Bio Chapter 8-13

• CAM plants admit air into their leaves only at night, .____________________________ within the leaves. • • During the daytime, when leaves are tightly sealed to prevent _______________, carbon dioxide is released, enabling carbohydrate production. • • CAM plants include _________________________________

"trapping" the carbon, water loss; pineapple trees, desert cactic, ice plants

Codominance example

- For example, in certain varieties of chicken, the allele for black feathers is codominant with the allele for white feathers; - Heterozygous chickens have a color described as "erminette," speckled with black and white feathers.

homozygous

- In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype lies somewhere between the two _____________ phenotypes.

multiple alleles examples

- Many genes have multiple alleles, including the human genes for blood type. This chart shows the percentage of the U.S. population that shares each blood group.

multiple alleles

-A single gene can have many possible alleles. - - A gene with more than two alleles is said to have __________________

Genes and the Environment

-For example, consider the Western white butterfly. Western white butterflies that hatch in the summer have different color patterns on their wings than those hatching in the spring. - - Scientific studies revealed that butterflies hatching in springtime had greater levels of pigment in their wings than those hatching in the summer. - In other words, the environment in which the butterflies develop influences the expression of their genes for wing coloration.

more than two alleles

-In most organisms, genetics is more complicated, because the majority of genes have ________________. - - In addition, many important traits are controlled by more than one gene. - - Mendel's principles alone cannot predict traits that are controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes.

faster

-In order to fly effectively, the body temperature of the Western white butterfly needs to be 28-40°C. - More pigmentation allows a butterfly to reach the warm body temperature ____________

Exceptions to Mendel's Laws

-Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. - Many genes exist in several different forms, and are therefore said to have multiple alleles. - - Many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes.

polygenic traits

-Traits controlled by two or more genes are said to be ____________________. Polygenic means "many genes." - - often show a wide range of phenotypes. -

Environmental conditions

-_______________________- can affect gene expression and influence genetically determined traits.

• The reactions of photosynthesis are made possible by enzymes that function ________________________• • Temperatures above or below this range may affect those enzymes, _____________________________ the rate of photosynthesis

0* C and 35*C, slowing or stopping,

These glycogen stores are enough to last for __________________ of activity. After that, the body begins to ____________________ other stored molecules, including fats, for energy.

15 to 20 minutes, break down

The cell uses _____________ to get glycolysis going.

2 ATP

How many NADH molecules are produced for every molecule of glucose that enters glycolysis?

2 NADH

• Enzymes of the inner surface of the thylakoid break up water molecules into

2 electrons, 2 H+ ions, and 1 oxygen atom.

• As many as _______ different amino acids are commonly found in polypeptides.

20

twice the number of chromosomes

2N

Together, glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain release about _______ molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.

36

Glycolysis then produces ____________________________________ for each molecule of glucose that enters glycolysis.

4 ATP molecules, a net gain of 2 ATP molecules

•Each nucleotide in both DNA and RNA is made up of a

5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Citric acid is broken down into a ____________ compound and then a ____________ compound. Two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4-carbon compound can then start the cycle again by combining with _________

5-carbon, 4-carbon, acetyle CoA

• The Calvin cycle uses

6 molecules of carbon dioxide to produce a single 6-carbon sugar molecule

• Because there are four different bases in RNA, there are __________________________ (4 × 4 × 4 = 64) in the genetic code. • • This circular table shows the amino acid to which each of the 64 codons corresponds. To read a codon, start at the middle of the circle and move outward.

64 possible three-base codons

Lactic acid fermentation can supply enough ATP to last about _________________

90 seconds

trait

A ______________ is a specific characteristic of an individual, and may vary from one individual to another.

eight chromosomes

A body cell in an adult fruit fly has; Four of the chromosomes come from its male parent, and four come from its female parent.

diploid,

A cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes is ____________________, meaning "two sets"

• These bases form a "language," or genetic code, with just four "letters":

A, C, G, and U

For each turn of the cycle, one _______ molecule is converted into ______. ATP can directly power the cell's activities.

ADP, ATP

How does the body produce ATP during different stages of exercise? For short, quick bursts of energy, the body uses ___________________________ as well as ATP made by lactic acid ________________________.

ATP already in muscles, fermentation

• The light-dependent reactions produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers _________________

ATP and NADPH.

• H+ ions cannot directly cross the thylakoid membane. However, the thylakoid membrane contains a protein called ___________ that spans the membrane and allows H+ ions to pass through it.

ATP synthase

•H+ ions pass through ATP synthase and force it to rotate. • • As it rotates, ____________________ together to produce ATP.

ATP synthase binds ADP and a phosphate group

Cells break down food molecules gradually and use the energy stored in the chemical bonds to produce compounds such as ___________________________ the activities of the cell.

ATP that power

Energy released by the breaking and rearranging of carbon bonds is captured in the forms of:

ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

•The C4 pathway requires extra ________ to function. • • C4 organisms include crop plants like ____________________

ATP, corn and sugar cane.

• The methionine codon ________________ serves as the initiation, or "start," codon for protein synthesis. • • Following the start codon, mRNA is read, three bases at a time, until it reaches one of three different ___________________, which end translation.

AUG, "stop" codons

The remaining 2 carbon atoms react to form

Acetyl CoA

DNA has four kinds of nitrogenous bases: The nitrogenous bases stick out sideways from the nucleotide chain.

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine

haploid

An organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes.

crossing-over.

As homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads, they undergo a process called_____________________

a spindle

As prophase I ends, a _____________ forms and attaches to each tetrad

Anaphase II

As the cell enters __________________, the paired chromatids separate.

prophase II

As the cells enter_________________ , their chromosomes—each consisting of two chromatids—become visible. The chromosomes do not pair to form tetrads.

Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Hydras reproduce by budding.

