration. This helps to maintain the blood volume, since cells exchange water through osmosis. Osmosis regulates a loss and gain of water by blood cells preventing its volume from changing dramatically

How is our concept of human form and function today affected by inventors from the 17th century to the 19th century?

Our concept of human form and function is based off of previous findings made by inventors and physicians. The more they discover the more they change concepts and illustrations of human anatomy. Inventions of microscopes and improvements upon those microscopes have allowed us to see and learn more about anatomy on a molecular level. Cell theory especially. The 17th and 19th century scientists also pioneered the way we think about science. AKA we learned to replace superstition and assumptions with exploration, discovery, and appreciation for natural law. We learned the right questions to ask in order to learn.

What information can we get from the molarity of a solution we cannot know from its percentage concentration?

Percent solution is the concentration of solute in 100% of solution. It is expressed in percent. Thus, this percent solution can be percent weight divided by weight, percent weight volume or a percent volume over volume. And this measurement, volume, mass and weight of the solution is variable no unit conversion is involved. Polarity on the other hand, is the number of moles of saw you present in a liter of solution. Number of moles of solute is the ratio of weight over molecular weight. This is more accurate calculation as volume amount is known. The solute is added to a specific volume of solvent. Moles can be converted to Adams by multiplying it by Avogadro's number.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

What is the main similarity between carbohydrates and lipids? Differences?

Similarity- they are organic molecules. Difference- lipids are less oxidized, which means that they have more calories per gram than carbohydrates

explain why stabilizing mechanisms are called negative feedback

Stabilizing mechanisms are called negative feedback because the active mechanisms that reverse a change in the body. In order to maintain stability, these mechanisms since a change within the body will respond by preventing further changes in efforts to negate them. This ultimately returns the body to a stable, internal conditions.

Identify several reasons why the glycocalyx is important to human survival.

The Glycocalyx is a coat made up of carbohydrate moieties of glycolipids and glycoproteins that cover the animal cell membranes. The glycocalyx has the following functions fundamental for human survival: 1. Protection 2. Immunity to infection 3. Defense against cancer 4. Transplant compatibility 5. Cell adhesion 6. Fertilization 7. Embryonic development

Which reaction converts a polymer to its monomers?

The Monomers are formed into macromolecules by dehydration synthesis reaction.

Why is the biological half-life of a radioisotope shorter than its half life?

The biological half-life is the time required for half of a radio isotope to disappear from the body, as opposed for the time required for half of its Adams to decay to a stable state. A portion of the radio isotope is lost by a radioactive decay and to the bodies excretion process, which facilitates the time required for it to disappear. An example is cesium 137, which has a biological half-life of 17 days opposed to his physical half-life of 30 years because it is quickly removed by the kidneys of the body

Oxidation

The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

which reaction converts monomers to a polymer?

The macro molecules are broken into monomers by hydrolysis

How does the structure of a plasma membrane depend on the amphipathic nature of phospholipids?

The plasma membrane structure is an oily layer of lipids in membrane proteins. Since approximately 75% of the lipids are making up the membrane which is made out of phospholipids the structure which is heavily defined by their amphiphilic nature. The phospholipids arrange themselves into a bilayer, with the hydrophilic head facing water inside and outside the membrane. The hydrophobic tails face away from the water to the center of the membrane. The fluidity of the plasma membrane is also due to the lateral movements of these phospholipids.

Is there more information in an individual scientific fact or in a theory?

There is more accurate information in a fact because it has been proven multiple times while a theory is educated speculation.

Describe some sources of potential bias in biomedical research and how to minimize such bias.

Understand experimenter bias and purpose of double-blind method of research.

stellate cell

a neuron characterized by a radial, star-like distribution of dendrites

phonocardiogram

a record of heart sounds

Pump

active transport mechanism that works against electrochemical gradients

Kinases

add a phosphate group

peripheral proteins

bound to the surface of the membrane

Lysosome

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

columnar cell

column shaped cells

Name a method that would be used for learning about the blood vessels on a cadaver.

dissection

define kinetic energy

energy of motion

Squamous cell

flat, scale-like epithelial cell

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

fluid outside cells

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

fluid within cells

reduction

gain of electrons

Name a method that would be used to perform a breast self-examination.

palpitation

Receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

Exocytosis

release of substances out a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane.

Exergonic

releases energy

Endergonic

requires energy

solute moves down concentration gradient

simple diffusion

Define potential energy

stored energy that results from the position or shape of an object

inclusions

stored fat droplets, glycogen granules, crystals, pigments, and so on storage microvilli & cilia

centriole

structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division

Rough ER (RER)

studded with ribosomes, which permit translation of proteins destined for secretion

Gastroenterology

study of the stomach and intestines and their diseases

appendectomy

surgical removal of the appendix

Smooth ER (SER)

synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates (no ribosomes)

Tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

Define energy.

the ability to do work

Protein synthesis

the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA

otorhinolaryngology

the study of the ears, nose, and throat

fusiform cells

thick in middle, tapered at ends

Organelles

tiny cell structures that carry out specific functions within the cell nucleolus & ribosomes

osmolarity

total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

cell adhesion molecules

transmembrane proteins that bind to each other and to extracellular materials

subcantaneous

under the skin

purpose of exocytosis

used to release cell secretions and replace worn-out plasma membrane

Hydrophobic

water hating