bio final

The traditional model (circa 1970) is that a protoeukaryote arose from a prokaryotic ancestor and evolved the evolution of phagocytosis and the ability to ingest prey. In at least two instances the prey cell was engulfed but not digested, one of these leading to the origin of the mitochondrion and in the other to the origin of the chloroplast.

"Classic" model of eukaryotic origins

Maintenance Vector

"competent vector species, principally feeding on birds and not necessarily involved in transmission to humans or horses." (P39.4.w14) (arbovirus related terms)

Multiple studies have suggested that northern mockingbirds, brown thrashers, and gray catbirds act as WNV transmission

"dampers" with miniscule force of infection values, since their high seroprevalence rates indicate that they draw many infectious mosquito bites, whereas their low competence indices suggest that they fail to become infectious themselves. The fact that all three mimids are common in the Atlanta area with significantly high seroprevalences, yet are nearly absent from the WNV amplification fraction, suggests that taken together, they indeed may contribute to substantial suppression in WNV transmission."

If your diabetes is not well controlled, the sugar level in your blood goes up. This is called

"hyperglycemia" (high blood sugar). High blood sugar can cause damage to very small blood vessels in your body. Imagine what happens to sugar when it is left unwrapped overnight. It gets sticky. Now imagine how sugar "sticks" to your small blood vessels and makes it hard for blood to get to your organs. Damage to blood vessels occurs most often in the eyes, heart, nerves, feet, and kidneys. Let's look at how this damage happens.

Bridge Vector

"vector species which bites both bird (reservoir) hosts and mammals (including or particularly humans) and therefore can transmit infection from the reservoir host to mammals (including humans)" (D67, V.w5) - Arbovirus related term - "competent vector species which are more general feeders. These species may not be able to maintain infection in nature in the absence of enzootic vector species."

Multiple beneficial effects of hydroxyurea for SCA.

(1) Fetal hemoglobin induction through soluble guanylyl cyclase activation and altered erythroid kinetics; (2) lower neutrophil and reticulocyte counts from ribonucleotide reductase inhibition and marrow cytotoxicity; (3) decreased adhesiveness and improved rheology of circulating neutrophils and reticulocytes; (4) reduced hemolysis through improved erythrocyte hydration, macrocytosis, and reduced intracellular sickling; and (5) Nitric oxide (NO) release with potential local vasodilatation and improved vascular response.

Two plausible mechanisms of HbF modulation have emerged from biological studies of the QTLs.

(B) Direct effect on γ globin gene expression (BCL11A is proposed as a developmental stage-specific repressor); and (C) Indirect via perturbation of kinetics of erythropoiesis—HMIP 2 contains a distal regulatory locus that controls MYB expression, whose levels affect differentiation of erythropoiesis. An accelerated erythropoiesis (mimicking stress erythropoiesis) leads to the release of more progenitor cells that are still synthesizing significant amounts of HbF.

Advantages in a sexual population

(a) two advantageous alleles AB can appear in a single individual much more quickly than they could in an asexual population (b) that depends on sequential mutation. Assuming that both A and B confer increased fitness (over a and b) then individuals with either of these mutations will be selected for. If based on random mating individuals with one of these superior alleles were to mate, then 25% of the progeny would have both beneficial alleles and would soon come to dominate the population. The opposite is also true and it is thought that disadvantageous alleles are more easily eliminated from a population that reproduces sexually.

Erythropoiesis

(from Greek 'erythro' meaning "red" and 'poiesis' meaning "to make") is the process which produces red blood cells (erythrocytes).

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Equation

(p+q)^2 = p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p= the frequency of the allele A q= the frequency of the allele a p^2= the frequency of individual AA q^2= the frequency of individuals aa 2pq= the frequency of individuals Aa

Very early in development the fetus makes an embryonic form of hemoglobin

(ϵ chain) that is no longer made after the first three months of gestation. At the time of birth a newborn's blood carries a mixture of fetal (γ chain) and adult (β chain) hemoglobin (at least as defined by the Hb subunits). By six months of age it is almost all adult Hb.

population genetics studies the changes in:

- allele frequencies - phenotype frequencies - phenotype frequencies

Plates carrying continents have drifted apart and together many times, affecting:

- climate - sea level - biological evolution

The meteor that resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs: The collision ignited fires, set off tidal waves and threw enough dust into the atmosphere to block sunlight for several years, which

- inhibited photosynthesis leading to the... - collapse of food chains and the deaths of most large animals. - Apparently no animal >50 lbs. survived. - Dust settled as iridium-rich layer around the planet

the entire lichen, or to the fungus growing in it. The lichen combination of fungus with algae and/or cyanobacteria has a very different form (morphology), physiology, and biochemistry from the component parts growing by themselves.

. Lichenized fungus may refer to ...

The synthesis of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is normally reduced to very low levels of less than

0.6% of the total hemoglobin in adults. The HbF is restricted to a sub-population of erythrocytes termed F-cells'; 85% of the normal adult population have 0.3% to 4.4% F-cells.

What contributes to the increase in most zoonotic diseases?

1. Growth of global human and livestock animal populations 2. Increased transportation of humans and livestock 3. Ecologic and environmental changed brought about by human activity 4. Rapid evolution of pathogens

The Importance ofPhylogenetic Trees

1. Increasing use of phylogenetic trees in the biological sciences 2. Need to know what trees diagrams do and do not communicate 3. Provide an efficient structure for organizing biodiversity info 4. Develop accurate conception of totality of evolutionary history 5. Important for aspiring biologists to develop this understanding

Neutral molecular markers are used to study population genetics. These include:

1. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) - in general, no recombination and uniparental inheritance 2. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) - in general, no recombination and uniparental inheritance 3. Microsatellites - tandem repeats or simple sequence repeats [ATCATCATCATCATC...., TTCTTCTTCTTCTTC..., etc.) 4. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 5. Allozymes - variations of proteins 6. RFLPs - variants in DNA exposed by cutting with restriction enzymes 7. AFLPs - after digest with restriction enzymes, a subset of DNA fragments are selected for PCR amplification

Possible selective advantages for the evolution of skeletons:

1. Receptacles for excess minerals (ex: kidney stones and gallstones in humans) 2. Storehouses for scarce minerals (or means of slow release) 3. Support and muscle attachment (for locomotory organs) 4. Serves as protection (for soft internal organs from predators) 5. Internal environmental control

How are fossils dated?

1. Relative position 2. Index species 3. Radioisotopes 4. Carbon dating

Allopatric Speciation by Peripatry

1. Start with one continuous population. Then, a colonist floats to an island on a raft. Or an organism will fly, be blown, be carried, etc. to an island. 2. Finish with two populations isolated from one another that over time will diverge.

Rocks prior to the Cambrian appear to be largely devoid of fossils for two reasons:

1. The organisms were too small to easily detect and 2. the multi-cellular organisms didn't have hard parts that could be easily preserved

Evolution through cladogenesis

1. genes flow freely in region 2. barrier separates two populations 3.mutations change genotype and phenotype of 2 populations 4. two populations cannot interbreed even with removal of barrier

What are the 3 domains that living things are classified in?

1. prokaryotes: Archaea 2. prokaryotes: Eubacteria 3. eukaryotes (Eukarya)

What are the 3 kinds of genetic drift?

1. strict sense genetic drift 2. founder effects 3. genetic bottlenecks

Most WNV human cases are asymptomatic but in about ...

1/5 of all cases flu-like symptoms may occur and very rarely, brain inflammation can result from infection.

Our galaxy formed less than how many years ago?

10 billion

Demodex folliculorum

100% of people over age 18 have mite DNA on their faces.

SCD affects approximately ________ Americans. SCD occurs among about 1 out of every ________Black or African-American births. SCD occurs among about 1 out of every _______ Hispanic-American births. About 1 in _____ Black or African-American babies is born with sickle cell trait (SCT).

100,000 365 16,300 13

While BP can change from minute to minute with changes in posture, exercise, stress or sleep, it should normally be less than

120/80 mm Hg (less than 120 systolic AND less than 80 diastolic) for an adult age 20 or over.

Participants must be between the ages of_______ and _______to register to be a bone marrow donor.

18 and 44

What are the approximate chances that any two random people on Earth could serve as a bone marrow donor for each other?

1:100,000

chance of an identical match among siblings.

1:4

energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system; it can only be transformed

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Among the 7 million registered donors currently, only _____ are South Asians. Ethnic minorities have only a_________ chance of finding a match from the existing NMDP registry. Caucasians currently have an ________ chance of finding a match.

2% 30-40% 80%

If a human fetus cannot maintain sustained EEGs until about week ____ of development

24

For a comparable body morph, a woman can have anywhere from

25% to 100% more fat than a man.

entropy of any isolated system always increases

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

1. all are multicellular 2. all ingest then digest 3. all have a blastula stage of development

3 things all metazoan (animals) do

The first definite evidence of life dates back to...

3.5 billion years

genetic mutations per person

35.2

that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero

3rd Law of Thermodynamics

Liquid water became present on Earth's surface around how many years ago?

4.3 billion

Earth's cust is comprised of 40 km thick solid plates floating on a fluid mantel and was formed approximately how many years ago?

4.4 billion

How old is the Earth?

4.6 Billion years

According to radiometric dating of moon rocks, meteorites, and earth rocks, our solar system was formed about how many years ago?

4.6 billion

Type 1 diabetes (formerly called juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent diabetes), accounts for

5 to 10 out of 100 people who have diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system destroys the cells that release insulin, eventually eliminating insulin production from the body. Without insulin, cells cannot absorb sugar (glucose), which they need to produce energy.

"Shivering is an involuntary, oscillatory muscular activity that augments metabolic heat production. Vigorous shivering increases metabolic heat production up to _____ above basal level. However, a _________of metabolic heat production is all that can be sustained over long periods. The fundamental tremor frequency on the electromyogram in humans is typically near 200 Hz. This basal frequency is modulated by a slow 4-8 cycles/minute "waxing-and-waning" pattern."

600% doubling

Mortality for individuals was found to have declined significantly in participants diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes in 1965-80 compared to those diagnosed in 1950-64, with 30-year mortality being 11.6% and 35.6% respectively. why?

A better form of insulin became available. Monitoring of blood sugar levels has improved.

The researchers grew the bacterium on cobalt, which produced so-called volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that stop the fungus, Psuedogymnoascus destructans, from growing. The new treatment was developed in Missouri by Forest Service scientists Sybill Amelon and Dan Lindner, and Chris Cornelison of Georgia State University.

A common bacterium Rhodococcus rhodochrous, is giving scientists hope that bat populations can be saved from deadly White-nose Syndrome. Why?

the Endosymbiont Hypothesis

A fully formed eukaryote ingested, but did not destroy, a cyanobacterium; A fully formed eukaryote ingested, but did not destroy, a cyanobacterium

Possible cause of Type 2 diabetes?

A genetic defect in the gene that codes for the insulin receptor. A genetic defect in the gene that codes for the GLUT-2 receptor. A genetic defect in the gene that codes for insulin.

population

A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same general area

acetylcholine

A group of neurotransmitters associated with muscle stimulation, memory formation, and learning

is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria (or both) living among filaments of a fungus in a symbiotic relationship. The combined life form has properties that are very different from the properties of its component organisms. Lichens come in many colors, sizes, and forms.

A lichen

growth form.[1]

A macrolichen is a lichen that is either bush-like or leafy; all other lichens are termed microlichens.[1] Here, "macro" and "micro" do not refer to size, but to the ____________ _____________.

frozen "poo pellets"

A mode of delivery of FMT that is ingested orally

symbiotic (generally mutualistic, but occasionally weakly pathogenic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's roots, either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF or AM), or extracellularly as in ectomycorrhizal fungi. They are an important component of soil life and soil chemistry.

A mycorrhiza (mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a

Naïve population

A population of organisms that has never before encountered a specific pathogen.

PEC-Encap

A semi-permeable membrane allows for diffusion of molecules across the membrane but prevents the patient's blood vessels from coming in contact with the transformed hESCs.

What do we mean by a region of the genome that is neutral (i.e., a neutral genetic markers) ?

A sequence region within the genome that is not expressed A sequence region that produces no phenotype

What do we mean by a region of the genome that is neutral?

A sequence region within the genome that is not expressed and a sequence region that produces no phenotype

90%

A vaccination rate of greater than _____ is considered to be the threshold to establish herd immunity.

7% 1%

About_____ of adult Americans tested positive for one form of HPV, with nearly ____ of the population testing positive for HPV-16

Propionibacterium acnes

Acne is associated with two strains of this bacterium, but individuals with the third strain appear to be free of acne

Why does boiling not help with Microcystin-LR?

Active boiling will only decrease Microcystin-LR levels by about 50% and it can create an aerosol

Conditions that can be treated with BMSC transplantation

Acute and chronic leukemias Aplastic anemia Congenital immunodeficiency diseases Lymphomas Metabolic disease of childhood Myelodisplasia Thalassemia

Other symptoms of sickle cell

Acute papillary necrosis in the kidneys. Leg ulcers. Priapism. and infarction of the penis.Besides sickle cells are destroyed rapidly in the organism causing: Chronic anemia can be manifested with fatigue, paleness, shortness of breath and then with delayed growth and puberty in children and often a slight build in adults, but also may not be significant anemia. Jaundice. Cholelithiasis (gallstones) and cholecystitis

allowed evolution of larger cells and eventually more and more complex multicellular organisms.

Aerobic metabolism and increasing levels of oxygen

- Decrease in infant mortality rates - The development of antibiotics.

After being relatively stable for thousands of years why did human population begin to dramatically increase beginning in the 1800's?

How does Parthenogenesis differ from normal fertilization?

After the precursor egg splits into four and three are discarded then the last is fertilized by a sperm in the case of normal fertilization. In parthenogenesis, the remaining of the four eggs doubles and divides its genetic material. Then these cells and genome combine.

life-tables

Age specific summaries of survival

a single bacterium and a single archaean (or archaean-like cell) 2 billion years ago that formed a new form of life that had never before existed.

All eukaryotes, including humans, owe their very existence to the chance union of

How do mammals reproduce

All mammal reproduce through sexual reproduction

Bottleneck effect

Allele, phenotype, and genotype frequencies can all change if the population goes through a drastic reduction in population. When the population rebounds it has a new Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium based on the allele frequencies of the founding population.

Why might cyanobacteria surround themselves in a slime coat?

Although cyanobacteria are unicellular, they often form a polysaccharide "Slime Coat" that allows the cells to stick toghether in a mass that can coat just about any surface.

because the cell membrane allows only some ions to pass through channels

Although the concentrations of the different ions attempt to balance out on both sides of the membrane, they cannot. Why?

What two bird species accounted for 41.4% of mosquito avian blood meals?

American robins and northern cardinals

clade of tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds and mammals that lay their eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the mother

Amniotes

It is presumed that adaptations to anaerobic or microaerobic environments has occurred multiple times among the protists* leading to a variety of lineages that have either permanently reduced their mitochondria or can function as facultative anaerobes.

Among the protists all varieties of mitochondria are found; from classic aerobic to strictly anaerobic. why?

-55mV

An Action potential threshold is triggered when the membrane potential reaches ______ but it will not propagate unless it reaches a positive potential relative to the outside environment. In other words an initial depolyerization of _____ is enough to get some of the nearby voltage gated sodium channels to open up, but if they do not, then the Action Potential does not become established.

A homeostatic control system has three functional components

An effector A control center A receptor

mode of nutrition

Animals and choanoflagellates have a fundamentally different_________________ __________ _______________ compared to fungi.

WNV has been reported on all continents except....

Antarctica

WNV has now been reported form all continents except

Antarctica

Mites are members of the

Arachnida, a group of arthropods that contain the true spiders and scorpions. Together with ticks they form the clade known as the Acari.

thought to be among the earliest land fungi, playing a crucial role in facilitating the colonization of land by plants through mycorrhizal symbiosis; make mineral nutrients available to plant cells

Arbuscular mycorrhiza

Oxygen was poisonous when it first appeared. Bacteria either died out or found anaerobic niches in which they could persist. Some bacteria evolved to thrive on oxygen and aerobic metabolism became possible. This event marked the end of the __________ Era and the onset of the ___________era .

Archaen Proterozoic

No

Are all introduced species invasive?

Yes

Are all invasive species also introduced?

deuterosomes

Are humans protostomes or deuterostomes?

biomes

Areas of the Earth characterized by similar plant communities and physical environments; large-scale type of ecosystem that is representative of a climate type and region.

the lining of the intestines

As C. difficile bacteria overgrow, they release toxins that attack...

increase

As density rises, the per capita death rate (m) may ___________ due to disease, parasitism, etc.

Juramaia sinensis

As the earliest known fossil ancestral to placental mammals, Juramaia provides fossil evidence of the date when eutherian mammals diverged from other mammals, metatherians (whose descendants include marsupials like kangaroos) and monotremes (like the platypus). As Luo explains, "Juramaia, from 160 million years ago, is either a great-grand-aunt, or a 'great-grandmother' of all placental mammals that are thriving today.

negative chlorine ions; negatively charged proteins and amino acids

At rest, there are more _________ outside of the cell, but a lot more _________ inside the cell.

sodium, potassium

At rest, there are relatively more __________ ions outside the neuron and more ________ ions inside that neuron.

potassium (K+)

At rest, what ions can cross the membrane easily?

chloride (Cl-) and sodium (Na+)

At rest, what ions have a difficult time crossing the membrane?

What is the Cambrian Radiation?