Binary fission, budding

• During the light-independent reactions, commonly referred to as the _________________, plants use the energy that _____________________ contains to _________ stable high-energy carbohydrate compounds that can be stored for a long time.

Calvin Cycle, ATP and NADPH, build

codominance

Cases in which the phenotypes produced by both alleles are clearly expressed are called

_________________________ is the process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen.

Cellular respiration

_________________ follows telophase I, forming two new cells

Cytokinesis

•______________________ splits one cell into two. - Division of the _________________________. -Different in animal and plant cells

Cytokinesis, cytoplasm

- Avery's team determined _________________________ was the transforming factor.

DNA

• ____________________ carries information for specifying the traits of an organism.

DNA

Chromatin is composed of _____________________________________

DNA and histone proteins.

The principal enzyme involved in DNA replication is called __________________ is an enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a new strand of DNA. also "proofreads" each new DNA strand, ensuring that each molecule is a perfect copy of the original.

DNA polymerase.

By observing bacterial transformation, Avery and other scientists discovered that the nucleic acid___________________ from one generation of bacteria to the next.

DNA stores and transmits genetic information

• The central dogma of molecular biology is that information is transferred from _________

DNA to RNA to protein.

•Living cells store critical information in _________________. • As a cell grows, that information is used to build the molecules needed for __________________ As size increases, the demands on that __________________ grow as well

DNA, cell growth, information

(1) the sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose, (2) RNA is generally single-stranded and not double-stranded (3) RNA contains uracil in place of thymine

Differences between RNA and DNA

- If they found radioactivity from S-35 in the bacteria, it would mean that the virus's protein coat had been injected into the bacteria. -Nearly all the radioactivity in the bacteria was from phosphorus P-32 , the marker found in DNA. - Hershey and Chase concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein

Dna confirmed

metaphase II

During _______________ of meiosis II, chromosomes line up in the center of each cell.

telophase I

During ________________, a nuclear membrane forms around each cluster of chromosomes

segregate

During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene ___________________ from each other, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

NADH carries the high-energy electrons to the ___________________________, where they can be used to produce more ATP.

ETC

alleles

Each of the traits Mendel studied was controlled by one gene that occurred in two contrasting varieties. These gene variations produced different expressions, or forms, of each trait. The different forms of a gene are called ______________.

in interphase I

Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical chromatids joined at the center.

phenotype, genotype

Every organism has a genetic makeup as well as a set of observable characteristics. All of the tall pea plants had the same __________________, or physical traits. They did not, however, have the same _________________, or genetic makeup.

zygote.

Fertilization—the fusion of male and female gametes—generates new combinations of alleles in a The zygote undergoes cell division by mitosis and eventually forms a new organism.

in decoding these genetic instructions is to copy part of the base sequence from DNA into RNA.

First step in transcription

-In 1928 the British scientist ________________, was trying to figure out how certain types of bacteria produce pneumonia.

Frederick Griffith

• In the ________________, cells increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles.

G1 phase

The eukaryotic cell cycle- Four phases: _______________________________ Interphase- time ____________ cell divisions. Period of growth = G1, S, and G2 phases. The M phase is the period of cell division.

G1, S, G2, and M, between,

• In the __________________, many of the organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced.

G2 phase

• _______________ is the way in which DNA, RNA, and proteins are involved in putting genetic information into action in living cells.

Gene expression

When Griffith injected mice with disease-causing bacteria___________, the mice developed pneumonia and died. - - When he injected mice with harmless bacteria, the mice stayed healthy. - - Perhaps the S-strain bacteria produced a toxin that made the mice sick? To find out, Griffith ran a series of experiments.

Griffith experiments between mice

____________________ pass back across the mitochondrial membrane through the _________________, causing the ATP synthase molecule to spin. With each rotation, the ATP synthase attaches a phosphate to ADP to produce ATP.

H+ ions, ATP synthase

-Several different scientists repeated Avery's experiments. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed the most important of the experiments relating to Avery's discovery. - - __________________ studied viruses—nonliving particles that can infect living cells.

Hershey and Chase

genes

His first conclusion formed the basis of our current understanding of inheritance. An individual's characteristics are determined by factors that are passed from one parental generation to the next. Scientists call the factors that are passed from parent to offspring _________.

anaphase I

In ___________________ spindle fibers pull each homologous chromosome pair toward opposite ends of the cell. Separated chromosomes cluster at opposite ends of the cell.

chromatids

In crossing over, _____________________________ of the homologous chromosomes cross over one another

sperm

In male animals- In some plants, pollen grains contain haploid sperm cells.

two copies

In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has _____________________ of each gene—one from each parent. These genes segregate from each other when gametes are formed.

two chromatids

In the example shown here, each of the four daughter cells produced in meiosis II receives

interphase I

Just prior to meiosis I, the cell undergoes a round of chromosome replication

During the ______________________, a little more energy is generated from pyruvic acid.

Krebs cycle

ATP is not a good molecule for storing energy over the _____________________. It is _______________________ for cells to keep only a small supply of ATP on hand. Cells can regenerate __________________ as needed by using the energy in foods like glucose.

Long term; more efficient, ATP from ADP

- Since proteins contain almost no phosphorus and DNA contains no sulfur, these radioactive substances could be used as markers, enabling the scientists to tell which molecules actually entered the bacteria and carried the genetic information of the virus.

Markers of Transformation

two daughter cells.

Meiosis I results_____________ The two daughter cells have sets of chromosomes and alleles that are different from each other and from the diploid cell that entered meiosis

•Why do chloroplasts contain so many membranes?

Membranes are the key to capturing light energy in the form of high-energy electrons.

hybrids.