At the start of the Paleozoic Era, there is a sudden appearance of multi-cellular organisms. Most of the higher level taxa present today appeared at this time.

attenuated: may revert to original virulent strain by recombination with wild type strain or revers mutation inactivated: does not revert to virulent form

Attenuated vs Inactivated Vaccines: tendency to revert

attenuated: produce both cell mediated and humoral immune response inactivated: mainly produces humoral response

Attenuated vs Inactivated Vaccines: type of host responses

Patients with acute myeloid or lymphoblastic leukemia may benefit from

BMT. Patients with acute myeloid leukemia transplanted in first remission can now expect an approximately 50 to 60% likelihood of long-term disease-free survival. Similar probabilities are also achievable after transplantation of adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in first remissions. Probability of relapse correlates with remission status at the time of the transplant, ranging from 20% in first remission to 60% with more advanced disease. Long-term survival for patients with chronic myelocytic leukemia who receive BMT in the phase of remission is 60 to 70%. Pediatric BMT has expanded because of its potential for curing children with genetic diseases (eg, thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, immunodeficiencies, inborn errors of metabolism).

Coleochaete has a similar growth pattern to that of the liverworts, which are thought to be the first type of land plants. Land Plants are descended from an alga that lived in freshwater, not marine. The idea of algae on the shores of an ocean giving rise to plants is incorrect. However, algae growing on rocks in the splash zone of freshwater may be exactly where land plants first became established.

Based on gene sequence data and the haploid life cycle Coleochaete is actually thought to be more closely related to land plants than either Chara or Nitella. Why?

Why are zoonotic diseases more commonly encountered by children?

Because children may provoke biting or scratching, go barefoot during warm weather, and may not wash their hands following handling household pets

How would the original bacterium transport energy (in the form of ATP) to the host? How did the bacterium have the ability to resist digestion by the host cell? How would an anaerobic host ever encounter an aerobic bacterium if they lived in separate environments?

Been an impediment to a bacterium becoming a mitochondrion

Like some plants (e.g. ferns), fungi reproduce by tiny spores. Like plants, fungi have a cell wall. Like plants, fungi produce root-like structures that absorb nutrients from the environment. Like plants, fungi do not move around.

Before 1969 why were fungi considered to be part of the 'Plant' Kingdom?

blossom cow -> cowpox virus -> Sarah Nelmes (milkmaid) -> James Phipps (guineapig)

Berkely, May 14, 1796 The birth of vaccination Edward Jenner (1749-18823) This was a case of using a second type of vaccine (a closely related pathogen) success rate was 100%, but individuals could still be scarred

For the majority of healthy individuals, normal blood sugar levels are as follows:

Between 4.0 to 6.0 mmol/L (72 to 108 mg/dL) when fasting. Up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) 2 hours after eating.

two cilia (or multiples of two) per cell.

Bikont

hospitals and long term care facilities

C. diff is most likely to affect patients in....

Continuous Glucose Monitoring

CGM systems usually consist of a glucose sensor, a transmitter, and a small external monitor (which may be built-in to an insulin pump or a stand-alone device) to view your glucose levels.

7 things that make mosquitoes bite you more

CO2, sweat, beer, bacteria, o-type blood, attractive compounds, pregnancy

Hard body parts evolved during which period?

Cambrian

most of the fundamentally different body plans known in today's animals evolved during what period?

Cambrian Called Baupläne which is German for blueprints This was the most dramatic adaptive radiation in the history of the Earth

No

Can a person contract HPV from the Gardasil vaccine?

Yes

Can a person contract Polio from the Polio vaccine?

No (sort of...)

Can a viral or bacterial pathogen evolve resistance to a vaccine?

yes

Can a viral or bacterial pathogen evolve resistance to antibiotics?

polyploidy

Can result from whole genome duplication. Diploid becomes a tetraploid making gamete fusion impossible

The period where: - Gondwana and small northern continents form - Extensive forests of early vascular plants. - Early orders of winged insects appear. - Amphibians diversify and the first reptiles appear

Carboniferous

Multipotent

Cells differentiated, but can form a number of other tissues. Fetal tissue, cord blood, and adult stem cells

is a β 1-4 linked glucan that forms unbranched linear molecules that are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Cellulose

an enzyme (cellulase) to gain access to the bonds and break cellulose back into glucose monomers.

Cellulose is an unbranched, linear molecule. The fact that these linear polymers can line up side by side and connect to one another via hydrogen bonding makes it very difficult for...

In this period: Mammals become the dominant animal life form on land. They underwent an adaptive radiation that took advantage of the sudden loss of dinosaurs.

Cenozoic

What era are we in now?

Cenozoic

A high proportion of large-bodied mammals and birds went extinct during this time. Included mammoths, saber-toothed cats, giant bison, giant beavers, giant wolves, ground sloths and ALL endemic South American ungulates.

Cenozoic Era - Pleistocene Era Likely that this megafaunal extinction was caused by weapon-wielding humans.

Types of Apocrine sweat glands

Ceruminous glands (which produce ear wax), mammary glands (which produce milk), and ciliary glands in the eyelids are modified apocrine sweat glands.

Absorptive heterotrophs Cell walls made of chitin (not cellulose or peptidoglycans) No flagella (except Chytrids) Immobile (except Chytrids and via spores)

Characteristics of Fungi

are a clade of green algae that are all freshwater.

Charaphytes

Ge Hong

Chinese doctor from the 4th century, is credited as the first to use fecal transplantation in the form of a fecal suspension that was given by mouth to patients suffering from severe diarrhea

is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and it is found in many places throughout the natural world. It is the main component of the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans. Like cellulose, the carbohydrate chitin forms long, linear, unbranched molecules.

Chitin

Chromosomal rearrangement

Chromosome fusion or chromosome fission event.

not related to mosses or any plant.[3]:3 Lichens do not have roots that absorb water and nutrients as plants do[6]:2 but like plants they produce their own food by photosynthesis using sunlight energy, from carbon dioxide, water and minerals in their environment.[7] When they grow on plants, they do not live as parasites and only use the plants as a substrate.

Common names for lichens may contain the word "moss" (e.g., "Reindeer moss", "Iceland moss"), and lichens may superficially look like and grow with mosses, but lichens are ...

February 2014

Completing three full years without reporting any case of polio ind, i celebrated a landmark achievement in public health in _____________ - the victory over polio.

Aposematic coloration

Conspicuously recognizable markings of an animal that serve to warn potential predators of the nuisance or harm that would come from attacking or eating it

a) when covered in sediment corals shed this layer and thus get all the sediment off of them b) the mucus is filled with bacteria (their microbiome) that like our skin may protect them from pathogenic bacteria and/or viruses c) if corals are exposed at low tide it can resist desiccation d) mucus produced by mushroom corals may help protect them from ultraviolet light via several different mycosporine-like amino acids, UV-absorbing compounds

Corals exude up to half of the carbon assimilated by their zooxanthellae as copious amounts of mucus; a complex of mucopolysaccharides. Why?

parasite that grows out of bugs

Cordyceps

80%.

Current estimates of bat population declines in the northeastern US since the emergence of WNS are approximately

Which group of organisms had the greatest impact on the Earth's ocean and atmosphere?

Cyanobacteria

chlorophyll a

Cyanobacteria have only _______________ __ but the green algae have chlorophyll a & b.

Initially, symptoms are gastrointestinal in nature and include colicky abdominal pain, with watery diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting, which may lead to dehydration if left untreated, and, in severe cases, hypotension, tachycardia, hypoglycemia, and acid-base disturbances.[65][66] These first symptoms resolve two to three days after the ingestion. A more serious deterioration signifying liver involvement may then occur—jaundice, diarrhea, delirium, seizures, and coma due to fulminant liver failure and attendant hepatic encephalopathy caused by the accumulation of normally liver-removed substance in the blood.[12] Kidney failure (either secondary to severe hepatitis[63][67] or caused by direct toxic kidney damage[59]) and coagulopathy may appear during this stage. Life-threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure, intracranial bleeding, pancreatic inflammation, acute kidney failure, and cardiac arrest.[65][66] Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning.[68]

Death cap symptoms

have been reported to taste pleasant.[32][64] This, coupled with the delay in the appearance of symptoms—during which time internal organs are being severely, sometimes irreparably, damaged—makes it particularly dangerous.

Death caps

K-selection

Describes selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities. Also known as density-dependent selection; acts on pops. at a density near the limit imposed by their resources (i.e. carrying capacity)

r-selection

Describes selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments (i.e. low population densities). Occurs in populations well below carrying capacity or where individuals face little competition

Diversity

Different individuals carry different variants of the same basic blue print

I am not aware of any mitochondrial genes for peptidoglycan walls ? But the chloroplasts of Glaucophytes (members of the Archaeplastida) do still have a remnant peptidoglycan bacterial cell wall.

Do mitochondria still have bacterial cell walls or the genes for peptidoglycan walls?

Both of the mitochondrial membranes appear to be of bacterial origin. A nice explanation is found here; http://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2010/06/on-origin-of-double-membrane-in.html

Does the lipid composition of the mitochondrial membrane match that of bacteria or archaea?

1. The antibiotic may be destroyed by an enzyme 2. Be sequestered or inactivated by a different enzyme 3. Be actively pumped out of the cell by a third enzyme

Drug resistance can come about in one of 3 ways...

Totipotent

Each cell can develop into a new individual. Cells from early (1-3 days) embryos

Monotremes

Egg laying mammals with fur and mammary glands. They are thought to be representative of some of the earliest mammals.

Peshawar, Pakistan- March 1, 2014

Eleven people were killed when two vans carrying a polio vaccination team were hit by a roadside bomb in Pakistan's northern Khyber province.

The sources of stem cells

Embryonic stem cells - are harvested from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst seven to ten days after fertilization. Fetal stem cells - are taken from the germline tissues that will make up the gonads of aborted fetuses. Umbilical cord stem cells - Umbilical cord blood contains stem cells similar to those found in bone marrow. Placenta derived stem cells - up to ten times as many stem cells can be harvested from a placenta as from cord blood. Adult stem cells - Many adult tissues contain stem cells that can be isolated.

A fully formed eukaryote existed and the mitochondrion gave rise to free living bacteria.

Evidence supporting the Eukaryote-first hypothesis

The mitochondrion first merged with a proto-eukaryote and then the nucleus was acquired as a symbiont

Evidence supporting the mitochondrion-first hypothesis

The nucleus itself is the result of a symbiosis followed by the acquisition of the mitochondrion.

Evidence supporting the nucleus- first hypothesis

Ancient Earth conditions were such that much of the marine ecosystem was anaerobic but as cyanobacteria pumped out oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis there was increasing amounts of O2. There was also plentiful amounts of H2 from natural sources. After a time the natural geologic source of H2 became depleted and yet methanogenic Archaea still need hydrogen. As it turns out hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and acetate are waste products of anaerobic metabolism in some bacteria. As the dependency of the Archaean grew on the bacterium, there would have been a strong selection for a closer physical connection between the two. This would have made it easier for the waste products of anaerobic metabolism to have been transferred to the Archaean cell.Eventually this connection became complete with the bacterium becoming completely encompassed by the Archaean (host?). If the bacterium still retained it dual ability to function as a facultative anaerobe then the chimeric proto-eukaryote would also be a facultative anaerobe.

Explain the Hydrogen Hypothesis

They eventually hijack the plants' reproductive systems, forming galls which darken and burst, releasing fungal teliospores which infect other plants nearby. Before infection can occur, the smuts need to undergo a successful mating to form dikaryotic hyphae (two haploid cells fuse to form a dikaryon).

Explain the effect of smuts on those they infect

The Infinity Burial Project proposes alternatives for the postmortem body that promote and facilitate an individual engagement with the process of decomposition.

Explain the infinite burial project

What is so bad about Microcystis ?

Exposure to elevated levels of microcystin can result in liver damage and enlarged spleen.

Most enzyme release (and absorption of nutrients) occurs at tips of the hyphae. Proteins and other materials synthesized by the entire mycelium are channeled by cytoplasmic streaming to the tips of the extending hyphae.

Extracellular digestion.

hybrid sterility

F1 hybrid has reduced fertility

hybrid inviability

F1 hybrid produced but has reduced viability

recombinational speciation

F1 hybrids produce a great variety of recombinant offspring, some of which may be fertile but reproductively isolated from the two parent species

The original bacterium was a parasite. The environment inside the host cell provided protection for the bacterium. The bacterium had the ability to resist digestion by the host cell.

Facilitated a bacterium becoming a mitochondrion (selective advantage)

Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes

Fecal transplant from a healthy donor had a dramatic impact on the composition of the patient's gut microbiota and restoration of members of the bacterial divisions...

severe diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile and other conditions including colitis, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and some neurological conditions

Fecal transplantation has been successfully used to treat patients with...

2

For every 3 sodium ions pumped out of the neuron, how many potassium ions are put in?

Mycelium Loosely woven mat of hyphae Feeding structure Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae.

Fungal Body

Thread of cells One cell thick High surface area to volume ratio Absorb water, ions, nutrients Gas exchange Waste disposal The function of hyphae is somewhat analogous to the roots of plants in that they both form branching structures, have apical (terminal growth) and play a role in nutrient and water uptake.

Fungal Hyphae

biologically, fungi are fairly closely related to animals.

Fungal infections are often difficult to treat because

gametic mortality

Gametes are frequently very specialized cells, which can only perform well in the reproductive tract of the opposite sex of the same species

Induced Immunity: Innate (Passive) immunity: artificial passive

Gamma globulin (from animals) injection; extremely fast, but short lived (i.e. snake venom)

pain, skin ulcers, spasticity

Gelsemium elegans has been used in small doses to treat...

is made of linked glucose molecules and is a major storage product of animal cells, often found in high abundance in the liver. Like starch it is a branched α 1-4 linked glucan with the branches being α 1-6 bond off the stem. branching off by α(1→6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain

Glycogen

contributing to the increase in most zoonotic diseases?

Growth of global human and livestock animal populations. Increased transportation of humans and livestock. Ecologic and environmental changes brought about by human activity. Rapid evolution of pathogens.

What was the original primordial atmosphere comprised of?

H and He

An organism that cannot manufacture its own food and instead obtains its food and energy by taking in organic substances, usually plant or animal matter. All animals, protozoans, fungi, and most bacteria are heterotrophs.

Heterotrophic

Fungi get carbon from organic sources Hyphal tips release enzymes Enzymatic breakdown of substrate Products diffuse back into hyphae

Heterotrophic by Absorption

In 2008, Blehert et al. described the fungus associated with white-nose syndrome as a member of the genus Geomyces.[5] In 2009, Gargas et al. were the first to describe the fungus as a unique species; the specific name they chose, "destructans", means "destroying".[1] The fungus was definitively identified as the cause of the syndrome in bats, according to research published in 2011 by scientists at the United States Geological Survey.[6] It was previously unknown whether this fungus was the primary cause of WNS or was an opportunistic pathogen associated with the disease, though strong evidence suggested that the fungus was the etiologic agent.[2][7] In 2013, an analysis of the phylogenetic relationship indicated that this fungus was more closely related to the genus Pseudogymnoascus than to the genus Geomyces changing its Latin binomial to Pseudogymnoascus destructans.

History of Pseudogymnoascus destructans.discovery

Little Human

Homunculus

HPV16 variants A and B/C/D co-diverged with archaic and modern humans, respectively. When modern human populations left Africa and began interbreeding with Neanderthals and Denisovans, they became infected by the viral variant that had evolved with archaic humans, causing the infection to spread in Eurasia and the Americas

How did HPV spread to Eurasia and the Americas?

Greenhouse gasses temporarily absorb heat coming from the land and water

How do greenhouse gasses lead to increased global temperatures?

They have an enzyme with a high affinity for CO2

How do photosynthetic organisms sequester the tiny amount of CO2 that is in the atmosphere?

work by activating the natural immune system but in such a way that it does not make the person sick. Or at least, not VERY sick

How do vaccines work?

adaptations relative to environment that help organisms survive and reproduce

How do we explain the diversity of life on Earth?

evolution 1. population with natural genetic variation 2. strong selective pressure 3. survival of well adapted individuals 4. proliferation of progeny with genetic advantage

How does antibiotic resistance happen?

1. The antibiotic may be destroyed by a bacterial enzyme 2. the antibiotic may be sequestered or inactivated by a bacterial enzyme 3. the antibiotic may be actively pumped out of the cell by a bacterial enzyme

How does antibiotic resistance work?

Greenhouse gas molecules redirect heat back towards the Earth

How exactly does a Greenhouse gas work to warm the atmosphere?

in less than 1 msec

How fast can a voltage-gated ion channel respond to a signal and open?

Pelicans have moved in and eaten most of the goldfish

How has Teller Lank No. 5 in Colorado taken care of their goldfish problem?

estimated to be between 6000 and 8000 years old

How old is the Great Barrier Reef?

microbial species

Humans are a composite of....

Ignaz Semmelweis

Hungarian physician now known as an early pioneer of antiseptic procedures; discovered that cases of puerperal fever (childbed fever), a form of septicemia, could be cut drastically if doctors washed their hands in a chlorine solution before gynecological examinations

180 degrees F

If all of the heat that has been absorbed by the oceans since 1970 were instead absorbed by the land and atmosphere, what would be the average summer temperature in Georgia?

decline

If resource availability declines, the per capita birth rate (b) will often _________

log growth

If resources are unlimited then maximum cell division will occur

There is a lot of inertia built into population growth

If the world population growth (birth) rate is expected to decrease why is world population expected to increase?

Alexander Fleming

In 1928, this Scottish scientist noted that bacterial cultures accidentally contaminated with the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum secreted something that actively killed bacteria

HPV vaccination for all women aged 12-27

In April of 2007, Australia started a program of what?

greater western plot to harm children

In Pakistan and Nigeria polio eradication programs are under attack as being part of a.....

the MMR vaccine and children diagnosed with autism

In a 1998 paper Dr. Andrew Wakefield claimed that there was a link between what?

biomolecules (pectins, hemicellulose, lignin, etc.)

In addition to the cellulose fibrils there are a number of other_________________________ that make up the cell walls of plants.

broken down into individual glucose molecules in order to be metabolized.

In both starch and glycogen, the polymer must be

smaller (fewer genes, less complexity and less DNA)

In general the genomes of Bacteria and Archaea are ___________ than eukaryotes.

1.3 billion

In the US, how many birds are killed by domestic cats each year?

whole cell Cellular vaccine had 90% immunity and for much longer time, acellular effectiveness is closer to 60%. Side effects included swelling, slight fever, crankiness but virtually no serious effects such as seizures. The more effective cellular form is still widely used in the developing nations of the world. The acellular vaccine had fewer side effects but also significantly lower protective value.

In the mid-1990's the U.S. and many other countries switched from a __________ pertussis vaccine to one based on component proteins (acellular).

saliva, pH, temperature, and the immune system

In the mouth, these things help prevent many species from surviving

There have been 3...all since 1997 (1998, 2010, 2016)

In the past 425 years of Earth's history, how many global bleaching events have there been? When did they occur?

Hydroxycarbamide = Hydroxyurea

In the treatment of sickle-cell disease, hydroxycarbamide increases the concentration of fetal hemoglobin. The precise mechanism of action is not yet clear, but it appears that hydroxycarbamide increases nitric oxide levels, causing soluble guanylyl cyclase activation with a resultant rise in cyclic GMP, and the activation of gamma globin chain synthesis necessary for fetal hemoglobin production (which inhibits the formation of sickle hemoglobin aggregates). A few red cell clones called F cells are progeny of a small pool of immature committed erythroid precursors (BFU-e) that retain the ability to produce HbF

Sight, smell, sound, touch, taste - all sent to our brain to interpret via our nervous system.

In what ways do we sense our environment? What stimuli are we using?

excellent humoral immunity, but no mucosal intestinal immunity

Inactivated polio vaccine provides immunity for this, but not that...

iPSCs

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

microbiota

Ingested nutrients influence our...

Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism...

Insulin binds to its receptor (1) which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).

PEC-Encap™

Insulin independence - blood glucose tightly regulated in the normal range. A reduction in serious chronic health conditions that are caused by insufficiently controlled blood glucose swings Physiologic production of other pancreas-derived regulatory hormones.

____________ ___________ ____________ is one of the most tightly regulated homeostatic systems in humans.

Internal body temperature

community ecology

Is the study of a community which is an assemblage or association of populations of two or more different species occupying the same geographical area at the same point in time

Population Genetics

Is the study of the composition and inheritance of genetic variation within populations.

Phylogenies based on the genomes of α-proteobacteria and mitochondria (which still retain some of their ancestral genes) suggests that mitochondria arose from within one branch of the α-proteobacteria clade. Many of the closely related α-proteobacteria are facultative anaerobes.

Is there any evidence that the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion was a facultative anaerobe that could use oxygen but also survive anaerobically?

All we need to do is try and keep blood glucose between 3.8 and 5.8 mmol/L and everything is fine. To do this there are two special cell types in the pancreas, that are found in little clusters of cells called

Islets of Langerhans. One is a beta cell, and if blood sugar starts to rise, that cell directly senses the rise and secretes the hormone insulin. This stimulates body cells to absorb glucose from the blood, and use it for energy - or in the case of the liver and muscle tissue, absorb the glucose and store it in chains (glycogen) for future use. This brings the blood sugar down again to where it should be. If the blood sugar starts to fall another cell type called a alpha cell also in the pancreas islets senses that and secretes another hormone called glucagon, and this stimulates the liver in particular to release it's stored glucose back into the blood, raising the blood glucose levels again.

The Carboniferous Period was the last time in the history of the earth when coal could be produced in large quantities. Why?

It is thought that during the carboniferous era large amounts of cellulose were deposited and because organisms with the enzymes to break apart cellulose (termites and efficient wood digesting fungi) had not yet evolved, these cellulose deposits accumulated, were buried, and eventually formed coal deposits. So it is unlikely that coal will ever again be created in large amounts. Today, under aerobic conditions the cellulose would be broken down into CO2.

Why do we use the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium if it never in fact occurs in nature?

It provides a baseline to which you can compare actual populations. Essentially it is a null hypothesis. For example, you can measure the genotype frequencies of a population using phenotypes (e.g. red = AA, pink = Aa, white = aa) or you can estimate actual allele frequencies using genetic markers. With this data and statistical analysis you can test to see how much that population deviates from the Hardy-Weinberg baseline and learn which evolutionary factors are acting on that population. This can yield all kinds of valuable insights.

The West Nile Virus is most closely related to...

Kunjin virus The U.S. WN virus origin in unknown, but is most closely related genetically to strains found in the Middle East

The West Nile virus (WNV) is most closely related to

Kunjin virus. It is not known where the U.S. WN virus originated, but it is most closely related genetically to strains found in the Middle East. The virus was first identified in Uganda in 1937, and is fairly common in Europe and Middle East, sometimes in Australia, and is not considered to be a serious threat to most people.

Genotype frequencies stay the same if five conditions are met...

Large population size No gene flow No mutations Completely random mating No natural selection (i.e. all traits contribute equallyto survival)

large polysaccharides such as starch, the storage product of plants and green algae. Starch is a branched α 1-4 linked glucan.

Larger number of sugar molecules can join each other to form

In 1866 Ernst Haeckel created the first

Lebensbaum or "Tree of Life" This is where we get the term of an evolutionary "tree." Haeckel was an early adopter of Darwin's idea of descent from a common ancestor and created three main clades (branches), animals, plants, and protists, all coming from the "trunk" of the tree Monera (bacteria) but not necessarily the same bacterium. Within the three main branches we can still draw clades with circles crossing only one line at a time.

two or three different biological kingdoms, so there is no common lineage. By convention, lichens have the same scientific name as the fungus in them, and are not classified according to the species of the algae and/or cyanobacteria growing in them. The alga or cyanobacterium has its own, unique, scientific name (binomial name). There are about 20,000 known species of lichens.[10]

Lichens are really combinations of species from

among the oldest living things.They are among the first living things to grow on fresh rock exposed after an event such as a landslide. The long life-span and slow and regular growth rate of some lichens can be used to date events (lichenometry). Many lichens are very sensitive to environmental disturbances and can be used in cheaply assessing air pollution, ozone depletion, and metal contamination. Lichens have been used in making dyes, perfumes,and in traditional medicines. Few lichen species are eaten by insects or larger animals, such as reindeer.

Lichens may be long-lived, with some considered to be

on almost any surface.[7] Lichens are abundant growing on bark, leaves, mosses, on other lichens,[6] and hanging from branches "living on thin air" (epiphytes) in rain forests and in temperate woodland. They grow on bare rock, walls, gravestones, roofs, exposed soil surfaces, and in the soil as part of a biological soil crust. Different kinds of lichens have adapted to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth: arctic tundra, hot dry deserts, rocky coasts, and toxic slag heaps. They can even live inside solid rock, growing between the grains. Some lichens do not grow on anything, living out their lives blowing about the environment.[1] It is estimated that 6% of Earth's land surface is covered by lichen.[8] Colonies of lichens may be spectacular in appearance, dominating much of the surface of the visual landscape in forests and natural places, such as the vertical "paint" covering the vast rock faces of Yosemite National Park.[9]:2

Lichens occur from sea level to high alpine elevations, in a very wide range of environmental conditions, and can grow...

rosettes of cellulose synthesizing proteins that are free to move in the plasma membranes of plants and charophyte green algae

Linear strands of cellulose are made by

Which of the following has been suggested to be a cause of colony collapse disorder?

Loss of habitat. Genetically modified crops (GMOs). Use of Neonicotinoid pesticides. Reduced genetic diversity in bees. Electromagnetic fields

growing season length and temperature

Mean annual biotemperature: based on what?

reproductive (or fertility) tables

Measures reproduction of a cohort for the life span of the cohort; Records number of female offspring produced by each age group (cohort)

What is a gene pool?

Members of a species that can interbreed & produce fertile offspring. Therefore members of a species have a shared gene pool. Gene pool - all of the alleles of all the individuals in a population

During this era: - most advanced groups of insects arose (ants, social bees) - As various pollinating insects evolved, adaptive modification of flowers to pollinators led to immense floral diversity of modern plants - Angiosperms (=flowering plants) first appeared in early Cretaceous. Gymnosperms start declining as angiosperms gain dominance

Mesozoic Era

Hypothalamus regulates

Metabolic heat Electron transport chain of mitochondria 52% ATP, 48% heat Adipose tissue- "leaky" mitochondriaMuscles- shivering Blood vessels- constrict or dilate surface capillaries Skin- sweat, fluff hair

the most toxic form of over 80 known toxic variants, and is also the most studied by chemists, pharmacologists, biologists, and ecologists

Microcystin-LR

Why might cyanobacteria create microcystin?

Microcystins are a class of oligopeptides, produced through nonribosomal peptides synthases (NRPS),[3] and exhibit toxicity, and can occur in large quantities during blooms of the cyanobacteria genera Microcystis or Planktothrix. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin. Microcystins are hepatotoxic (able to cause serious damage to the liver). Once ingested, microcystin travels to the liver, via the bile acid transport system, where most is stored; though some remains in the blood stream and may contaminate tissue.

the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II and other proteins. Phylogenetic analyses of RPB1. Effects on bootstrap support of ISR or FSR were considered by using protein ML. The tree shown is the ML consensus tree topology from analysis of 760 aligned positions for 15 RPB1 sequences and 1 outgroup RPA1 sequence. Values report bootstrap support from ML analyses for all 760 sites (ALL sites), 669 sites (FSR, where the fastest evolving sites common to the ML tree and a tree where Microsporidia are at the base of the eukaryotes were removed), and 645 sites (ISR). Where only a single bootstrap value is shown, support was 100% in all analyses. The scale bar represents 10% estimated sequence divergence under the JTT-F model.

Microsporidia are related to Fungi: Evidence from

nucleus-first hypothesis, mitochondrion-first hypothesis, and the eukaryote-first hypothesis

Models for the evolution of the three domains

1. Genetic divergence 2.cytoplasmic incompatibility 3.cytogical divergence 4.recombinational speciation

Modes of speciation as classified by genetic and causal basis

significantly increase the weathering of rock over that of abiotic forces alone, enhancing the release of elements from various rocks and minerals.

Mosses have been shown to

autism cases

Most anti-vaccination believers claim that the compound Thimerosal led to an increase in what?

water temperatures that are outside of normal limits (normally meaning temps are to high)

Most coral bleaching events are tied to...

What are the human symptoms of WNV?

Most human cases are asymptomatic but in about 1/5 of all cases flu-like symptoms may occur and very rarely, brain inflammation can result from infection.

_________ can essentially be ignored with regard to HWE because it is such a weak force that it operates on time scales far longer than the ones one which HWE equilibrium is relevant.

Mutation

are fungi that form symbiotic relationships with nearly 90% of plant species on Earth. They serve multiple roles from assisting in phosphorus and water uptake to increasing resistance to pathogens.

Mycorrhizae

the establishment of epiphytic plants such as orchids and bromeliads.

Mycorrhizae also play an important role in

are symbiotic relationships that form between fungi and plants. The fungi colonize the root system of a host plant, providing increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis.

Mycorrhizal

primary response and secondary response

Name the 2 phases in the generation of an immune response.

glycerol

Nearly 90% of the carbon fixed by zooxanthellae is released to the coral host primarily as...

carnivorous fungi that have developed methods and structures that enable them to successfully trap and consume nematodes. Nematode trapping fungi are responsible for keeping the nematode population in check and are an important part of the subsoil ecosystem. These fungi prey on nematodes and are in turn consumed by organisms on the next trophic level. Nematophageous fungi use several methods to hunt their prey. These methods include living within the nematode and slowly consuming them as well as spreading diseases through nematode populations. The fungi also live in the soil and set traps for the nematodes to squirm into.

Nematode trapping fungi, or "nematophageous fungi," are

Axon terminal; Dendrites

Neurotransmitter molecules are released from the __________ and received by receptors on the __________.

Why is it that newborn infants born to mothers with sickle cell disease (SCD) have fewer misshapen RBCs than do their mothers?

Newborns have less β-hemoglobin than their mothers.

What is a neonicotinoid?

Nicotine acts as an insecticide. It exhibits a higher lethal dose for rats than flies. This spurred a search for insecticidal compounds that have selectively less effect on mammals. Initial investigation of nicotine-related compounds (nicotinoids) as insecticides was not successful.

How does a nicotinoid work?

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are neuron receptor proteins that signal for muscular contraction upon a chemical stimulus. They are cholinergic receptors that form ligand-gated ion channels in the plasma membranes of certain neurons and on the presynaptic and postsynaptic sides of the neuromuscular junction. Like the other type of acetylcholine receptor—the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR)—the nAChR is triggered by the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). nicotinic receptors can be opened not only by acetylcholine but also by nicotine —hence the name "nicotinic."

What is the largest constituent of today's atmosphere?

Nitrogen

mitochondrial cristae

Not all protists have flattened _______________ __________________, but all Opisthokonts do.

PEC-Direct

Open device allows direct vascularization of the patient's blood vessels into the device that holds the transformed hESCs

PEC-Direct™

Open device allows direct vascularization similar to a natural islet Virtually unlimited cell supply solves the issue of islet transplant availability

Fungi + Nucleariids + Choanoflagellates + Animals (Metazoa)

Opisthokonts =

The period where -sea levels reached their highest worldwide level -Gondwana started the period of equitorial latitudes

Ordovician

The second largest extinction of all time was during what period?

Ordovician may have been caused by a sudden drop in temperature and triggered a rapid drop in sea level As liverworts and mosses colonized the land they may have removed so much CO2 from the atmosphere that it caused a global cooling event (as the atmosphere lost much of its greenhouse gasses to fixed plant material).

the strata are laid down originally in a horizontal position (gravity is what lays them down).

Original horizontality Thus... nonhorizontality must have occured after the deposition

The host immune system has access to the hESC cells and since they have a different HLA complement than the host they could be attacked

PEC-Direct Cons:

hESC cells are nourished and oxygenated and like a real pancreas are in close contact with blood vessels for both faster response and better sensing of blood sugar levels

PEC-Direct: Pros:

Since the nutrients and oxygen of the blood have to diffuse across the membrane it is more difficult to support the hESC cells. It is also more difficult for the hESC cells to detect changes in blood sugar levels and respond quickly with the release of insulin or glucagon

PEC-Encap: Cons:

The host immune system does not have access to the hESC cells and even though they have a different HLA complement than the host they could not be attacked.

PEC-Encap: Pros:

Life invaded land during this era

Paleozioc

During this period: -sea level dropped to its lowest point -marked by the largest mass extinction in the Earth's history (primarily marine life vanished) - continents were joined into a single land mass called Pangea

Paleozoic Era - Permian

What is the earliest known Chordate?

Pikaia

Ordovician period (~475 MYA).

Plants first colonized the land during the

Induced Immunity: Adaptive (Active) Immunity

Production of a person's own antibodies, long lasting

Symptoms of Fanconi anemia

Progressive weakness Persistent infections Coagulation difficulties

horizontal gene transfer

Prokaryotes can exchange genes directly between cells in a process known as

Do mitochondria still have bacterial cell walls or the genes for peptidoglycan walls? Does the lipid composition of the mitochondrial membrane match that of bacteria or archaea? Where is the DNA of mitochondria?

Provide data in support of a bacterium becoming a mitochondrion

is thought to be native to Europe and was accidentally introduced in the Americas where it is now an invasive pathogen.

Psuedogymnoascus destructans

Where was the first reported cases of WNV in the USA?

Queens, NY (1999)

The first reported cases of WNV in the USA were reported in

Queens, New York in 1999.

animal sperm cell

Remembering the shape of an __________ _____________ __________ is a good way to remember the basic shape of an opisthokont. It is also the same basic shape as the motile form of a chytrid. Why does that make sense?

Polyploidy

Result of a failure of cell division (mitosis or meiosis) to separate the chromosomes into two cells. This leads to the accidental formation of gametes that are 2N rather than N. This is more common in plants.

Decomposers

Saprobes

is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of dead or decayed organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs or heterotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi and soil bacteria.

Saprotrophic nutrition

refers to longer times and wider areas than weather data

Scientists studying climate collect data that is slightly different from the data collected by those interested in weather. What is different about the data collected about climate? Climate data -

Hardy-Weinberg serves what purposes?

Serves as the theoretical expectation (null hypothesis) against which we can compare observed results The null hypothesis is that population or species is experiencing no evolutionary change Used only on numerical data. NEVER on percentages or ratios derived from the data

The earliest terrestrial arthropods and insects arose in the ______ period and the two major groups were...

Sillurian 1.Spiders, mites, scorpions 2.Millipedes, centipedes, etc

Parasites or mutualists? Land plants and Glomalean fungi were around 460 million years ago, but it's not quite clear what they did together

Similar modern fungi from the genus Glomus form a simple association with modern liverworts and hornworts, relatives of the only group of land plants around 460 million years ago. what was their relationship?

Plasmodium has evolved resistance to chloroquine.