Mendel studied seven different traits of pea plants, each of which had two contrasting characteristics, such as green seed color or yellow seed color. Mendel crossed plants with each of the seven contrasting characteristics and then studied their offspring. The offspring of crosses between parents with different traits are called ____________________________.

forever

Mendel was in charge of the monastery garden, where he was able to do the work that changed biology _______________.

the principle of dominance.

Mendel's second conclusion is called _____________________________________ This principle states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. An organism with at least one dominant allele for a particular form of a trait will exhibit that form of the trait. An organism with a recessive allele for a particular form of a trait will exhibit that form only when the dominant allele for the trait is not present.

-First, Griffith took a culture of the S strain, heated the cells to kill them, and then injected the heat-killed bacteria into laboratory mice. - - The mice survived, suggesting that the cause of pneumonia was not a toxin from these disease-causing bacteria.

Mice in Griffith Experiments

half

Mitosis does not normally change the chromosome number of the original cell. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by _______.

In Griffith's next experiment, he mixed the heat-killed, S-strain bacteria with live, harmless bacteria from the R strain and injected the mixture into laboratory mice. The injected mice developed pneumonia, and died.

Mixture of Different Strains

During glycolysis, the electron carrier ____________________ accepts a pair of high-energy electrons and becomes NADH.

NAD+

What energy-related products produced as a result of glycolysis?

NADH and ATP

Once pyruvic acid is in the mitochondrial matrix, NAD+ accepts 2 high-energy electrons to form _________. One molecule of ______________ is also produced.

NADH, CO2

• At the end of a short second electron transport chain, _______________________________ at the outer surface of the thylakoid membrane to become NADPH.

NADP+ molecules in the stroma pick up the high-energy electrons and H+ ions

•NADP+ stands for

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

The nucleotides can be joined together in any order, meaning that any sequence of bases is possible.

Nitrogenous Bases and Covalent Bonds

combinations

Not all organisms with the same characteristics have the same _____________________ of alleles.

predict

One of the best ways to predict the outcome of a genetic cross is by drawing a simple diagram known as a Punnett square. Punnett squares allow you to _____________ the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses using mathematical probability.

heterozygous

Organisms that have two different alleles for the same gene—such as Tt—are _____________________.

homozygous

Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular gene—TT or tt in this example—are said to be ______________________________.

6 O2 + C6H12O6 ---> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Oxygen + Glucose -------------> Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (cellular respiration)

___________________ is released into the air. This reaction is the source of nearly all of the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. • • The H+ ions are ______________

Oxygen, released inside the thylakoid.

Metaphase I

Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

What does photosynthesis and cellular respiration do for O2?

Photosynthesis releases oxygen; cellular respiration uses oxygen

What does photosynthesis and cellular respiration do for CO2?

Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide; cellular respiration puts it back.

• Thylakoids contain clusters of chlorophyll and proteins known as _____________. • • Photosystems __________________________ that are passed to a series of electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane.

Photosystems, absorb sunlight and generate high-energy electrons

Because some energy has been used to pump H+ ions across the thylakoid membrane, electrons do not contain as much energy as they used to when they reach photosystem I. • Thus, _____________________

Pigments in photosystem I use energy from light to reenergize the electrons.

Who does asexual reproduction?

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic single-celled organisms and many multicellular organisms

Events of Meiosis

Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis; Prophase 2, Metphase 2, Anaphase 2, Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis

American scientists Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase studied a bacteriophage that was composed of a DNA core and a protein coat. • They wanted to determine which part of the virus—the protein coat or the DNA core—entered the bacterial celll •

Purpose of The Hershey-Chase Experiment

• Transcription requires an enzyme, known as ___________________, that is similar to DNA polymerase.

RNA polymerase

• ______________ like DNA, is a nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of nucleotides. • • RNA then uses the base sequence copied from _____ to direct the production of proteins.

RNA, DNA

The cells of most prokaryotes have a single, circular DNA molecule in the cytoplasm, containing nearly all the cell's genetic information. Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, can have up to 1000 times more DNA. Nearly all of the DNA of eukaryotic cells is found in the nucleus.

Replication in Living Cells

Each DNA molecule resulting from replication has one original strand and one new strand.

Result of Replication

- The lungs of these mice were filled with the disease-causing bacteria. How could that happen if the S strain cells were dead?

Results of Mixture of Different Strains

• In the ____________________________phase, new DNA is synthesized when the chromosomes are replicated.

S (or synthesis)

The clues in Franklin's X-ray pattern enabled Watson and Crick to build a model that explained the specific structure and properties of DNA.

Solving the Structure of DNA: Photo 51

Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand.

The Replication Process

- The DNA that makes up genes must be capable of storing, copying, and transmitting the genetic information in a cell.

The Role of DNA

DNA replication is carried out by a series of enzymes. They first "unzip" a molecule of DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between base pairs and unwinding the two strands of the molecule. Each strand then serves as a template for the attachment of complementary bases.

The Role of Enzymes

At the same time, James Watson, an American biologist, and Francis Crick, a British physicist, were also trying to understand the structure of DNA. They built three-dimensional models of the molecule.

The Work of Watson and Crick

tetrad

The cells begin to divide, and the chromosomes pair up, forming a structure called a_________________, which contains four chromatids.

genotype

The characteristics of any organism are not determined solely by the genes that organism inherits. - - Genes provide a plan for development, but how that plan unfolds also depends on the environment. - The phenotype of an organism is only partly determined by its __________

Prophase II

The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.

egg

The female gamete is called an egg in animals and an egg cell in some plants.

• __________________ is read three "letters" at a time, so that each "word" is three bases long and corresponds to a single amino acid.

The genetic code

gametes

The haploid cells produced by meiosis II are _______.

parents to offspring

The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units called genes, which are passed from _______________________

Gregor Mendel.