Since the early 1930's the worldwide incidence of malaria had been declining but is now increasing.. WHY??

grass family (Poaceae). Economically important hosts include maize, barley, wheat, oats, sugarcane, and forage grasses.

Smuts are cereal and crop pathogens that most notably affect members of the

include structural differences in shape and positioning of dendrites and axons, different architecture, density, size, electrical properties, microtubule scaffolding structures, synaptic structures and circuits

Some obvious categories of neurons include....

hybrid inviability

Some species that do not ordinarily interbreed may do so on rare occasions. Frequently, the progeny of these interspecific matings die at some point during their development

Starch is a branched molecule and cellulose is a linear molecule.

Starch and cellulose are both made of linked glucose molecules. Why is starch so easily digested by animals whereas cellulose is not?

Why is Stem Cell Research So Important?

Stem cells allow us to study how organisms grow and develop over time. Stem cells can replace diseased or damaged cells that can not heal or renew themselves. We can test different substances (drugs and chemicals) on stem cells. We can get a better understanding of our "genetic machinery."

Adult (Differentiated) Stem Cells

Stem cells have been found in the blood, bone marrow, liver, kidney, cornea, dental pulp, umbilical cord, brain, skin, muscle, salivary gland

as a means of biological control for certain pest arthropods.

Strains of Cordyceps appear to be very host specific which has the potential of using Cordyceps

What percentage of pregnancies go to full term?

Studies have found that 30 to 50 percent of fertilized eggs are lost before or during the process of implantation. About 10 to 20 percent of known pregnancies end in miscarriage, and more than 80 percent of these losses happen before 12 weeks. Between 50 and 70 percent of first-trimester miscarriages are thought to be random events caused by chromosomal abnormalities in the fertilized egg.

What is thought to have caused the Permian extinction of marine organisms?

Sudden change in ocean chemistry

the older rock is below and the younger rock is above

Superposition

Hand-foot syndrome.

Swollen hands and feet may be the first signs of sickle cell anemia in babies. The swelling is caused by sickle-shaped red blood cells blocking blood flow out of their hands and feet. This may be the first symptom of sickle cell anemia in infants as early as six months of age and may occur in children with sickle trait.

watery diarrhea, three or more times a day for several days, with abdominal pain or tenderness

Symptoms of mild C. diff include:

What are some homeostasis examples in animal systems?

Temperature Glucose Blood pressure pH Water Calcium Oxygen Toxin levels

the above ground portion of a fungus. Its sole function is spore dispersal.

The "fruiting body" is

Mutations

The DNA sequence can be changed due to single base changes, deletion/insertion of DNA segments, etc

determined to be genetic clones, connected by a single mycelial network. This most recent find was estimated to cover over 2,200 acres (890 hectares) and be at least 2,400 years old.

The Honey Mushrooms of Malheur National Forest in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon were

What was the period known as the Age of the Dinosaurs?

The Mesozoic

The PEC-Direct™

The PEC-Direct™ product candidate delivers stem cell-derived PEC-01™ pancreatic progenitor cells in a device designed to allow direct vascularization of the cells, and is being developed for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) that are at high risk for acute complications including coma and death. Since an unlimited supply of PEC-01 cells can be produced, PEC-Direct effectively presents the opportunity to treat all high-risk insulin-requiring patients. Tests have shown that in addition to producing insulin the cells in the PEC-Direct device have further developed to secrete glucagon and other pancreatic hormones, effectively becoming an artificial pancreas. Allowing the patient's cells to have direct access to implanted cells means that autoimmune and alloreactive responses could be activated, so patients receiving the PEC-Direct product will need to take immunosuppressive medications, similarly to those who receive organ transplants. It's expected that the Edmonton Protocol medications, utilized for patients receiving islet transplants, will also be protective for PEC-Direct. Because the hESCs are derived from an embryo that does not have a matching HLA complement to that of the host PEC-Direct patients must be on immunosuppressive medications for the entire time that the device is implanted. There is a certain risk/benefit scenario for this treatment, and as a result ViaCyte has identified high-risk T1D patients as being the best candidates for the PEC-Direct product candidate.

PEC-Encap

The PEC-Encap device avoids the issue of triggering an immune response from the host since the host's blood vessels never come in contact with the hESCs. This would limit the chances of rejection and the same line of hESCs could be used for all patients. However it also means that it may be more difficult for the cells to detect when blood sugar levels have gotten too high and may delay the response of secreting insulin into the bloodstream.

a type of green alga, but in some species it is a cyanobacterium that is the source of photosynthesis.

The algal partner in the lichen symbiosis is usually

peptidoglycan wall

The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other organisms by the presence of a....

the central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord are part of what?

gain access to the bonds that link the glucose monomers and to break them apart.

The branched nature of starch (and glycogen) molecules allows the enzymes to

porous

The cell walls of plants, unlike those of fungi and bacteria, are not

makes the cells rigid and limits their ability to carryout endocytosis and exocytosis.

The cells of plants also have a flexible plasma membrane but secrete a thick cell wall of cellulose that

Membrane potential

The charge difference, or voltage (mV), between the inside and outside of the axon

photosynthetic pigments.

The chloroplasts of all green algae (including land plants) have essentially the same structure and the same complement of

How does the fetal blood system 'take' oxygen from the maternal blood cells?

The circulation of blood in the placenta.The mother's blood is delivered to the spaces between the chorionic villi in the placenta. The fetal blood is brought to the blood vessels within the villi from the umbilical cord. The two blood systems (maternal and fetal) are never directly connected to each other.

Phylogenetic species concept

The concept of a species as an irreducible group whose members are descended from a common ancestor and who all possess a combination of certain defining, or derived, traits (apomorphies)

carbon atoms in the glucose molecule are involved in forming the bridges in the primary linked molecule.

The designation "1-4" branching refers to which

a chimera of genes from multiple different organisms and lineages. Originally a hybrid of the archaean (host?) and the alpha-proteobacterial partner, there have been subsequent gene transfers from parasites (both bacterial and viral) and in the case of plants, from cyanobacteria that eventually became the chloroplast.

The eukaryotic genome is

Phylogenetics

The evolutionary development and history of a species or higher taxonomic grouping of organisms.

primary response Antibody against antigen A appears; its concentration rises to a plateau, and then declines.

The first encounter with an antigen produces a...

plants colonizing the land.

The first great mass extinction event of animals may have been the direct result of

Robert Whittaker was the first significant change in the tree of life since Haeckel's three kingdom (plus Monera) scheme in 1865.

The five-kingdom system, proposed in 1969 by

easily attach to a substrate and to resist drying out.

The flat, disc shaped body plan of Coleochaete allows it to

Macroevolutionary

The formation of each new branch in cladogenesis is a ______________ event.

1. Parazoa 2. Radiata 3. Protostomes 4. Deuterostomes

The four groups of animals

1. HPV 6 2. HPV 11 3. HPV 16 4. HPV 18

The four most risky oncogenic forms of HPV

chitin and several structural glucans. Chitin (C8H13O5N)n (/ˈkaɪtɨn/ KY-tin) is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many places throughout the natural world. It is the main component of the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters and shrimps) and insects, the radulae of molluscs, and the beaks and internal shells of cephalopods, including squid and octopuses. The structure of chitin is comparable to the polysaccharide cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. In terms of function, it may be compared to the protein keratin.

The fungal cell wall is comprised of

produce food by photosynthesis. The algae or cyanobacteria benefit from being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungus, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it

The fungus benefits from the symbiotic relation because algae or cyanobacteria ...

age, diet, stress, or health conditions

The gut microflora may have over 1000 different species of bacteria, and their distribution may change with:

About ten times the total

The human body is composed of approximately 10^13 (ten trillion) cells. The number of bacteria in and on the human body is...

morphological, biochemical, and genetic evidence.

The idea that all fungi and animals share a common ancestor is a relatively recent one but it is exceedingly well supported by

What is believed to be the cause of the extinction of the dinosaurs?

The impact of a large asteroid (~10 km in diameter). It left a crater in the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico that is 180 km in diameter and of the proper age. Collision like 100 million megaton explosive!

Type 1, 2, 3 - 40D, 8D, 32D antigen unit

The inactivate polio vaccine consist of all 3 types of polio viruses. What were they?

lag phase

The initial inoculation before any cell division occurs

diabetic lens

The lens is minimally invasive and works by analyzing tear fluid in diabetic users. It is linked to a clip wearable on the collar or behind the ear which is connected to a small device that transmits the data to the person's smartphone.

Not enough time (too few generations) to witness formation of a new species

The major difficulty in studying speciation as hypothesis science is...

threshold stimulus

The minimum stimulus needed to achieve an action potential is called what?

population density

The number of individuals per unit area or volume

What has the greatest influence on why people living in Atlanta have a lower incidence of WNV than so those in Chicago?

The per capita number of trees

why people living in Atlanta have a lower incidence of WNV than so those in Chicago?

The per capita number of trees

What are some things that can be done to reduce the chances of a toxic algal bloom in Lake Okeechobee?

The restoration of natural buffers as well as changes in agricultural practices could greatly reduce the amount of nutrients flowing into Lake Okeechobee as well as treat the water flowing out of it.

(sickle cell) Eye problems.

The retina can deteriorate when it does not get enough nourishment from circulating red blood cells. It can be serious enough to cause blindness.

extracellular digestion

The rigid cell walls of prokaryotes prevents them from injesting food. Instead they release digestive enzymes into the environment through the porous cell wall. These enzymes break down substrates into small molecules which in turn go through the cell wall and are taken up by the cell. This is called....

What is a phenotype?

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

What is a phenotype?

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment; For single gene traits, it is the actual expression of a particular allele

oily, dry, and moist

The skin has several environments, what are they?

multicellular fungi characterized by their large numbers of teliospores. The smuts get their name from a Germanic word for dirt because of their dark, thick-walled, and dust-like teliospores. They are mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) and can cause plant disease.

The smuts are

their commonalities concerning sexual reproduction.[1]

The smuts are grouped with the other basidiomycetes because of

population dispersion

The spacing of individuals in a population

demography

The study of vital statistics of populations and how they change over time. This primarily deals with birth rates and death rates

the above ground morphology of the reproductive structure.

The taxonomy of fungi is based largely on

less negative

The threshold stimulus causes the membrane potential to become...

relatively inflexible, strong, and waterproof.

The tight spacing of the cellulose fibrils plus the associated compounds that fill the small spaces between fibrils creates a cell wall that is

the emergence of anti-biotic resistant bacteria as well as the growth of pathogens such as C. diff

The use of topical and oral antibiotics for the treatment of acne is a common practice in the U.S. but there is data that challenges the effectiveness of this treatment and it is known to facilitate

More disorders are being included in the Autism Spectrum and doctors are getting better at diagnosing the characteristics of autism.

The vaccines are not a cause for the increase in autism diagnoses. Then what is?

Lactobacillus bacteria

The vaginal microbial community was believed to be dominated by...

West Nile Virus's effect on horses?

The virus can cause severe disease and death in horses.

millions

There are ______ of microbes per square inch on our body.

fourty

There are at least ________ different "types of neurons in humans but it is hard to distinguish them based solely on morphology or even function.

This occurred about 30 MY after plants first colonized the land. As liverworts sucked CO2 out of the atmosphere the amount of greenhouse gas decreased, so the global temperature decreased too. There is evidence that the relatively sudden drop in the greenhouse gas CO2 led to sudden drop in Earth temperatures.

There is evidence that there was a sudden drop in Earth temperatures, causing massive glaciation of the continents and possibly bringing on the mass extinction event the marked the end Ordovician period at 440 MYA. Why?

eukaryotes

These are organisms with nuclei and cellular organelles (sub-cellular components with specialized functions) such as mitochondria, chloroplasts and cilia. They include all animals, plants, fungi, and protists

prokaryotes

These are typically organisms with no nucleus or major organelles within their cell. Although they appear simple, they can be biochemically and structurally very complex. Includes Bacteria and Archaea.

Stem Cells are extraordinary because

They can divide and make identical copies of themselves over and over again (Self-Renewal) Remain Unspecialized with no 'specific' function or become . . . . Specialized (Differentiated) w/ the potential to produce over 200 different types of cells in the body.

Why types of animals are able to perform parthenogenisis?

This can occur in just about every group of vertebrates including sharks, amphibia and birds. So far no mammals.

Two types of genetically controlled traits.

Traits controlled by single Mendelian genes such as coat color in mice, flower colors in plants, eye color in Drosophilia, biochemical markers and molecular markers. Traits controlled by many genes. Called polygenic or quantitative traits. For example height in humans, litter size in pigs, growth rate in loblolly pine.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

Transgenic plants are plants that have been genetically engineered, a breeding approach that uses recombinant DNA techniques to create plants with new characteristics. They are identified as a class of

false

True/False: All animals are multicellular

Opisthokonta

Two of the major "Kingdoms" of traditional taxonomic schemes (Fungi & Animals) are actually contained within the monophyletic protistan group

Unikonts bikonts

Two of the six major protist clades (Amoebozoa and Opisthokonts) are grouped together as ___________. The other four clades are ___________.

Müllerian mimicry

Two unpalatable species mimic each other.

Thimerosal (the compound they claim led to an increase in autism cases) was never used as a preservative in the measles/mumps/rubella vaccine. In fact, no vaccine licensed since 199 has contained Thimerosal as a preservative except a few multi-dose container vaccines such as some (not all) HIB and influenza vaccines.

Typically, the measles/mumps/rubella vaccine is the anti-vaccination believers' target. What is interesting about this?

Where was WNV first identified?

Uganda (1937) and is common in Europe, and the Middle East (sometime Australia)

a single cilium per cell.

Unikont

a bifurcated needle, not an injection the bifurcated needle is dipped into the vaccine and then used to prick the skin 15 times in about 3 seconds in a 5mm radius area (it is administered into the superficial layer of the skin)

Unlike any other vaccine, smallpox is administered using...

live vaccinia virus

Unlike other vaccines, which use dead virus, the smallpox vaccine is...

Why are all parthenogenic turkey eggs male (ZZ)?

Up to 30% of all domestic turkey eggs are parthenogenic, but all are male (ZZ) for in birds it is the female that is heterozygous for sex determination (ZW), not the males as it is in mammals.

urea and other chemicals

Urinary system is almost sterile due to...

Lord Jeffrey Amherst Commanding General of British Forces in North America during the French and Indian War

Used blankets and handkerchiefs coated with smallpox as a bioweapon to decimate Chief Pontiac's forces during the summer of 1763 in the siege of Fort Pitt

Induced Immunity: Adaptive (active) immunity: artificial active

Vaccination - usually contains a safe antigen from the pathogen. Person makes antibodies without becoming ill

...mount an immune response. This response is triggered by the presence of an antigen of some sort.

Vaccines can be produced in many different ways but all of them rely on the hosts' ability to...

Problems with iPSCs:

Very low transformation rates (0.01% to 0.0001%) One of the four genes (Myc) is actually an oncogene that can cause cancer. Gene inserts can disrupt normal cell function and induce mutations and epigenetic changes. iPSC are not easily transplanted and may elicit an immune response, even if returned to the same individual from which they were derived. iPSCs do not easily make tissues derived from mesoderm (e.g. liver, pancreas, etc.).

Wax ester fermentation in mitochondria of the facultatively anaerobic photosynthetic flagellate Euglena gracilis. The map is redrawn based on data reported previously (514). Under anaerobic conditions, this photosynthetic euglenid, which acquired its plastids through secondary endosymbiosis, uses acetyl-CoA produced by pyruvate:NADP+ oxidoreductase (419) as the terminal electron acceptor, leading to the formation of an unusual end product among eukaryotes: wax esters (213, 443, 514). Mitochondrial wax ester fermentation includes anaerobic fumarate respiration and the same propionyl-CoA formation pathway as the one found in mitochondria of facultative anaerobic animals excreting and/or accumulating propionate.

Wax ester fermentation in mitochondria of the facultatively anaerobic photosynthetic flagellate Euglena gracilis summary...

Bacteroides (excessive gain and Bifidobacterium counts (normal gain)

Weight gain during pregnancy seems to be associated with

- Reduced infant mortality - Reduced overall mortality rates - Greater longevity - Females bearing progeny at a younger age

What allows populations to increase?

1. Change your diet 2. Consume probiotic pills 3. Eat fermented and cultured foods 4. Have someone else's poo introduced into your intestine

What are doctors telling you to do to help you restore a damaged microbiome?

competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism, commensalism), facilitation

What are interspecific Interactions?

- temperature - precipitation - storms - droughts

What are some density-independent factors?

Formation of mountain ranges, canyons or rivers, continental drift, etc.

What are some examples of allopatric speciation?

1. voltage-gated channels 2. ligand-gated channels 3. stress activated channel

What are the 3 types of channels?

1. Acetylcholine 2. Amino Acids 3. Biogenic Amines 4. Neuropeptides 5. Gases

What are the 5 groups of Neurotransmitters?

1. to keep viruses from attacking the cell 2. to give the cell a distinct shape 3. to keep the cell from bursting due to osmotic pressure 4. to allow compounds to excreted into the environment

What are the functions of a prokaryotic cell wall?

atmosphere, water, warmth, life

What are the major things that distinguish the Earth from other bodies in our solar system (e.g. the Moon)?

Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria

What are the three domains of life?

prokaryotes and eukaryotes

What are the two basic cell types?

Anagenesis and Cladogenesis

What are the two basic patterns of speciation?

its inability to metabolize citrate

What distinguishes E. coli from other bacteria?

block the formation of the peptidoglycan wall

What do anitibiotics such as penecillin do?

communication, movement, sense the environment

What do nerves do for the organism?

smallpox

What do the Spanish inadvertently owe their success in conquering the Aztec and Incas in Mexico to?

dead pathogen, weakened pathogen, closely related pathogen, components of a pathogen (acellular) These will express similar antigens which will elicit an immune response (often with some fever and swelling) and the production of memory T-cells will then be primed should they ever contact the actual pathogen.

What do vaccines use?(There are 4 different types of vaccines that differ in efficiency as well as the level of side effects)

solar radiation, Earth's position relative to the sun: tilt, rotation, revolution, and atmospheric gases: H2O, CO2, CH4, N2O, O3

What drives Earth's climate

Displace native species, reduce productivity of the bioregion, alter processes in the ecosystem, introduce new diseases to the region

What ecological problems do invasive species cause?

Decomposers. Pathogens. Partners in primary production. Parasites.

What ecological roles are played by fungi?

Mutation, Genetic Drift, Selection

What evolutionary factors are responsible for genetic divergence among populations?

- limiting factors (places to live, shelter from predators, food, and water) - pathogens (disease) - predators - paraites

What factors might decrease births, increase mortality, or increase dispersal out of an area when density increases?

This is generally 5-15mV less negative than the resting potential... the voltage-regulated sodium channels all open and sodium ions rapidly diffuse inward and depolarization occurs.

What happens if the membrane potential reaches the threshold potential?

In an ATP driven sodium/potassium pump three sodium ions are pumped outside the cell for every two potassium ions in. This means a plus charge accumulates outside the cell and the inside is negatively charged compared to the internal cytoplasm.

What happens in an ATP driven sodium/potassium pump?

Because there's more sodium on the outside of the cell than the inside of the membrane, sodium ions then diffuses rapidly into the nerve cell. All these positively-charged sodiums rushing in causes the membrane potential to become less negatively charged (the inside of the membrane is now positive relative to the outside). This shift in potential if great enough (- 55mV) will cause voltage-gated sodium channels to open and allow even more sodium ions in, eventually raising the potential to positive charge. At this point the sodium channels close and voltage gated potassium channels open. ATP mediated sodium/potassium pumps work to restore the original ionic balance and once a negative potential is again reached the potassium channels close

What happens when a stimulus causes the ligand-gated or stress activated sodium channels to open?

Studies have shown that a series of three DTaP injections to be slightly less effective in preventing pertussis than two injections of DTwP DTwP has an efficacy rate of greater than 96% whereas DTaP has an average efficacy rate of 84%, which is already below the 90% rate needed for herd immunity.

What have studies shown regarding the effectiveness of DTaP verses DTwP?

The evolution of the modern horse

What is an example of anagenesis?

Between -60 mV and -80mV

What is considered resting potential?

when the antigen is first encountered the response is slow because, at first, there are only a few B cells that react with the antigen the weak response allows the invader enough time to cause illness a type of antibody (IgM) and memory B cells are produced

What is primary response?

the next time the antigen is encountered the response is quicker and stronger each time memory B cells recognize antigen and they all begin to divide quickly lots of plasma cells are produced which make lots of a different type of antibody called IgG

What is secondary response?

negative

What is the charge inside the neuron relative to the outside when it is a rest?

no sex

What is the easiest way to prevent the spread of HPV?

the absence of a nucleus in prokaryotes

What is the largest and most obvious distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

fracking and coal mining leaks

What is the largest source of methane in the United States?

All-or-None Law

What is the law that action potentials occur maximally or not at all? (In other words, there's no such thing as a partial or weak action potential. Either the threshold potential is reached and an action potential occurs, or it isn't reached and no action potential occurs.)

gene flow

What is the most important factor that holds a gene pool of a species together and prevents speciation?

solar energy

What is the principle source of energy that enables the biosphere on Earth to exist?

about -70mV

What is the resting membrane potential?

stress caused to the symbiotic zooxan

What is thought to be the beginning of coral bleaching ?

extreme environments such as volcanic hot springs

What kind of environments were Archaea first found in?

Rapid reproduction (generally these species are r-selected), toleration to diverse habitat conditions, have no natural enemies in the new bioregion they are introduced to, highly competitive for resources

What makes an "alien" species invasive?

Less than one half or one percent

What percent of the Earth's atmosphere is comprised of carbon dioxide?

A. Viral cells B. Fungal cells C. Bacterial cells D. Protists

What types of cells are found in and on a typical, healthy human body?

smallpox

What was the first disease to be prevented using a form of vaccination?

Extract nutrients from the soil. Prevent desiccation.

What were the primary obstacles that had to be overcome for algae to successfully colonize the land?

Within four years the rate of genial warts in girls under 21 fell from 18.6% to 1.9%. In young men, even though they were not vaccinated, the rate of genital warts fell by 90%- their partners were not exposing them to the virus. Men who were in same sex relationships showed no decline in the rate of genital warts, so it wasn't because the wart virus was just going through some sort of a cycle. Nor did the rate drop in older women who were not part of the vaccination program

What were the results of Australia's vaccination program?

variolation

When John Adams had himself inoculated with a weakened form of the smallpox virus in 1765, the process was known as... - the first use of a weakened pathogen to elicit an immune response - smallpox pathogen was weakened using heat, drying, or alcohol - Chinese used a dry powder made from smallpox scabs to blow up the nostrils

1972

When did routine smallpox vaccination among the American public stop after the disease had been eradicated in the U.S.?

1980

When did the World Health Organization formally declare that smallpox was dead?

only when the membrane is stimulated (depolarized) enough so that sodium channels open completely

When does the action potential occur?

disruptive selection

When individuals at both extremes have high fitness, phenotypic traits are bi-modally distributed.

directional selection

When individuals at one extreme have higher fitness, the mean moves to favor that phenotype.

stabilizing selection

When individuals close to the mean have the highest fitness, results in narrowing of variation.

Which birds were most effected by WNV's introduction to the US?

When it first hit the US a number of wild birds fell victim to WNV. Many species were effected, but crows and other corvids were especially hard hit by this pathogen that was novel to North America.

the risk of infection

When levels of Lactobacillus drop, the pH becomes more neutral, and what increases?

Allopatric speciation

When the isthmus of Panama closed ~12-15 million years ago, what kind of speciation of marine shrimp occurred?

Why are humans so relatively hairless compared to our primate cousins?

When we started wearing clothing hair became a disadvantage. Humans prefer mates with less body hair (i.e. sexual selection) Being able to sweat gave our ancestors some sort of selective advantage.

What is a founder effect?

Where a small number of colonists leave the source population and start a new small population.

The DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts is both in the nucleus and still retained in the organelle. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria have retained their own ribosome genes and translation machinery and still make a few essential proteins that are not (yet) made in the nucleus.

Where is the DNA of mitochondria?

What are genetic bottlenecks?

Where the population size has been greatly reduced by some factor, such as disease

Coleochaete

Which Charophyte green alga is most closely related to the common ancestor of land plants?

differences in nutrition; his Plantae were mostly multicellular autotrophs, his Animalia multicellular heterotrophs, and his Fungi multicellular saprotrophs.

Whittaker's erection of the fungi as a distinct clade was based mainly upon

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Who was the first person to discover bacteria?

because the bacterial cell wall prevents two bacterial cells from fusing their membranes and exchanging genes

Why are pilli needed to exchange genes?

Actively growing plants accumulate CO2 during the growing season and lose it with the degradation of leaves in the autumn and winter.

Why does the CO2 dataset from Baring Head, N.Z. show less variability but an identical trend to that of Mauna Loa?

Urine can be stored in the bladder for many hours and glucose only gets into the urine when blood sugar levels are very high

Why is the monitoring of glucose in the urine not recommended for diabetics as a way of monitoring blood sugar levels?

to fill the missing browsing, grazing, and seed dispersal role that was played by the Mauritius giant tortoise which was hunted to extinction

Why was the Aldabra Giant Tortoise brought to the island of Mauritius?

pharynx

With their stinging tentacles coral can capture small invertebrate prey and ingest it into the...

Klinefelter syndrome

XXY syndrome 1 in 500 males are XXY

Hyperpolarization

a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. It is the opposite of a depolarization. It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.

An agonist is

a chemical that binds to a receptor and activates the receptor to produce a biological response. Whereas an agonist causes an action, an antagonist blocks the action of the agonist and an inverse agonist causes an action opposite to that of the agonist.

The Globin gene family represents

a classic example of how gene duplication and divergence can lead to new functions over evolutionary history. The globin gene family even predates the divergence of plants and animals.

biofilm

a community of microbes that live together on a surface

heat-stroke

a condition marked by fever and often by unconsciousness, caused by failure of the body's temperature-regulating mechanism when exposed to excessively high temperatures. Very rapid or dramatically slowed heartbeat. Rapid rise in body temperature that reaches 104 degrees to 106 degrees F. Either drenching sweats accompanied by cold, clammy skin (which may indicate heat exhaustion) or a marked decrease in sweating accompanied by hot, flushed, dry skin (which may indicate heat stroke)

instar

a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (ecdysis), until sexual maturity is reached

Fanconi anemia is

a disease passed down through families (inherited) that mainly affects the bone marrow. It results in decreased production of all types of blood cells.

sodium-glucose linked transporter (SGLT)

a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa (enterocytes) of the small intestine (SGLT1) and the proximal tubule of the nephron (SGLT2 in PCT and SGLT1 in PST). They contribute to renal glucose reabsorption. In the kidneys, 100% of the filtered glucose in the glomerulus has to be reabsorbed along the nephron (98% in PCT, via SGLT2). In case of too high plasma glucose concentration (hyperglycemia), glucose is excreted in urine (glucosuria); because SGLT are saturated with the filtered monosaccharide. Glucose is never secreted by a healthy nephron

research finds that men and women like their skin to be at a warm 92 degrees Fahrenheit, studies suggest that women prefer

a far warmer environment (roughly 77 degrees Fahrenheit) than men (72 degrees).

Founder effect

a few individuals from a population start a new population with a different allele frequency than the original population.

Haruko Obokata is

a former stem-cell biologist and research unit leader at Japan's Laboratory for Cellular Reprogramming, Riken Center for Developmental Biology.[3][4] She claimed to have developed a radical and remarkably easy way to make stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency (STAP) cells that could be grown into tissue for use anywhere in the body.[5] Riken, however, eventually launched an investigation in response to allegations of irregularities in images appearing in several articles she authored, including the paper announcing the discovery of STAP cells.[6][7][8] The ensuing scandal over STAP cells has since become one of the world's best-known scientific frauds alongside the Schön scandal and Hwang Woo-suk's cloning experiments

Zooxanthellae

a general term used to describe algal symbionts of marine invertebrates

amino acids

a group of neurotransmitters associated with long-term memory

gases

a group of neurotransmitters associated with nitric oxide (local regulators) and carbon monoxide (hypothalmic hormone release; intestine smooth muscle plasma membrane hyperpolarization)

neuropeptides

a group of neurotransmitters associated with pain reception

biogenic amines

a group of neurotransmitters associated with sleep, mood, attention, and learning ; used for nervous system disorders and treatments

prokaryotic species definition

a group of strains that are characterized by a certain degree of phenotypic consistency, showing 70% of DNA-DNA binding and over 97% of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene-sequence identity

Batesian mimicry

a harmless species mimics a harmful one

Sickle cell disease or sickle cell anemia is

a hereditary genetic disease characterized by the presence of abnormal crescent-shaped red blood cells instead of the regular biconcave disc-shaped cells. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to various other organs and tissues with the help of a protein called haemoglobin. The main cause of sickle cell disease is when haemoglobin mutates into an abnormal type called haemoglobin S. The presence of Haemoglobin S causes red blood cells to be sickle-shaped and rigid, making it more difficult for them to flow through blood vessels in the body to deliver oxygen. Consequently, these sickled cells stick to the walls of various blood vessels, resulting in blocked blood flow that can lead to organ damage, pain and infections.

Human skin is much like a well-constructed weather-proof jacket, built in layers with each layer having a specific function. The intradermal fat acts as...

a layer of insulation that can respond to external temperatures by expanding to provide extra insulation, not to keep the cold out, but to keep the body's heat in.

What is Microcystis aeruginosa?

a microcystin producing genus of freshwater cyanobacteria which includes the harmful algal bloom Microcystis aeruginosa.[1] Cyanobacteria produce two groups of toxin, neurotoxins and peptide hepatotoxins, such as microcystin and cyanopeptolin.

Stem cells from bone marrow form

a number of cell types of the immune and circulatory system. These stem cells have been used to cure diseases since the 1960's.

Another problem with using iPSC in treating diseases caused by genetic abnormalities (e.g. MS, diabetes, leukemia, etc.) is that

a patient's own stem cells carry the same genetic defects that led to the disease in the first place. While there is reduced risk of rejection, there is also little hope for a cure.

Cytoplasmic incompatibility

a phenomenon that results in sperm and eggs being unable to form viable offspring. The effect arises from changes in the gamete cells caused by intracellular parasites like Wolbachia, which infect a wide range of insect species

last chance tourism

a phenomenon whereby tourists choose to visit a destination that is perceived to be in danger, with the express intention of seeing it before it's gone

What is a population?

a population is a localized group of interbreeding individuals

the nose

a primary defender against inhaled pathogens

enema

a procedure in which liquid or gas is injected into the rectum, typically to expel its contents, but also to introduce drugs or permit X-ray imaging and is used by many physicians as a mode of delivery for FMT

adaptive radiation

a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmental niches

Depolarization

a rapid change within a cell, during which the cell undergoes a shift in electrical charge distribution, resulting in less negative charge inside the cell.

Aplastic anemia is

a rare disease in which the bone marrow and the hematopoietic stem cells that reside there are damaged.[1] This causes a deficiency of all three blood cell types (pancytopenia): red blood cells (anemia), white blood cells (leukopenia), and platelets (thrombocytopenia).[2][3] Aplastic refers to inability of the stem cells to generate mature blood cells

An agonist binds to

a receptor and causes a biological response whereas an antagonist binds to a receptor and blocks a biological response.

Spillover infection, also known as pathogen spillover and spillover event, occurs when...

a reservoir population with a high pathogen prevalence comes into contact with a novel host population. The infection is transmitted from the reservoir population and may or may not be transmitted within the new host population

Spillover infection, also known as pathogen spillover and spillover event, occurs when

a reservoir population with a high pathogen prevalence comes into contact with a novel host population. The infection is transmitted from the reservoir population and may or may not be transmitted within the new host population.

The morula consists of

a small group of internal cells surrounded by a larger group of external cells (Barlow et al. 1972).

introduced species

a species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrive there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental

Epulopiscium fishelsoni

a species of Gram-positive bacteria that have a symbiotic relationship with surgeonfish and are well know for their large size

What is a gene?

a stretch of DNA or RNA that determines a certain trait. Genes mutate and can take two or more alternative forms

A gene is

a stretch of DNA or RNA that determines a certain trait. Genes mutate and can take two or more alternative forms; an allele is one of these forms of a gene. For example, the gene for eye color has several variations (alleles) such as an allele for blue eye color or an allele for brown eyes.

dysbiosis

a term for a microbial imbalance or maladaptation on or inside the body, such as an impaired microbiota

shifting baseline

a type of change to how a system is measured, usually against previous reference points

Induced pluripotent stem cells (also known as iPS cells or iPSCs) are

a type of pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from adult cells.

The data suggest that neither monotremes nor marsupials had a gene for

a γ-globin sub-unit as are found in placental mammals.

HPV 16 and HPV 18

account for 70% of cervical cancer

Many insecticides work by altering normal neural responses in insects. In a normally functioning system

acetylcholine is released, binds to receptors, and elicits a neural response. Degradation proteins then break down the acetylcholine and the signal is turned off.

The shape and size of the nicotine molecule is close enough to that of

acetylcholine that it binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and in doing so elicits a nervous system response as if acetycholine had been released. This is why people get a buzz from smoking tobacco and also why they get addicted to it.

Postzygotic isolating mechanisms

act after mating has occurred (i.e., after formation of a zygote) to prevent potential hybrids from forming or from passing on their genes.

AFLPs

after digest with restriction enzymes, a subset of DNA fragments are selected for PCR amplification

Hangfishes and lampreys are living representativesof

agnathan vertebrates

In founder effect, allele genotype and phenotype frequencies will...

all be different from those of the original population and will result in an overall loss of genetic diversity in the new population

protists

all eukaryotes that are no plants, fungi, or animals

cell membrane

all living cells posses a.....

What is a gene pool?

all of the alleles of all the individuals in a population; therefore members of a species have a shared gene pool

If populations are small, over time, what happens to allele frequencies?

allele frequencies will fluctuate and some alleles will go extinct because of chance alone

Codominant alleles

alleles are equally strong and neither are masked by the other. When both alleles are present, they are both expressed in the phenotype, producing "blending".

Modern biological methods

allow to use molecular features Gene sequences Protein sequences Analysis based on homologous sequences (e.g., globins) in different species

Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis and screening (PGD) is an advanced IVF technique that

allows embryos to be created and then selected for certain genetic traits. These embryos can either be implanted or isolated to create a customized line of hESCs.

White blood cells (WBCs)

also called leukocytes are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.

Ernst Haeckel

among the first to break with the two kingdom system and acknowledge that many microorganisms cannot be cleanly placed as either plants or animals; Importantly he proposed that all "higher" life forms (i.e. eukaryotes) were descended from prokaryotes (= Monera)

diet and nutritional status

among the most important, modifiable determinants of human health

Recessive allele

an allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical

Dominant allele

an allele that produces the same phenotype whether its paired allele is identical or different

blastocyst

an early stage in embryo development, into the uterine epithelium. Cooperative interactions between trophoblast cells and maternal cells then form the placenta.