The modern science of genetics was founded by an Austrian monk named ___________________

greater variety

The sorting and recombination of genes in meiosis result in a ________________-- of possible gene combinations than could result from mitosis.

chromosome replication

The two cells produced by meiosis I now enter a second meiotic division. Unlike the first division, neither cell goes through a round of ___________________ before entering meiosis II.

Polygenic traits examples

The variety of skin color in humans comes about partly because more than four different genes probably control this

F1

Their offspring are called the ____, or "first filial," generation.

exchanged, combinations of alleles

Then, the crossed sections of the chromatids are ________________ Crossing-over is important because it produces new ________________________ in the cell.

two chromosomes

These four daughter cells now contain the haploid number (N)—just ________________ each.

- Griffith reasoned that some chemical factor that could change harmless bacteria into disease-causing bacteria was transferred from the heat-killed cells of the S strain into the live cells of the R strain.

Unknown Transformation

P or parental, generation.

When doing genetic crosses, we call the original pair of plants the __________________

dominant, recessive

Where two or more forms (alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist, some forms of the gene may be ____________________ and others may be ___________.

Bb and Bb

Write the genotypes of the two organisms that will serve as parents in a cross. In this example we will cross a male and female osprey that are heterozygous for large beaks. They each have genotypes of Bb. Bb and Bb

In the 1950s, British scientist Rosalind Franklin used a technique called ____________________ to get information about the structure of the DNA molecule.

X-ray diffraction

Alleles

_______________ for different genes usually segregate independently of each other.

Telophase I

a nuclear membrane forms around each cluster of chromosomes

Energy is the

ability to do work.

One way cells use the energy provided by ATP is to carry out __________________.

active transport

When a cell has energy available, it can store small amounts of it by _____________________, producing ATP.

adding phosphate groups to ADP

ATP consists of

adenine, ribose, 3 phosphate groups

Cells use __________________ to store and release energy.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Pathways of cellular respiration that require oxygen are called _______________________. The Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are both aerobic processes. Both processes take place inside the __________________.

aerobic, mitochondria

Yeast and a few other microorganisms use ______________________

alcoholic fermentation

anaerobic process whereby enzymes break down glucose into ethanol and CO2 and transfer energy to ATP.

alcoholic fermentation

• One at a time, the ribosome then attaches each ______________________ to the growing chain.

amino acid

Glycolysis •is an _____________ process (it does not directly require oxygen). •still a part of cellular respiration. •takes place in the _________________________ of a cell.

anaerobic, cytoplasm

• During ___________________, the third phase of mitosis, the centromeres are pulled apart and the chromatids separate to become individual chromosomes.

anaphase

• • In addition, each tRNA molecule has three unpaired bases, collectively called the ___________________—which is complementary to one mRNA codon. • • The tRNA molecule for methionine has the anticodon __________, which pairs with the methionine codon, AUG.

anticodon, UAC

The two strands of DNA are " ___________________"—they run in opposite directions.

antiparallel

The cell can generate ATP from just about ___________________, even though we've modeled it using only glucose. This includes: ________________________ are broken down into simple sugars like glucose. ______________________ can be broken down into molecules that enter the Krebs cycle or glycolysis at one of several places.

any source, complex carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

gametes of sexually reproducing organisms

are haploid

The genes

are located in specific positions on chromosomes.

•During the light-independent reactions, ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions ....

are used to produce high-energy sugars.

Water is required _____________________ Oxygen is released as a ___________________.

as a source of electrons and hydrogen ions, byproduct

•The production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent is known as _______________________• Offspring produced by ______________--_________________ inherit some of their genetic information from each parent

asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction

Organisms that make their own food are called ______________.

autotrophs

•Binary fission-•asexual reproduction •two genetically identical cells are produced. • • • example:

bacteria

- The kind of virus that infects bacteria is known as a __________________, which means "bacteria eater."

bacteriophage

The viral genes act to produce many new bacteriophages, which gradually destroy the ___________. - - When the cell splits open, hundreds of new _______________ burst out.

bacterium, viruses

This nearly perfect fit between A-T and G-C nucleotides is known as

base pairing

• RNA polymerase ______________________ during transcription and separates the DNA strands.

binds to DNA

Why is ATP useful to cells? ATP can easily release and store energy by

breaking and re-forming the bonds between its phosphate groups.

Cells can release the energy stored in ATP by _____________________ between the second and third phosphate groups. Because a cell can add or subtract these phosphate groups, it has an efficient way of __________________________ energy as needed.

breaking the bonds, storing and releasing

• The plant uses the sugars produced by the Calvin cycle to meet its energy needs and to ___________________ needed for growth and development. • • When other organisms eat plants, they can use the energy and raw materials stored in these compounds.

build macromolecules

diploid cell becomes four haploid cells

by the end of meiosis II

Energy stored in food is expressed in units of: Cells use all sorts of ____________________________ for food, including fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.

calories, molecules

• Plants absorb ________________ from the atmosphere and produce sugars and other carbohydrates.

carbon dioxide

Members of the Crassulacae family, such as cacti and succulents, incorporate _________________ during photosynthesis in a process called __________________ (CAM).

carbon dioxide into organic acids, Crassulacean Acid Metabolism

•NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) is a •

carrier molecule.

•Before a cell grows too large, it divides into two new "daughter" cells in a process called ___________________ • • Before cell division, the cell ___________ all of its DNA. • • It then divides into two _____________________ cells. Each daughter cell receives a complete set of DNA. • • Cell division ________________ cell volume. It also results in an increased ratio of surface area to volume, for each daughter cell.

cell division, copies, daughter, reduces

•Food, oxygen, and water enter a cell through the _____________________. Waste products leave in the same way. • • The rate of this exchange depends on the _________________________•

cell membrane, surface area of a cell.