RuBisCO

an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants to energy-rich molecules such as glucose

Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) is

an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis.

Induced Immunity: Innate (Passive) immunity

an individual is given antibodies by another short-term resistance (weeks-6 months)

Autopolyploid

an individual or strain whose chromosome complement consists of more than two complete copies of the genome of a single ancestral species.

Allopolyploid

an individual or strain whose chromosomes are composed of more than two genomes each of which has been derived from one of two or more species

Signs and symptoms of sickle cell anemia often don't appear until

an infant is at least 4 months old and may include: Anemia. Sickle cells are fragile. They break apart easily and die, leaving you without a good supply of red blood cells. Red blood cells usually live for about 120 days before they die and need to be replaced. But sickle cells die after an average of less than 20 days. This results in a lasting shortage of red blood cells (anemia). Without enough red blood cells in circulation, your body can't get the oxygen it needs to feel energized. That's why anemia causes fatigue.

Myoglobin is

an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. In humans, myoglobin is only found in the bloodstream after muscle injury. It is an abnormal finding, and can be diagnostically relevant when found in blood.

extremophile

an organism that thrives in physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to most life on Earth

1904- Dr Earnest E. Irons, an intern at Presbyterian Hospital in Chicago, performed a routine blood test and a urine analysis on a patient with symptoms of

anemia and was the first to observed these "pear shaped, elongated" sickled blood cells. It was not until 1910 that Dr James Herrick, the supervisor of Dr Irons, published his article describing these "peculiar elongated and sickle shaped red blood corpuscles in a case of severe anemia."

Top 15 industrial sectors in the U.S. economy that are dependent on

animal-mediated pollination service.

diseases transmitted between humans either directly or via a vector

anthroponoses

Specific types of cells can be identified using

antibodies against specific antigens, which in turn are attached to antibody coated magnetic beads and separated from the unlabeled cells.

plasmodium

apicomplexan protist that causes Malaria

a term used to refer to a group of viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors

arbovirus

Demodex mites

are a natural part of this human microbiome, and they may serve a useful function by feeding off of dead skin cells to help rid the face of waste. In fact, dead human skin cells are the largest component of household dust and, just like dust mites, Demodex folliculorum may be part of a natural cleaning system

Lentiviruses

are a subclass of Retroviruses. They are sometimes used as vectors for gene therapy thanks to their ability to integrate into the genome of non-dividing cells, which is the unique feature of Lentiviruses as other Retroviruses can infect only dividing cells. The viral genome in the form of RNA is reverse-transcribed when the virus enters the cell to produce DNA, which is then inserted into the genome at a random position (recent findings actually suggest that the insertion of viral DNA is not random but directed to specific active genes and related to genome organisation[9]) by the viral integrase enzyme.

Analogous structures

are actually features that do not indicate there is a recent common ancestor between two organisms but which has a similar function.

Anthroponoses

are diseases transmitted between humans; either directly or via a vector.

Apocrine glands develop in

areas abundant in hair follicles, such as your armpits and groin, and they empty into the hair follicle just before it opens onto the skin surface. Apocrine glands produce a milky fluid that most commonly is secreted when you're under emotional stress

Another option for BMT is

autologous transplantation (removal of a patient's own marrow when a complete remission has been induced, followed by ablative treatment of the patient with the hope of destruction of any residual tumor and rescue with the patient's own bone marrow). Since an autograft is used, no immunosuppression is necessary other than the short-term high-dose chemotherapy used for tumor eradication and bone marrow ablation; posttransplant problems with GVHD are minimal. Indications for autologous BMT are relapsed, chemotherapy-sensitive lymphoma, in which a 30 to 40% success rate has been achieved, and acute leukemia in remission, in which 20 to 50% success rates have been observed. Success rates are inferior with more advanced disease and with responsive solid cancers (eg, breast or germ cell tumors).

Induced Immunity: Innate (Passive) immunity: natural passive

baby in utero (placenta); breast fed babies

binary fission

bacteria and archaea replicate by way of

Staphylococcus epidermidis

bacteria forms a biofilm that coats the mucosal lining

Prevotella sp.

bacteria have natural antibiotic resistance genes. They can attach to epithelial cells or other bacteria and cause larger infections in inflamed areas.

Staphylococcus aureus

bacteria is fine when kept under control by a protease found in S. epidermidis, but if left to grow out of control, can become pathogenic and cause infection

Corneybacterium accolens

bacteria is rarely a pathogen, but if it enters the bloodstream due to a torn blood vessel, it can cause serious infections

death assemblage

become fossils at a site away from their actual habitat due to death and then transport to another area

Deposits are laid down in strata of sedimentary layers. These generally mark the boundary between the end of one sediment and the beginning of another.

bedding planes

Shortly before birth gene expression for the fetal hemoglobin subunit (HbF)

begins to drop off and expression of the adult form of the subunit (HbA) is upregulated.

essentialism

belief that there is a constant eidos, i.e. a transcendent ideal form that is imperfectly imitated by its earthly representations

A homologous structure is

biological entity (morphological or molecular) that appears in different organisms which was inherited from a common ancestor.

represent the only surviving lineage of dinosaurs

birds

Heterotherms

body temperature varies depending on environment

The cells of the pancreas function as

both the receptor and the control center.

cladogenesis

branching evolution; the multiplication of lineages; the budding of a new species from a parent species that continues to exist; promotes biological diversity in increasing the number of species

The crescent-shaped "Sickle" Red Blood Cells (RBC) are more prone to

breakage (leading to anemia) and can clump together in narrow capillaries leading to blockage of normal blood flow.

anaerobic decomposition

breakdown occurs with little or no air

Inuit host metabolically active

brown adipose tissue that has a different metabolic effect compared to white adipose tissue.

Staphylococcus aureus

can also infect clogged pores. There are many antibiotic resistant strains making it difficult to treat

West Nile Virus

can cause a fatal neurological disease in humans. (1:150 chance

Escherichia coli

can infect urinary tract due to poor hygiene and contamination from nearby GI tract opening

Gardnerella vaginalis

can proliferate and cause bacterial vaginosis

In the face of strong selection against the homozygous recessive condition, a recessive allele

can remain in the population forever.

Candida albicans

can take over and cause a yeast infection

Hematopoietic Stem Cells are an ideal type of stem cells on which to

carry out viral transduction as they can be manipulated to form all of the blood cell types in the human body.

Chytridiosis

caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

Initially, the morula does not have an internal cavity. However, during a process called

cavitation, the trophoblast cells secrete fluid into the morula to create a blastocoel. The inner cell mass is positioned on one side of the ring of trophoblast cells. The resulting structure, called the blastocyst, is another hallmark of mammalian cleavage.

The CliniMACS Prodigy® represents the next generation of

cell processing by simplifying and standardizing conventional processes. In principle, the automated device is capable of performing all necessary steps from cell preparation, enrichment, washing, activation, transduction, expansion to final formulation and sampling in a closed sterile, single-use tubing set

Normal fetal and adult hemoglobin are produced by

cells from the same lineage, i.e. hemoglobin switching occurs through a change in transcription program within the same cell. A change in transcription program occurs with erythropoietic differentiation, from one that predominantly supports γ globin expression to one that supports only β globin expression. FC represents the progeny of erythroid progenitor cells that terminate early before the change in transcription program occurs.

In a process known as Differentiation the

cells of the compacted 8-cell embryo divide to produce a 16-cell morula.

Mutation

changes in DNA sequence. Introduces variation

two types of mites that negatively affect humans

chiggers and dust mites

allergies and asthma

children born by C-section have a higher incidence of

A monophyletic group

clade

Bone marrow aspirate showing acute myeloid leukemia. Auer rods are

clumps of azurophilic granular material that form elongated needles seen in the cytoplasm of leukemic blasts. They can be seen in the leukemic blasts of acute myeloid leukemia with maturation and acute promyelocytic leukemia (known as acute myeloid leukemia M2 and M3, in the FAB classification, respectively) and in high grade myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative syndromes. They are composed of fused lysosomes/primary neutrophilic granules and contain peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, and large crystalline inclusions. Morphologically, the Auer "rods" come in all sizes and shapes. They have been described as needle-shapes with pointed ends (most common), comma-shapes, and diamond-shapes; others were long and rectangular.

allele are equally strong and neither are masked by the other; when both alleles are present, both are expressed in the phenotype, producing "blending"

co-dominant alleles

microbiome

collectively all the microbes in the human body (i.e. a community of microbes)

fire corals

colonial marine organisms that look rather like real coral; closely related to Hydra and other hydrozoans; members of the phylum Cnidaria, class Hydrozoa, order Capitata, family Milleporidae

primary succession

colonization of newly created habitat with no recent history of occupation (extreme disturbance)

Propionibacterium acnes

colonizes healthy pores, but if pores become clogged, it grows out of control

The diagnosis of brain death needs to be rigorous, in order to be certain that the condition is irreversible. Legal criteria vary, but in general they require neurological examinations by two independent physicians. The exams must show

complete and irreversible absence of brain function and may include two isoelectric (flat-line) EEGs 24 hours apart.

The gene duplications of globin genes among the vertebrates can be used to

construct phylogenetic trees. These tell us something about not only the evolutionary history of vertebrates but also something about the evolution of animal physiology

What causes Earth's tectonic plates to move (continental drift)?

convection currents

The liver plays a major role in glucose homeostasis as the effector. When stimulated by insulin it will

convert blood glucose into the storage carbohydrate glycogen. When stimulated by glucagon the liver will break down glycogen into glucose molecules and release then into the blood.

mucopolysaccharides

coral mucus is a complex of _________ that are energy rich molecules and play a critical role in the energy balance of coral reefs

sclerochronology

coral reef equivalent to dendrochronology where instead of studying tree growth rings, one studies the annual banding pattern in corals

healthy symbionts and sunlight

corals grow much faster in the presence of...

Let us look at the "glucose sensor" system first. The beta cell's primary function is to

correlate release of insulin with changes in blood glucose concentration. Obviously, these cells must have a sensitive glucose-measuring device. Nature has achieved this by equipping the beta cell with a glucose transport protein (GLUT2) and a kinase (glucokinase) both of which have low affinities for glucose. GLUT2 is quite active, but the Km for glucose is around 5 mmol/l. Therefore, transport of glucose into the beta cell is rapid, but only when the blood glucose concentration is high (i.e. exceeds post-meal levels).

When WNV first hit the US, a number of wild birds fell victim. Many species were effected, but these were especially hit hard.

crows and other corvids

Deserts expanded under impact of...

cutting and burning of forests as well as the impact of overgrazing As a result of these modifications to vegetation and natural communities, climates have been altered

Mesozoic Era: The major groupsofterre strial plants were the _____ and the _______ and their relatives that included the Ginkgo.

cyads; conifers Gymnosperms dominated the flora. These are seed plants that lack flowers

A major event in the history of life was the origin of eukaryotes which are distinguished by a ____________ and a _______ with distinct chromosomes.

cytoskeleton and a nucleus

Uncontrolled diabetes can

damage your nerves. If you have damaged nerves in your legs and feet, you might not feel heat, cold, or pain. This lack of feeling is called "sensory diabetic neuropathy." If you do not feel a cut or sore on your foot because of neuropathy, the cut could get worse and become infected.

Character displacement

describes characters that are more divergent in populations that live sympatrically than in allopatric populations

logistic growth

describes how a population expands more slowly as it reaches its carrying capacity

genotype

describes what the two alleles are at a gene (=locus) in an individual

limiting factors

determine the carrying capacity of an environment for a species

Type 2 diabetes (formerly called adult-onset or non-insulin-dependent diabetes) can

develop at any age. It most commonly becomes apparent during adulthood. But type 2 diabetes in children is rising. Type 2 diabetes accounts for the vast majority of people who have diabetes-90 to 95 out of 100 people. In type 2 diabetes, the body isn't able to use insulin the right way. This is called insulin resistance. As type 2 diabetes gets worse, the pancreas may make less and less insulin. This is called insulin deficiency.

Robert Whittaker

developed a "Five-Kingdom" system in which Fungi became their own Kingdom and together with Plants and Animals they descended from protists

Dr. Jonas Salk

developed inactivated polio vaccine in 1955

ViaCyte is

developing islet cell replacement therapy for insulin-requiring diabetes. Our two key products in development deploy the same active component, PEC-01 Cells, but with different delivery technologies and addressing the unmet needs of different patient groups.

One hypothesis for the Cambrian radiation is that...

development of a mesoderm and the triploblastic body form permitted the innovation of a body cavity This allowed animals to go from being flat to forming tubes

Fetal hemoglobin has

different subunit which gives it a higher affinity for oxygen than does maternal hemoglobin. A necessary thing for placental mammals.

Stem cell may

differentiate or remain a stem cell

Biological systems are primarily based on

diffusion in which gasses, salts, water, etc. all move from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentrations.

Embryonic Stem cells are derived from extra blastocysts that would otherwise be

discarded following IVF.

Eccrine sweat glands are

distributed almost all over the human body, in varying densities. Its water-based secretion represents a primary form of cooling in humans.

Evolution of new organisms is driven by

diversity, mutations, and selection bias

So neonicotinoids can negatively affect bee colonies, but in the quantities actually found in the real world they...

do not seem to have any effect on honeybees.

The mitochondria of brown adipose tissue or "brown fat." In brown fat, the burning of glucose ...

does not lead to ATP production, it only leads to heat production.

Survival of the fittest is a misconception:

does not yield perfect organism, is goal driven, there is not end point, everyone is working with the best genetic material available.

an allele that produces that same phenotype whether its paired allele is identical or different

dominant allele

Antiperspirants

don't completely stop the sweating process.The aluminum compounds in antiperspirants effectively stop up the eccrine sweat glands.

The University of Cambridge-devised artificial pancreas promises to

dramatically improve quality of life of people with type 1 diabetes, which typically develops in childhood.

Your blood pressure rises with The top number refers to the amount of pressure in your arteries during contraction of your heart muscle. This is called systolic pressure. The bottom number refers to your blood pressure when your heart muscle is between beats. This is called diastolic pressure.

each heartbeat and falls when your heart relaxes between beats.

ring species

each population is able to interbreed successfully with the populations closest to it, but where the circle closes, can no longer interbreed

Thrombopoietin (TPO) and its receptor, c-Mpl, play important roles in

early hematopoiesis, especially self-renewal. Signals from angiotensin-1 via Tie2 and transforming growth factor -β via its receptors regulate HSC dormancy.

The early stages of embryogenesis are the point at which

embryonic stem cell lines are derived. The fertilized egg (day 1) undergoes cell division to form a 2-cell embryo, followed by 4-cell, etc. until a ball of cells is formed by the fourth day. The ball becomes hollow, forming the blastocyst. This is the stage at which pluripotent embryonic stem cell lines are generated. Following the blastocyst stage, the tissues of the embryo start to form and the cells become multipotent.

Ectotherms

energy comes from external sources

Endotherms

energy comes from internal mechanisms

positive feedback loop

enhance or amplify changes; tends to move a system away from its equilibrium state and make it more unstable

In all jawed vertebrates,

erythrocytes produced at distinct developmental stages contain different forms of hemoglobin. All species examined make embryonic-specific hemoglobins in primitive erythroid cells derived from the yolk sac, some species make a fetal-specific form in the liver, and all species produce an "adult" hemoglobin in erythroid cells produced in the bone marrow."

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land

eutrophication This can result in a dense growth of toxic algae (bad) and when the algae eventually die and begin to decay the bacteria breaking them down use up available dissolved oxygen in the water which can cause the death of aquatic animal life (very bad).

Types of asexual reproduction

fission, budding, fragmentation, parthenogenesis

Chromosomal rearrangement speciation

fixation of a chromosomal rearrangement that reproductively isolates these individuals.

zygote mortality

forms but dies soon after fertilization

Even after the population increases after a founder effect incident, it will match the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium of the

founding population if there are no evolutionary pressures. In the case of real organisms this often results in an overall loss of genetic diversity in the new population.

The β-globin genes are encoded

from a single cluster and under strict developmental control. There are 2 developmental switches in expression from the cluster, from embryonic-to-fetal during the first trimester of conception, and from fetal-to-adult around the time of birth.

kidneys

function in renal glucose reabsorption in which filtered glucose is recovered, preventing it from disappearing from the body through the urine

Make spores, either by mitosis or meiosis Some are called "fruiting bodies" In biology, a spore is a unit of asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavorable conditions. By contrast, gametes are units of sexual reproduction. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa.

fungal Reproductive Structures

Aspergillus

fungal spores are often inhaled through the nose. If the immune system fails to clear these, mold can grow in the lungs

Trichophyton and Microsporum

fungi that feast on keratin in the skin and cause 'ringworm' fungal infections

Candida albicans

fungus can cause oral infection known as thrush

A nondisjunction event can result in a

gamete with an extra chromosome #21 which results in Down Syndrome.

Microcystin has been linked to...

gastrointestinal illness, liver disease, neurological effects, skin reactions, and possible cancer in humans. .. The most serious incidence occurred in 1996 at a hemodialysis clinic in Brazil when the deaths of over 70 patients receiving dialysis were attributed to exposure to microcystins which were later identified in the clinic's water supply

movement of genes across populations. Accomplished by movement of individuals (e.g. birds), seeds and pollen (plants), spores (fungi), etc. Gene immigration increases variation and homogenizes populations across the landscape

gene flow

zooxanthellae

general term used to describe dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium that are found as intracellular symbionts of a number of cnidarian marine invertebrates (corals, jellyfish, & anemones)

random changes in allele frequencies. Genetic drift faster in small populations. Random chance will cause allele frequencies to change from one generation to the next and/or some alleles will go extinct. Leads to loss of variation within a population

genetic drift

the fluctuation in gene frequencies that occurs by chance

genetic drift - occurs in small populations because natural populations are finite in size - large populations are much more resistant to chance fluctuations in gene frequency than are smaller populations

Gene duplication and divergence is a major source of

genetic variability on which selection can act. It can result in partial loss of gene function (subfunctionalization), degeneration (pseudogenes) or occaisionally give rise to modified or new functions (neofunctionalization).

The essential ingredient for evolutionary change to occur is

genetic variation

The essential ingredient for evolutionary change to occur is...

genetic variation

Symbiodinium

genus of the dinoflagellates located intracellularly in the coral cell cytoplasm and are surrounded by "symbiosome" membrane to which lysosomes will not fuse

exponential population growth

geometric population growth and is growth under ideal conditions with unlimited resources

The chorion enables the fetus to

get oxygen and nourishment from the mother. It also secretes hormones that cause the mother's uterus to retain the fetus, and produces regulators of the immune response so that the mother will not reject the embryo as she would an organ graft.

food, water, shelter, nesting sites, refuge from predators

give examples of a few limiting resources

damaged skin

gives opportunities for microbes to invade the bloodstream and cause serious illness

As is the case of the beta cell's release of insulin, it has become clear that regulation of the membrane potential is decisive for control of __________ _________. We can begin by examining the glucose sensor of the alpha cell. In contrast to the beta cell, this "sensor" is comprised of...

glucagon secretion. GLUT1 and glucokinase. This implies that glucose entry into the alpha cell will occur at lower levels than in the beta cell. (GLUT1 has a Km of about 1mM and that the glucokinase's Km for glucose is around 5.5 mM). Accordingly, uptake of glucose and initiation of glycolysis will start at lower blood sugar levels. The glucose sensor in the alpha cell is, therefore, responsive to changes in blood glucose concentration in the lower physiological range. Expressed simply: the beta cell glucose sensor responds to increases in blood glucose, the alpha cell's sensor to declining blood glucose levels.

HPV

has a circular, double stranded DNA, protected by capsid proteins

Insulin loaded vesicles are already premade and waiting in the beta cells, it is only their release that is triggered by

high blood sugar so the system responds very quickly once the threshold of 5.5 mmol/l of glucose is exceeded.

Maintenance of blood sugar levels is mostly dependent on

hormonal signals. Specifically the hormones glucagon and insulin.

Glucagon is a

hormone peptide of 29 amino acids

There are two metabolites, or chemicals, in the blood whose levels need to be controlled within a narrow range and don't need any fancy adjustments, so they are controlled by

hormones that are regulated independant of the brain and nervous system in general. Blood sugar is one of these.

What is meant by allele frequency?

how common that allele is in the population

a group of related genes that specify the anterior-posterior axis and segment identity of metazoan organisms during early embryonic development. These genes are critical for the proper number and placement of embryonic segment structures (such as legs, antennae, and eyes).

hox genes

What mammal accounted for the majority (94.4%) of mosquito mammalian blood feeds?

humans

recombinational speciation

hybridization between 2 species gives rise to a new lineage that is both fertile and true breeding, but is reproductively isolated from both parental species.

Shivering is basically a bodily function in response to early hypothermia. Shivering can occur in response to fever as a person may feel cold. During fever the...

hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise, but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Shivering does more than contract muscles to produce warmth—it also activates brown fat to convert chemical energy directly to heat.

Using the human gene for human insulin, bacteria or yeast can be transformed to make the human form of insulin. The ability to manufacture human insulin through recombinant techniques means that

immunoreactions to animal insulin is reduced and treatment improved dramatically.

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA)

in general, no recombination and uniparental inheritance

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

in general, no recombination and uniparental inheritance

cilia and the mucous lining

in the nose, the trap inhaled microbes

trivalent

inactivated polio vaccine is injectable and only available in what form?

behavioral isolation

include differences in courtship behavior, differences in preference for chemical signals or vocalizations, and differences in color or morphology that allow individuals to recognize their own species

A positive feedback loop does not necessarily mean that something will ...

increase. Human population could grow, become stable, or even decline in absolute numbers and still be considered a positive feedback loop.

A 'negative' Feedback Loop results in the

increasing level of one output leading to a second output which in turn decreases the first output.

A 'positive' Feedback Loop results in the

increasing level of one output leading to an increase in a second output which in turn increases the first output.

MiniMed 530G with Enlite is

indicated for the continuous delivery of insulin, at set and variable rates, for the management of diabetes mellitus in persons requiring insulin. In addition, the pump system is indicated for continuous or periodic monitoring of glucose levels in the fluid under the skin and possible low and high blood glucose episodes. The pump displays continuous glucose values and stores this data so it can be analyzed to track patterns and improve diabetes management. Pump history can be downloaded to a computer for analysis of historical glucose values. The continuous glucose values provided by the MiniMed 530G insulin pump system are not intended to be used directly for making therapy adjustments. Rather, they provide an indication that a confirmation Fingerstick measurement may be required. All therapy adjustments should be based on measurements obtained using a homeglucose monitor and not based on the value displayed by the pump

For many years it was thought that brown fat cells were present in...

infants but not in adults. Today we know that this is not correct and that small pockets of brown fat still is present in adults.

(sickle cell) The spleen is frequently affected. It is usually infarcted before the end of childhood in individuals suffering from sickle-cell anaemia. So it increases the risk of

infection from encapsulated organisms; preventive antibiotics and vaccinations are recommended for those with such asplenia.

Organophosphate insecitides

inhibit this degradation process and thus the signal is stuck in the "on" position.

In addition to the liver cells many tissues in the body, including muscle, are activated by

insulin to take up glucose and use it in a wide variety of metabolic ways.

nerve net

interconnected nerve cells

Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals. Molecules are exchanged between animal systems by way of diffusion. In the case of the digestive & excretory systems and the circulatory system the connection is by way of

interstitial fluid as an intermediate. In the case of the respiratory system it is diffusion across a membrane. In all cases the exchange of molecules is enhanced by infolding of internal structures which maximizes the surface to volume ratios.

This element is rare in the earth's crust, but often occurs in meteors and asteroids... found at high concentrations at the K/T boundary

iridium

Genital HPV

is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) that is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV)

Parthenogenesis

is a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.

Fusobacterium sp.

is a larger bacterium that helps form a scaffold for many other bacteria in the oral biofilm

apicoplast

is a remnant chloroplast found in a group of parasitic protists known as apicomplexans

Arbovirus

is a term used to refer to a group of viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors. The word arbovirus is an acronym (ARthropod-BOrne virus).

A phylogeny

is a tree that describes the sequence of speciation events that lead to the forming of a set of current day species; also called a phylogenetic tree.

Gelsemine

is an alkaloid that comes from the flowering plant and is a highly toxic compound that acts as a paralytic and often results in death

A zoonose

is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans.

intestinal homeostasis

is characterized by a diverse, stable microbiota

Allele frequency

is how common that allele is in the population. the percentages of each of the different alleles of a particular gene in a population (or set of populations)

If selection acts against the dominant allele, it

is quickly eliminated from the population.

Seroprevalence

is the number of persons in a population who test positive for a specific disease based on serology (blood serum) specimens; often presented as a percent of the total specimens tested or as a proportion per 100,000 persons tested.

Colony collapse disorder (CCD)

is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear and leave behind a queen, plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees and the queen.

historical contingency

is the theory that the paths that life can evolve on are constrained by historical events that are often random

Infarction

is tissue death (necrosis) caused by a reduction / stoppage in blood flow due to artery blockages, mechanical compression, rupture, or vasoconstriction. There may be ischemia, a slowing of blood flow, or hemorrhage, a rupture of an artery causing bleeding.

The inner cell mass (the part that would form the fetus) of the embryo is

isolated and disrupted to form embryonic cell lines. This process destroys the embryo. Under special culture conditions, the cells of the embryonic lines can be coaxed to form certain kinds of differentiated cell types. In theory, these differentiated cells could be used to repair or replace defective cells or tissues.

To much glucose in the blood and

it starts to create osmotic imbalances, pulling water out of cells and collapsing them (cellular dehydration) and spontaneously binding to proteins and damaging them (glycosylation).

antibiotics

kills bacteria, work during the time of disease, taken after getting infected

Deodorant

kills bacteria. Deodorants contain antibacterial compounds to kill the bacteria that feed on compounds in the sweat produced by apocrine glands

vaccines

kills the virus, taken once and has permanent effects, preventative method, taken before getting infected

weather

large-scale type of ecosystem that is representative of a climate type and region.

Sir Frederick Grant Banting

laureate noted as the first person to use insulin on humans

The oldest indications of land plants are 475 million years old and resemble

liverworts

bruchus pisorum

lives its entire life cycle on the pea plant

Most of the present-day CO2 is....

locked up in crustal rocks and dissolved in the oceans

Sickle erythrocytes are a mixture of cells with measurable HbF (F cells) and non-F cells. F cells are

long lived, do not acquire the same increment of HbS-induced damage as non-F cells, are less likely to initiate adhesive events, and are associated with protection from sickle vaso-occlusion (left arrow). The heterocellular distribution of HbF in sickle cell anemia, even when total HbF concentrations are high at baseline or in response to hydroxyurea, means that some erythrocytes with no HbF or with suboptimal concentrations of HbF are present. Some of these cells hemolyze intravascularly liberating hemoglobin, which scavenges nitric oxide and contributes to certain vascular complications of this disease (right arrow). This might account for the failure of high HbF that is heterocellularly distributed to protect against all disease complications.

Homeotherms

maintain constant body temp despite environmental fluctuations

The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system or complex is a gene complex encoding the

major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins in humans. These cell-surface proteins are responsible for the regulation of the immune system in humans. The HLA gene complex resides on a 3 Mbp stretch within chromosome 6p21. HLA genes are highly polymorphic, which means that they have many different alleles, allowing them to fine-tune the adaptive immune system. The proteins encoded by certain genes are also known as antigens, as a result of their historic discovery as factors in organ transplants.

Non-random Mating

mating between neighbors rather than by pure chance. Includes positive assortative mating.

oils from your pores, dead skin cells, bits of organism matter, and each other

microbes on your skin feed on...

During what period did global temperatures reach an all time high?

mid-Cretaceous

The origin of eukaryotes gave rise to the host cell (archaeon) and the _______.

mitochondrion

1. allopatric speciation 2. parapatric speciation 3. sympatric speciation

modes of speciation as classified by geographic origin of reproductive barriers

nautiloids

mollusks with straight shells that later curled into the ammonites and Nautilius as we know it today

Opishthokonts

monophylletic group that contains two of the three kingdoms of Whittaker

Women have ____________sweat glands but men produce ________ sweat.

more more

One species of Culex mosquito is...

more common in the north, but the distribution of mosquitoes does not explain the differences. Culex pipiens is the primary vector but at least eight mosquito species are known to carry WNV.

The most common response to neonicotinoid exposure was

more time spent grooming and an impairment of the righting reflex that lead to more time spent upside down.

Classical phylogenetic analysis

morphological features: number of legs, lengths of legs, etc.

intestine

most of our microbes are in the...

photosynthates produced by intracellular zooxanthellar

most of the energy budget for coral comes from...

Apocrine sweat glands are

mostly limited to the axilla (armpits) and perianal areas in humans.They are not significant for cooling in humans, but are the sole effective sweat glands in hoofed animals, such as the camels, donkeys, horses, and cattle

What were the plants of the Cambrian period like?

mostly simple, one-celled algae; the single cells often grew together to form large colonies; there were no land plants at the time, but it is likely that a microbial "scum" comprising of fungi, algae and possibly lichens covered the land

Gene flow

movement of genes across populations. Accomplished by movement of individuals (e.g. birds), seeds and pollen (plants), spores (fungi), etc. Gene immigration increases variation and homogenizes populations across the landscape.

The peptide hormone insulin triggers

movement of glucose across the cell membrane in an indirect manner.

changes in DNA sequence; introduces variation

mutation

Sickle cell disease is caused by a

mutation in a gene called hemoglobin beta (HBB), located on chromosome 11. this results in the coding of a Valine amino acid instead of the normal Glutamic Acid. When only one copy of the HbS allele is inherited the symptoms can be mild or nearly non-existent but when when an individual is homozygous for HbS they can develop the disease.

a population of organisms that has never before encountered a specific pathogen

naive population

To minimize rejection the donor and recipient should have

nearly identical gene variants for Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) complex.

Blood sugar (glucose) needs to be kept between about 3.8 and 5.8 millimoles per litre - that's about 1 teaspoon (5 grams) dissolved in the 5 litres (the average persons blood volume). Too little (below 3.8) and

nerve cells start running out of energy - they can't use anything but glucose to make their energy, and they have high demands for energy. (If this starts to happen the person feels the lack as a condition known as a "hypo" - hypoglycemia - the prefix hypo meaning below normal).

Is the venous system of the fetus directly connected to that of the mother?

no

Treatments for WNV?

no effective treatments

mating between neighbors rather than by pure chance; includes positive assortative mating

non random mating

The source of blastocysts for hESC are

nonviable embryos that were created for in vitro fertilization. Since many embryos fail to develop normally, clinics try to create at least twenty embryos to produce a single child. The remainder are either destroyed or donated for medical use.

Staphylococcus epidermidis

normally colonizes the skin. But when P. acnes clogs pores, also grows out of control in the infected pores.

Urban and agricultural runoff leads to...

nutrient loading of watersheds... these can accumulate in a body of water many miles from the original source.

mechanical isolation

occurs because the sexual organs of closely-related sympatric species are incompatible: they do not fit together.

What is strict sense genetic drift?

occurs in small populations which remain small for considerable lengths of time (i.e., generation after generation population size remains small). Populations ultimately become fixed for one allele or another.

secondary succession

occurs when a place occupied by living things is returned to an earlier point in its ecological history (modest disturbance)

hybrid sterility

occurs when the hybrid of an interspecific mating is unable to reproduce

parapatric speciation

occurs when there are neighboring populations, between which there is a small amount of gene flow, that diverge and become reproductively isolated

abiotc

of, relating to, or resulting from living things, especially in their ecological relations.

biotic

of, relating to, or resulting from living things, especially in their ecological relations.

urine

often flushes out microbes that find their way in

log death

once resources are fully depleted the population crashes

it only takes ______ generation of random mating to return a population to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

one

Insulin is made up of

one 21 amino acid peptide and a second peptide of 30 amino acids that are joined together via disulphide bonds.

What is an allele?

one of the forms of a gene

antibiotic resistant bacteria

one of the greatest threats facing modern medicine is the increasing number of

aerobic decomposition

organic material is broken down and recycled in the presence of air

Life assemblage

organisms preserved in their natural habitat

native species

organisms that are either endemic or indigenous to a region

speciation

origin of new species; can be gradual or rapid; the bridge between microevolution and macroevolution

What did the Earth's atmosphere primarily develop from?

outgassing... this is the process whereby gases are released from molten rock in the mantel of the planted by volcanic activity

Feedback occurs when

outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to "feed back" into itself.

The principle of a Feedback Loop is based on the fact that...

outputs of a system can act as inputs for another system which in turn loops back to the original system.

Eccrine glands occur

over most of your body and open directly onto the surface of the skin. When your body temperature rises, your eccrine glands secrete fluid onto the surface of your skin, where it cools your body as it evaporates. This fluid is composed mainly of water and salt.

Earth's early atmosphere contained water vapor and carbon dioxide, but no what?

oxygen

Was initially a poisonous molecule

oxygen

Life expectancy for type I diabetics The biggest breakthrough came in 1921 when Frederick Banting and Charles Best conducted a series of experiments one summer in the laboratory of J.J. R. Macleod at the University of Toronto. Like Minkowski and von Mering, they showed that removing the

pancreas from dogs made them diabetic.Then they went a step further and painstakingly took fluid from healthy dogs' Islets of Langerhans, injected it into the diabetic dogs and restored them to normalcy - for as long as they had the extract. With the help of a biochemist colleague named J. B. Collip, they were then able to extract a reasonably pure formula of insulin from the pancreas of cattle from slaughterhouses.In January, 1922, a diabetic teenager in a Toronto hospital named Leonard Thompson became the first person to receive an injection of insulin. He improved dramatically, and the news about insulin spread around the world like wildfire. For their work, Banting and Macleod received the Nobel Prize in Medicine the very next year, in 1923. Banting shared his part of the prize money with Best, and Macleod shared his with Collip.The University of Toronto immediately gave pharmaceutical companies license to produce insulin free of royalties. In early 1923, about one year after the first test injection, insulin became widely available, and saved countless lives.

Some systems have a fast response. Example:

panting when increased oxygen is needed

All bdelloid rotifers are believed to be ... None the less they are subject to _________ from bacteria.

parthenogenic females and have been "doing without" for over 80 million years. HGT

cranial nerves, ganglia outside CNS, spinal nerves

peripheral nervous system

Perhaps the most crucial difference between mammalian cleavage and all other types involves the

phenomenon of compaction. Mammalian blastomeres through the 8-cell stage form a loose arrangement with plenty of space between them. Following the third cleavage, however, the blastomeres undergo a spectacular change in their behavior. They suddenly huddle together, maximizing their contact with one another and forming a compact ball of cells. This tightly packed arrangement is stabilized by tight junctions that form between the outside cells of the ball, sealing off the inside of the sphere. The cells within the sphere form gap junctions, thereby enabling small molecules and ions to pass between them.