•In plants cytokinesis - rigid cell wall. • •A ___________________ forms between the divided nuclei that develops into cell membranes. • A ______________ then forms in between the two new membranes

cell plate, cell wall

• The rate at which food and oxygen are used up and waste products are produced depends on the ______________________• • The ____________________________________ is key to understanding why cells must divide as they grow.

cell's volume, ratio of surface area to volume

Your __________________ to build new molecules, contract muscles, and carry out active transport.

cells are busy using energy

For exercise longer than about 90 seconds, ____________________ is the only way to continue generating a supply of ATP

cellular respiration

- tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells that help organize the spindle

centrioles

- the area where each pair of chromatids is joined

centromere

METAPHASE: •The spindle fibers connect the _______________ of each chromosome to the _____________________________ of the spindle.

centromere, two poles

What does food provide living things with? •

chemical building blocks needed to grow

Food molecules contain what that is released when its chemical bonds are broken?

chemical energy

Pyruvic acid + NADH ----> Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

chemical equation for alcoholic fermentation

pyruvic acid + NADH --> lactic acid + NAD+

chemical equation for lactic acid fermentation

• This process, called ______________________, enables light-dependent electron transport to produce not only NADPH (at the end of the electron transport chain), but ATP as well.

chemiosmosis

The two types of chlorophyll found in plants, _____________________________ absorb light very well in the ____________________ regions of the visible spectrum, but not in the green region, as shown in the graph. •

chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, blue-violet and red

• Photosynthesis takes place inside organelles called .

chloroplasts

• In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are located in the nucleus, and are made up of _________________________

chromatin

•The genetic information that is passed on from one generation of cells to the next is carried by _____________. •

chromosomes

Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-carbon molecule to produce

citric acid

•To conserve water, most plants under bright, hot conditions .......... • • Carbon dioxide within the leaves to falls to very ____ levels, slowing down or even stopping photosynthesis. • • _________________ plants have adaptations that minimize water loss while still allowing photosynthesis to take place in intense sunlight.

close the small openings in their carbon dioxide leaves, low, C4 and CAM

•Each three-letter "word" in mRNA is known as a _____________.

codon

The nucleosomes interact with one another to form __________________ that make up chromosomes.

coils and supercoils

An enzyme in the stroma of the chloroplast ________________________ compounds that are already present in the organelle, producing _____________ that continue into the cycle.

combines carbon dioxide molecules with 5-carbon, 3-carbon compounds

Because each strand can be used to make the other strand, the strands are said to be .

complementary

• A codon _______________________________ that specify a single amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.

consists of three consecutive bases

• The remaining molecules are _________________ that combine with new carbon dioxide molecules to __________the next cycle.•

converted back into 5-carbon molecules, begin

• Every cell must ______ its genetic information before cell division begins. • • Each ___________________ gets its own copy of that genetic information. • • Cells of every organism have a ______ number of chromosomes.

copy, daughter cell, specific

The nucleotides in a strand of DNA are joined by ___________________ formed between their sugar and phosphate groups.

covalent bonds

• Imagine a cell shaped like a _________. As the length of the sides of a cube increases, its volume increases faster than its surface area, decreasing _________________________ volume. • • If a cell gets __________, the surface area of the cell is not large enough to get enough ____________________ in and waste out.

cube, the ratio of surface area, too large, oxygen and nutrients

Animal cells Cytokinesis: •The cell membrane is drawn in until the _____________________ into two equal parts. • • Each part contains its own nucleus and organelles.

cytoplasm is pinched

•Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei. Instead, their DNA molecules are found in the ________________. • Most prokaryotes contain a single, circular DNA molecule, or chromosome, that contains most of the cell's ____________________________.

cytoplasm, genetic information

Our eyes see the different wavelengths of the visible spectrum as _______________________: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

different colors

Sunlight is a mixture of __________________________, many of which are visible to our eyes and make up the ___________________

different wavelength; visible spectrum

Mitosis Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction, meiosis is an early step in sexual reproduction.

does not change the chromosome number of the original cell.

Watson and Crick's breakthrough model of DNA was a ___________________, in which two strands were wound around each other.

double helix

Prophase 1

each replicated chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome

Heterotrophs get their food by _____________ plants, by _______________ on plant-eating animals, or by _____________ other organisms.

eating, feeding, decomposing

• An ____________________ is a compound that can accept a pair of high-energy electrons and transfer them, along with most of their energy, to another molecule.

electron carrier

NADH and FADH2 pass their high-energy electrons to _____________________ in the electron transport chain.

electron carrier proteins

• The NADPH can then carry the high-energy electrons to chemical reactions_______________________.

elsewhere in the cell

Because light is a form of energy, any compound that absorbs light absorbs ________________. Chlorophyll absorbs visible light especially well. • When chlorophyll absorbs light, a large fraction of the light energy is transferred to ___________________. These high-energy electrons make photosynthesis work

energy, electrons,

What does alcoholic fermentation produce?

ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide

In _____________, RNA is produced in the cell's nucleus and then moves to the cytoplasm to play a role in the production of proteins. Our focus will be on transcription in eukaryotic cells.

eukaryotes

In eukaryotes, introns are taken out of pre-mRNA molecules while they are still in the nucleus. • • The remaining pieces, known as __________, are then spliced back together to form the final mRNA.

exons

Glycolysis produces ATP very _____________, which is an advantage when the energy demands of the cell suddenly increase. Glycolysis does not require _____________, so it can quickly supply energy to cells when oxygen is unavailable.

fast, oxygen

no oxygen after glycolysis

fermentation

___________________________ is a process by which energy can be released from food molecules in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation occurs in the ______________________ of cells.

fermentation, cytoplasm

Glycolysis is the ____________________________ of cellular respiration. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of the 3-carbon molecule pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is a _________ in the Krebs cycle.

first stage, reactant

Under anaerobic conditions, fermentation _______________________. During fermentation, cells convert NADH produced by glycolysis back into the electron carrier __________, which allows glycolysis to continue producing ATP.

follows glycolysis, NAD+

Cells normally contain small amounts of ATP produced during cellular respiration, enough _________________________ of intense activity.

for a few seconds

incomplete dominance

four o'clock plants; In this case, neither allele is dominant. Cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another are called: - - The F1 generation produced by a cross between red-flowered (RR) and white-flowered (WW) plants consists of pink-colored flowers (RW), as shown.

ATP and NADPH provide the energy needed to build high-energy sugars _________________

from low-energy carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin cycle ____________________

from the atmosphere

• The thylakoid membrane provides new electrons to chlorophyll _______________________• • Enzymes of the inner surface of the thylakoid break up water molecules into 2 electrons, 2 H+ ions, and 1 oxygen atom.

from water molecules,

- Because the ability to cause disease was inherited by the offspring of the transformed bacteria, Griffith concluded that the transforming factor had to be a

gene

contain coded DNA instructions that tell cells how to build proteins.

genes

The body stores energy in the form of the carbohydrate ________________.

glycogen

The electron transport chain uses the high-energy electrons from _____________________________ to convert ADP into ATP.

glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

The three main stages of cellular respiration are:

glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain

______________ produces only a small amount of energy. Most of glucose's energy (90%) remains locked in the chemical bonds of ______________________ at the end of glycolysis.

glycolysis, pyruvic acid

•Compare a cell to a ________________. The town library has a limited number of books. As the town grows, these limited number of books are in greater demand, which limits access. • A growing cell makes greater demands on its genetic "____________." If the cell gets too big, the ______________________________ the needs of the growing cell

growing cell, library, DNA would not be able to serve

Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other living things are known as _________________.

heterotrophs

products of photosynthesis

high energy sugars and oxygen

•The 2 electrons replace the

high-energy electrons that have been lost to the electron transport chain.

• The high-energy electrons produced by chlorophyll are:

highly reactive and require a special "carrier."

• Think of a high-energy electron as being similar to a _________________ If you wanted to move the potato from one place to another, you would use an oven mitt __________________ to transport it.

hot potato, a carrier

_________________ form between certain nitrogenous bases, holding the two DNA strands together. Hydrogen bonds allow the two strands of the helix to separate.

hydrogen bonds

• High light intensity ________ the rate of photosynthesis, • After the light intensity reaches a certain level, however, the plant _________________________of photosynthesis.

increases, reaches its maximum rate

In sexual reproduction: • The offspring _______________ genetic information from both parents. • • Most animals and plants, and many single-celled organisms, _________________.

inherit some, reproduce sexually

Where does the electron transport chain occur?

inner mitochondrial membrane

Stages of the cell cycle

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

• Other enzymes in the chloroplast then convert the 3-carbon compounds ______________________ in the rest of the cycle, _______________________ NADPH.

into higher-energy forms, using energy from ATP and high-energy electrons from

•RNA molecules sometimes require bits and pieces to be cut out of them before they can go into action. • • The portions that are cut out and discarded are called _________________. • •

introns,

Mitosis

is a form of asexual reproduction, meiosis is an early step in sexual reproduction.

Mitosis

is a single cell division, resulting in the production of two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.

Genetics

is the key to understanding what makes each organism unique.

Probability

is the likelihood that a particular event will occur. Therefore, the principles of _______________________ can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.

the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates that produces lactic acid as the main end product as well as NAD+

lactic acid fermentation

• A larger cell is ______________________ in moving nutrients and waste materials across its cell membrane.

less efficient

Without the ability to obtain and use energy, ___________________

life would cease to exist

Energy from the sun travels to Earth in the form of

light

two sets of reactions in photosynthesis

light dependent and light independent

Plants, algae, and some bacteria are able to use ____________ from the sun to produce food. The process by which autotrophs use the energy of sunlight to produce ____________________________ that can be used for food is known as photosynthesis.

light energy, light-energy carbohydrates

• No ______________ is required to power the light-independent reactions. • • The light-independent reactions take place __________________ in the stroma.

light, outside the thylakoids

Plants gather the sun's energy with ________________________ called pigments. • • The plants' principal pigment is __________________.

light-absorbing molecules, chlorophyll

• During ______________________, ATP and NADPH molecules produced in the light-dependent reactions are used to produce high-energy sugars from carbon dioxide.

light-independent reactions

C4 plants capture ______________ to the Calvin cycle.

low levels of carbon dioxide and pass it

Krebs cycle: Pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters the _____________________, the innermost compartment of the mitochondrion.

matrix

meiosis I and meiosis II

meiosis usually involves two cell divisions called

The RNA molecules that carry copies of these instructions are known as _________________________): They carry information from DNA to other parts of the cell.

messenger RNA (mRNA)

• The three main types of RNA are:

messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA.

• During ____________, the second phase of mitosis, the centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes line up across the center of the cell.

metaphase

•The ribosome helps form a peptide bond between the first and second amino acids—____________________• • At the same time, the bond holding the first tRNA molecule to its amino acid is broken.

methionine and phenylalanine

•Two stages: ______________________________. • • Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus. • • Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

mitosis and cytokinesis

• Most amino acids can be specified by _____________________

more than one codon

Lactic acid fermentation occurs in

muscle cells/prokaryotes

DNA is a ____________________ made up of nucleotides joined into long strands or chains by covalent bonds.

nucleic acid

DNA coils around histone proteins to form

nucleosomes

Nucleic acids are made up of _______________, linked together to form long chains. The nucleotides that make up DNA are shown.

nucleotides

• Messenger RNA is transcribed in the ____________________ and then enters the cytoplasm for translation.

nucleus

•The cell uses DNA to prepare RNA. • • The DNA molecule stays in the cell's _________, while RNA molecules go to the protein-building sites in the _________________—the ribosomes.

nucleus, cytoplasm

metaphase I

of meiosis, paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

What happens during the process of glycolysis?

one glucose (6-carbon), is transformed into 2 (3-carbon) pyruvate

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are _____________ processes. The energy flows in opposite directions. The reactants of cellular respiration are the products of photosynthesis and vice versa.

opposite

•The codons of mRNA specify the sequence of amino acids in a protein. • Proteins, in turn, play a key role in producing an ___________________

organism's traits

If oxygen is available, _____________________________ by a process called cellular respiration.

organisms can obtain energy from food,

homologous chromosomes

pairs of chromosomes—one inherited from each parent—that have genes for the same traits arranged in the same order

The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD each accept _________________________ to form NADH and FADH2.

pairs of high-energy electrons

•The prokaryotic cell cycle is a regular: • • Cells begin to replicate, or copy, their DNA once they are a certain size. • • When DNA replication is complete, the cells divide by _________________.

pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division, binary fission

- Hershey and Chase grew viruses in cultures containing radioactive isotopes of ______________-32 (P-32) __________________-35 (S-35)

phosphorus, sulfure

In the process of __________________________, plants convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates.

photosynthesis

• At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons pass to

photosystem I

•Light energy is absorbed by electrons in the pigments within ________________ increasing the electrons' energy level. • The high-energy electrons are passed to the _____________________, a series of electron carriers that shuttle high-energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions

photosystem II, electron transport chain

Photosynthetic organisms capture energy from sunlight with:

pigments

Energy capture by photosynthesis occurs only in:

plants, algae, and some bacteria

The release of energy by cellular respiration takes place in:

plants, animals, fungi, protists, and most bacteria.

• Proteins are made by joining amino acids together into long chains, called ____________.

polypeptides

Meiosis

process in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half

• Plants use the sugars generated by photosynthesis to ___________ complex carbohydrates such as starches, and to _______________ for the synthesis of other compounds, including proteins and lipids.

produce, provide energy

The electron transport chain _______________________________ in cellular respiration by using oxygen, a powerful electron acceptor.

produces the bulk of the energy

Alcoholic fermentation results in:

production of alcohol, bread dough to rise

In _______________, RNA synthesis and protein synthesis take place in the cytoplasm. •

prokaryotes

•RNA polymerase binds only to ______________, regions of DNA that have specific base sequences. • • Promoters show RNA polymerase exactly where to begin making RNA. • • Similar signals in DNA cause transcription to stop when a new RNA molecule is completed.

promoters

• During ______________, the first phase of mitosis, the duplicated chromosome condenses (becomes shorter and thicker) and becomes visible. • The __________ move to opposite sides of nucleus and help organize the spindle. • The _______________ forms and DNA strands attach at a point called their centromere. • The _____________________ disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down.

prophase, centrioles, spindle, nucleolus

RNA has many functions, but most RNA molecules are involved in ________________ only. • • RNA controls the _________________ into proteins.

protein synthesis, assembly of amino acids

• Most genes contain instructions for assembling ____________.

proteins

•The first step in decoding genetic messages is to transcribe a nucleotide base sequence from DNA to RNA. • • This transcribed information contains a code for making _____________.

proteins

• Energy from the electrons is used by

proteins in the electron transport chain to pump H+ ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space.

H+ ions are

protons

• This gradient, the difference in both charge and H+ ion concentration across the membrane, ____________________

provides the energy to make ATP

What happens during the Krebs cycle?

pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in

Most organisms, including humans, carry out fermentation using a chemical reaction that converts

pyruvic acid to lactic acid.

• _________________ molecules help hold ribosomal proteins in place and help locate the beginning of the mRNA message.

rRNA

Telophase: • A nuclear envelope __________________________ around each cluster of chromosomes. • The _________________________, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus.

re-forms, spindle breaks apart

light-dependent reactions

reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH

• Plants also contain pigments_____________________________ such as ________________________________ that absorb light in other regions of the spectrum.

red and orange, carotene

Meiosis

reduces the chromosome number by half.

• Leaves green light, which is why plants look green.

reflect

Fermentation

releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP

•At midcycle, molecules are ________ from the cycle. • • These _____________ become the ____________________ to produce sugars, lipids, amino acids, and other compounds.

removed, molecules, building blocks that the plant cell uses

Before a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA in a copying process called .

replication

The two strands of the double helix separate, or "unzip," allowing two ________________ to form.

replication forks

Meiosis

requires two rounds of cell division, and, in most organisms, produces a total of four genetically different haploid daughter cells.

Mitosis

results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.

•Translation begins when a _______________ in the cytoplasm. •

ribosome attaches to an mRNA molecule

• Proteins are assembled on ___________, small organelles composed of two subunits. • • These ribosome subunits are made up of several _____________ (rRNA) molecules and as many as 80 different proteins.

ribosomes, ribosomal RNA

However, extra oxygen is required to get ___ of the lactic acid produced. Following intense exercise, a person will huff and puff for several minutes in order to pay back the built-up ________________________ and clear the lactic acid from the body.

rid, "oxygen debt"

As each new strand forms, new bases are added following the _________________________________________ If the base on the old strand is adenine, then thymine is added to the newly forming strand. Likewise, guanine is always paired to cytosine.

rules of base pairing.

•The ribosome has a _______________ site for a tRNA molecule for the next codon. • • If that next codon is UUC, a tRNA molecule with an __________________ anticodon brings the amino acid phenylalanine into the ribosome.

second binding, AAG

• Chromosomes make it possible to _______________________ precisely during cell division.

separate DNA

ANAPHASE: The chromosomes ____________________________________ near the poles of the spindle.

separate into two groups

•A _________________________ can slow or even stop photosynthesis. • • Water loss can also damage .........• • Plants that live in dry conditions often _____________________ on their leaves to reduce water loss.

shortage of water, plant tissues, have waxy coatings

•Asexual reproduction is reproduction that involves a __________ producing an offspring. •The offspring are usually genetically ______________ to the parent. • •Produces a large number of offspring.

single parent, identical,

Replication in most prokaryotic cells starts from a _________________ proceeds in two directions until the entire chromosome is copied. In eukaryotic cells, replication may begin at ______ or even hundreds of places on the DNA molecule, proceeding in both directions until each chromosome is completely copied.

single point, dozens

Cellular respiration releases energy more ________ than fermentation does.

slowly

- a fanlike microtubule structure that helps separate the chromatids

spindle

Anaphase I

spindle fibers pull each homologous chromosome pair toward opposite ends of the cell

The principle of independent assortment

states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.

•The polypeptide chain continues to grow until the ribosome reaches a _________________ on the mRNA molecule. • When the ribosome reaches a stop codon, it releases both the newly formed polypeptide and the mRNA molecule, completing the process of _____________.

stop codon, translation

Hibernating animals like this brown bear rely on ___________________ for energy when they sleep through the winter.

stored fat

• H+ ions accumulate within the thylakoid space from the splitting of water and from being pumped in from the stroma. • • The buildup of H+ ions makes the_____________________________ relative to the space within the thylakoids.

stroma negatively charged

• • The light-dependent reactions directly involve _____________. • • The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids of chloroplasts.

sunlight

The energy for the light-independent reactions is __________________ in the light-dependent reactions.

supplied by compounds produced

-When a bacteriophage enters a bacterium, it attaches to the ____________ of the bacterial cell and injects its genetic information into it. -

surface

• As the ribosome reads each codon of mRNA, it directs ________ to bring the specified amino acid into the ribosome. •

tRNA

An enzyme called _________________ adds short, repeated DNA sequences to telomeres, lengthening the chromosomes so that important gene sequences will not be lost from the telomeres during replication.

telomerase

The tips of chromosomes are known as _____________. Over time, DNA may actually be lost from _these each time a chromosome is replicated.

telomeres

• During _______________________________, the fourth and final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes spread out into a tangle of chromatin.

telophase

What factors influence photosynthesis?

temperature, light intensity, and the availability of water.

Most of the time, the green color of the chlorophyll overwhelms the other pigments, but as _____________________ and chlorophyll molecules break down, the red and orange pigments may be ___________________.

temperatures drop, seen

• RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a _________________ from which to assemble nucleotides into a complementary strand of RNA.

template

The Krebs cycle is also known as ______________________________ because citric acid is the first compound formed in this series of reactions.

the citric acid cycle

2N

the diploid number of chromosomes

RuBP

the molecule that reacts with CO2

• The larger a cell becomes

the more demands the cell places on its DNA.

For intense exercise lasting longer than 90 seconds, cellular respiration is required to continue:

the production of ATP

Meiosis II

the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two

DNA's nucleotides are made up of _______________ basic components: a 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

three

How do organisms generate energy when oxygen is not available?

through fermentation

•Pigments are located in the ________________________ • The fluid portion outside of the thylakoids is known as the __________________.

thylakoid membranes, stroma

• Chloroplasts contain saclike photosynthetic membranes called __________________ which are interconnected and arranged in stacks known as ____________________.

thylakoids, grana

NADH and FADH2 are used in the electron transport chain:

to generate ATP.

The light-dependent reactions use energy from sunlight _____________________________

to produce oxygen and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH

• In _____________________, segments of DNA serve as templates to produce complementary RNA molecules. • •The base sequences of the transcribed RNA _______________ the base sequences of the template DNA.

transcription, complement

• When a protein is built, a __________________ molecule transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by the coded messages in mRNA.

transfer RNA (tRNA)

- He called this process ___________________, because one type of bacteria had been changed permanently into another.

transformation

•The sequence of nucleotide bases in an mRNA molecule gives the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce a polypeptide. • • The decoding of an mRNA message into a protein is a process known as _________________.

translation

A cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form ______ daughter cells.

two

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) has _____ phosphate groups instead of three. ADP contains some energy, but not as much as ATP.

two

Each molecule of glucose results in 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, which enter the Krebs cycle. So each molecule of glucose results in ___________________ of the cycle

two complete "turns"

-Griffith isolated ______________ strains of the same bacterial species. - - Both strains grew very well in culture plates in Griffith's lab, but only one of the strains caused pneumonia.

two different

• The ____________________—the light-dependent reactions trap the energy of sunlight in chemical form, and the light-independent reactions use that chemical energy to produce stable, high-energy sugars from carbon dioxide and water. • In the process, animals, including humans, get _______________

two sets of photosynthetic reactions work together; food and oxygen.

• In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced by the fusion of ______________ - one from each of two parents. These fuse into a single cell before the offspring can grow.

two sex cells,

• NADP+ accepts and holds ___ high-energy electrons, along with a hydrogen ion (H+). In this way, it is converted into ____________.

two, NADPH

Punnett squares

use mathematical probability to help predict the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses.

• What are the reactants of photosynthesis?

uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide

At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons combine with H+ ions and oxygen to form ___________.

water

- Oswald Avery wanted to determine _____________________ in the heat-killed bacteria was most important for transformation.

which molecule

light dependent reactions take place

within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.

•RNA is a . • •

working copy of a single gene

alcohol ferm is in

yeast

Chromosomes The genes are located in specific positions on chromosomes.

—those strands of DNA and protein inside the cell nucleus—are the carriers of genes.

• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O ------------------> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

•Carbon dioxide + Water yield to Sugars + Oxygen

- each strand of a duplicated chromosome

•Chromatid