Dinoflagellates

photosynthetic protists that form a symbiosis with a number of marine invertebrates

Cooperative interactions between trophoblast cells and maternal cells during implantation collectively form the

placenta.

These were among the earliest terrestrial organisms

plants that evolved the ability to stand upright and transport nutrients against gravity first known terrestrial organisms were small plants, related to today's liverworts all of these evolved from green algae

invasive species

plants, animals, or pathogens that are non-native tot he ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, harm

An enzyme known as lysine-specific demethylase 1 (Lsd1)

plays an active role in regulating thermogenesis. When Lsd1 levels are suppressed heat production goes down and brown fat cells can become white fat cells.

Peptidoglycan

polymer made of carbohydrates and amino acids and is responsible for the rigidity of the bacterial cell wall, is relatively porous and is not considered to be a permeability barrier for small molecules

the study of evolution within species (also called microevolution)

population genetics

the study of the composition and inheritance of genetic variation within populations

population genetics

Speciation events occur among

populations, not individuals.

Would human population growth be considered as a Positive feedback loop, a Negative feedback loop, or neither?

positive

Prezygotic isolation

potential mates do not actually meet ; potential mates show ethological differences; potential mates copulate but no fertilization occurs

This is thought to be the primary factor for the evolution of skeletons

predation

chloroquine

preferred treatment for malaria

glucosuria (glycosuria)

presence of glucose in the urine is a condition known as _______; is associated with diabetes; leads to excessive water loss into the urine with resultant dehydration, a process called osmotic diuresis

Prezygotic isolation mechanisms

prevent mating or prevent gametes of sympatric species from forming hybrid zygotes

Mitochondria use glucose and its breakdown products to

produce energy in the form of ATP. In a typical cell the burning of glucose by the mitochondria produces about 52% ATP and about 48% heat.

Lactobacillus bacteria

produce lactic acid whose low pH is toxic to many pathogenic microbes

Some systems have a longer response. Example:

production of red blood cells

hybridization

progeny of hybridization form a new true breeding lineage that is isolated from parental species.

The evolution of the seed provided the embryo with...

protection against desiccation as well as nutrients that enabled the young plant to grow rapidly and overcome adverse conditions

Microcystin binds covalently to...

protein phosphatases thus disrupting cellular control processes

After a patient's bone marrow is removed the cells must be

purified for Hematopoietic stem cells. These are then edited using lentivirus transduction and the cells are then further purified for that subset that has been transformed. These are then injected into the patient in the hopes of replacing the original population of HSCs that have the genetic defect.

The Earth's mantel is heated by...

radioactive decay in the Earth's core

Genetic Drift

random changes in allele frequencies. Genetic drift faster in small populations. Random chance will cause allele frequencies to change from one generation to the next and/or some alleles will go extinct. Leads to loss of variation within a population.

liverwort

recently discovered evidence of the oldest plant fossils known this far - cryptospores of ___________-type plants from Argentina a bit over 470 million years old (473-471 Ma, the early Middle Ordovician Period)..

an allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical

recessive allele

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) surface markers and typical cytokines that

regulate HSCs. Stem cell factor (SCF) promotes the proliferation and differentiation of HSCs.

Adipose tissue has a

relatively low thermal conductivity, which means that it does not transfer heat as well as other tissues and materials—such as muscle or skin. That way, it helps to insulate an animal's body.

The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will

remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences.

For 1 billion years, the overall chemical composition of the oceans has...

remained very constant

rewild

restore (an area of land) to its natural uncultivated state (used especially with reference to the reintroduction of species of wild animal that have been driven out or exterminated); large scale conservation aimed at restoring and protecting natural processes and core wildrenedd areas, providing connectivity between such areas, and protecting or reintroducing apex predators and keystone species

The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was authorized by Congress in 2000 and has a plan to...

restore, preserve, and protect the south Florida ecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region, including water supply and flood protection

harvest-slot-length limits

restrict harvest to intermediate lengths (ages), which may contribute to maintaining high harvest numbers and a more natural age-structure

Once imbalance of foot function is created in the neuropathic foot...

risk for further amputation is significantly increased. An estimated 40 percent of all foot amputations were preceded by a previous foot level amputation.1 Lavery et al.7, in their measurement of plantar pressures after hallux amputation, found significantly higher pressure distribution to the first metatarsal head, lesser metatarsals and digits.

The thermal conductivity of human adipose tissue (fat) is

roughly half that of muscle, 75% that of dermal tissue and about the same as epidermal tissue.

Strategies for gene therapy for SCD:

schematic overview of various approaches for correcting the sickle phenotype via gene therapy. Gene correction: targeted genome engineering leads to correction of the sickle mutation such that βS is repaired as βA. HbF induction: multiple strategies for induction of γ-globin expression include shRNA-mediated knockdown of BCL11A, targeted disruption of the +58 DNase I HS site in the BCL11A erythroid-specific enhancer, and forced chromatin looping to promote association of the β-globin LCR with the γ-globin genes. Gene addition: integrating lentiviral vector carrying a β-globin, γ-globin, or antisickling β-globin cassette. Ldb1, transcription factor; ZF/SA, zinc-finger self-association domain. Effective medical management for sickle cell disease (SCD) remains elusive. As a prevalent and severe monogenic disorder, SCD has been long considered a logical candidate for gene therapy. Significant progress has been made in moving toward this goal. These efforts have provided substantial insight into the natural regulation of the globin genes and illuminated challenges for genetic manipulation of the hematopoietic system. The initial γ-retroviral vectors, next-generation lentiviral vectors, and novel genome engineering and gene regulation approaches each share the goal of preventing erythrocyte sickling. After years of preclinical studies, several clinical trials for SCD gene therapies are now open. This review focuses on progress made toward achieving gene therapy, the current state of the field, consideration of factors that may determine clinical success, and prospects for future development.

What kind of rocks are fossils found in?

sedimentary

The Pollinator Recovery Act of 2016

seeks to protect birds, bats, Monarch butterflies, and most of all honeybees and native bees.

variation in fitness; heritable. Causes non-random changes in allele frequencies and tends to reduce variation

selection

As you can understand now, secretion of insulin and glucagon are extremely complicated processes. Many elements play a role in determining the ________ of alpha and beta cells to plasma signal substances.

sensitivity

In animals the ideal outcome for a properly functioning homeostatic system is for the system to remain at or near the ___________

set-point

Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is the major genetic modulator of the hematologic and clinical features of

sickle cell disease, an effect mediated by its exclusion from the sickle hemoglobin polymer. Fetal hemoglobin genes are genetically regulated, and the level of HbF and its distribution among sickle erythrocytes is highly variable. Some patients with sickle cell disease have exceptionally high levels of HbF that are associated with the Senegal and Saudi-Indian haplotype of the HBB-like gene cluster; some patients with different haplotypes can have similarly high HbF. In these patients, high HbF is associated with generally milder but not asymptomatic disease.

Pain that occurs unpredictably in any body organ or joint (arms, legs, chest and abdomen). A patient may experience pain wherever

sickled blood cells block oxygen flow to tissues. Some patients have painful episodes (also called crises) less than once a year, and some have as many as 15 or more episodes in a year. Sometimes pain lasts only a few hours; sometimes it lasts several weeks. For especially severe ongoing pain, the patient may be hospitalized and treated with painkillers and intravenous fluids. Pain is the principal symptom of sickle cell anemia in both children and adults.

A polar body is a

small haploid cell that is formed concomitantly as an egg cell during oogenesis, but which generally does not have the ability to be fertilized. When certain diploid cells in animals undergo cytokinesis after meiosis to produce egg cells, they sometimes divide unevenly. Most of the cytoplasm is segregated into one daughter cell, which becomes the egg or ovum, while the smaller polar bodies only get a small amount of cytoplasm. They frequently die (apoptose) and disappear, but in some cases they remain and can be important in the life cycle of the organism.

Sweat glands are

small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. There are two main types of sweat glands that differ in their structure, function, secretory product, mechanism of excretion, anatomic distribution, and distribution across species:

Elevated internal body temperature (fever) may actually have...

some benefit in helping the body fight the infection of a virus or pathogenic bacterium.

The clinical course of sickle cell anemia does not follow a single pattern:

some patients have mild symptoms and some have very severe symptoms. The basic problem, however, is the same: the sickle-shaped red blood cells tend to get stuck in narrow blood vessels, blocking the flow of blood that results in a vaso-occlusive crisis. This results in the following conditions:

fragmentation of the land masses allowed for...

speciation

Sympatric speciation

speciation that occurs within the same geographical location

Biological Species Concept

species concept where species is defined as naturally occurring groups of individuals that actually or can potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring; groups of individuals are reproductively isolated from all other groups

k-selected species

species that produce few offspring with lots of parent involvement to help reach maturity

r-selected species

species that produce many offspring with low probability of surviving

cryptic species

species with nearly identical morphology; frequently occur int he same place, yet reproductively isolated

Certain allele combinations are more common in

specific ethnic groups than in others.

iPSCs are typically derived by introducing products of Myc (c-Myc) is a regulator gene that codes for a transcription factor. The protein encoded by this gene is a multifunctional, nuclear phosphoprotein that plays a role in cell cycle progression, apoptosis and cellular transformation.

specific set of pluripotency-associated genes, or "reprogramming factors", into a given cell type. The original set of reprogramming factors (also dubbed Yamanaka factors) are the transcription factors Oct4 (Pou5f1), Sox2, cMyc, and Klf4. While this combination is most conventional in producing iPSCs, each of the factors can be functionally replaced by related transcription factors, miRNAs, small molecules, or even non-related genes such as lineage specifiers.

The level of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) modifies the severity of the common β-globin disorders. Knowledge of the normal mechanisms that repress HbF in the adult stage has remained limited until recently despite nearly 3 decades of molecular investigation, in part because of imperfect model systems. Recent studies have provided new insights into the developmental regulation of globin genes and identified

specific transcription factors and epigenetic regulators responsible for physiologic silencing of HbF. Most prominent among these regulators is BCL11A, a transcriptional repressor that inhibits adult-stage HbF expression. KLF1 and c-Myb are additional critical HbF-regulating erythroid transcription factors more broadly involved in erythroid gene expression programs. Chromatin modifiers, including histone deacetylases and DNA methyltransferases, also play key roles in orchestrating appropriate globin gene expression. Taken together, these discoveries present novel therapeutic targets for further consideration. Although substantial hurdles remain, opportunities are now rich for the rational design of HbF inducers.

vicariance

splitting of a once continuous population

Hardy-Weinberg describes populations that are....

stable and not evolving

The PEC-Direct™ product candidate delivers stem cell-derived PEC-01™ pancreatic progenitor cells in a device designed to allow direct vascularization of the cells, and is being developed for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) that are at high risk for acute complications including coma and death. Since an unlimited supply of PEC-01 cells can be produced, PEC-Direct effectively presents the opportunity to treat all high-risk insulin-requiring patients. Allowing the patient's cells to have direct access to implanted cells means that autoimmune and alloreactive responses could be activated, so patients receiving the PEC-Direct product will need to take immunosuppressive medications, similarly to those who receive organ transplants. It's expected that the Edmonton Protocol medications, utilized for patients receiving islet transplants, will also be protective for PEC-Direct. The Edmonton Protocol has demonstrated a very good safety profile to date. Because PEC-Direct patients must be on immunosuppressive medications, there is a certain risk/benefit scenario for this treatment, and as a result ViaCyte has identified high-risk T1D patients as being the best candidates for the PEC-Direct product candidate.

stem cell-derived PEC-01™ pancreatic progenitor cells in a device designed to allow direct vascularization of the cells, and is being developed for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) that are at high risk for acute complications including coma and death. Since an unlimited supply of PEC-01 cells can be produced, PEC-Direct effectively presents the opportunity to treat all high-risk insulin-requiring patients. Allowing the patient's cells to have direct access to implanted cells means that autoimmune and alloreactive responses could be activated, so patients receiving the PEC-Direct product will need to take immunosuppressive medications, similarly to those who receive organ transplants. It's expected that the Edmonton Protocol medications, utilized for patients receiving islet transplants, will also be protective for PEC-Direct. The Edmonton Protocol has demonstrated a very good safety profile to date. Because PEC-Direct patients must be on immunosuppressive medications, there is a certain risk/benefit scenario for this treatment, and as a result ViaCyte has identified high-risk T1D patients as being the best candidates for the PEC-Direct product candidate.

Pluripotent

stem cells can differentiate into every cell type in body. Cells can form any (over 200) cell types. Some cells of blastocyst (5 to 14 days)

Neutral molecular markers are used to

study population genetics.

saltation

sudden change from one generation to the next, that is large, or very large, in comparison with the usual variation of an organism. The term is used for nongradual changes (especially single-step speciation) that are atypical of, or violate, gradualism—involved in modern evolutionary theory

anagenesis

sufficient micro-evolutionary changes may occur such that the earlier population is considered a separate species from the later population

SIR model

susceptibel infected and recovered model showing the progression of population diseases

Microsatellites

tandem repeats or simple sequence repeats

A evolutionary tree is essentially a pedigree, showing the relationships between

taxanomic units. Taxanomic units can be anything from individuals to species, to genera, families, etc.

What does the Hardy-Weinberg principle state?

that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences

Although full trisomies may occur at any position, the extra genetic material usually causes such problems

that the fetus cannot make it to term. As a result, four trisomies: 21, 18, 13, and XY are the only full trisomies that have ever led to a live birth.

Historically, water from Lake Okeechobee flowed south into where?

the Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve

The Mesozoic Era ended 65 million years ago with a mass extinction of the nearly all the dinosaurs. This mass extinction was very sudden - it occurred over only a few years It is called...

the K/T boundary

By day 5 the cells of the blastocyst have differentiated into

the Trophoblast (which gives rise to the placenta) and the Inner Mass Cells (which gives rise to the fetus).

Why would allele and genotype frequencies change?

the action of one or more evolutionary factors

Control of glucagon secretion is not as well understood as that of insulin. Secretion of glucagon is clearly linked to the alpha cell's metabolism. Lack of substrate, anoxia and metabolic poisons lead to release of glucagon from these cells. In short, they release their hormone in response to "metabolic stress". As is the case of the beta cell's release of insulin, it has become clear that regulation of the membrane potential is decisive for control of glucagon secretion. We can begin by examining the glucose sensor of the alpha cell. In contrast to the beta cell, this "sensor" is comprised of GLUT1 and glucokinase. This implies that glucose entry into the alpha cell will occur at lower levels than in the beta cell. (GLUT1 has a Km of about 1mM and that the glucokinase's Km for glucose is around 5.5 mM). Accordingly, uptake of glucose and initiation of glycolysis will start at lower blood sugar levels. The glucose sensor in the alpha cell is, therefore, responsive to changes in blood glucose concentration in the lower physiological range. Expressed simply: the beta cell glucose sensor responds to increases in blood glucose, the alpha cell's sensor to declining blood glucose levels. As you can understand now, secretion of insulin and glucagon are extremely complicated processes. Many elements play a role in determining the sensitivity of alpha and beta cells to plasma signal substances.

the alpha cell's metabolism. Lack of substrate, anoxia and metabolic poisons lead to release of glucagon from these cells. In short, they release their hormone in response to "metabolic stress".

water entered the oceans from...

the atmosphere where is brought with it dissolved gases released from the mantel by volcanoes and geysers It also flowed as runoff from the land and carried dissolved minerals from the rocks on the surface (these minerals included salts which make the ocean salty)

West Nile virus is mainly transmitted to people through

the bites of infected mosquitoes

gastroenterology

the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders

microevolution

the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population

race

the composition of the vaginal microbiome is linked to _________. (The proportion of Lactobacillus, and therefore pH varies)

radiative forcing

the difference of radiant energy received by the Earth and the energy radiated back to space

peripatry

the divergence of a small population from a widely distributed ancestral form

density- independent factors

the effects on birth and death rates are independent of population size

allopatric speciation

the evolution of reproductive barriers in populations that are prevented by a geographic barrier from exchanging genes

sympatric speciation

the evolution of reproductive barriers within a single, initially random mating population

protostome

the first opening become the mouth

deuterostome

the first opening becomes the anus

neuron

the functional unit of the nervous system

For safety reasons lentiviral vectors never carry

the genes required for their replication. To produce a lentivirus, several plasmids are transfected into a so-called packaging cell line, commonly HEK 293. One or more plasmids, generally referred to as packaging plasmids, encode the virion proteins, such as the capsid and the reverse transcriptase. Another plasmid contains the genetic material to be delivered by the vector. It is transcribed to produce the single-stranded RNA viral genome and is marked by the presence of the ψ (psi) sequence. This sequence is used to package the genome into the virion.

gradulaism

the hypothesis that evolution proceeds chiefly by the accumulation of gradual changes

punctuated equilibrium

the hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change

mucous secreting glands

the interior lining of the nose contains...

The key limiting factor in the use of BMT is

the lack of donors. Because only 25 to 30% of patients have an HLA-identical sibling, alternative donors are often required. Two possibilities exist: (1) Marrow can be procured from unrelated living donors; marrow donation is a simple, safe procedure. National and international registries of prospective volunteer donors are being expanded to increase the likelihood of finding an exact HLA match for any given recipient. (2) Related donors who are not HLA-identical have been used with increasing frequency. Results with either procedure suggest long-term disease-free survival probabilities of 30 to 50% in patients with acute and chronic leukemia or aplastic anemia; ie, in most situations the results are somewhat inferior to those with marrow from HLA-identical siblings.

The most problematic thing about managing diabetes is

the large swings in glucose levels. Since these must be monitored throughout the day and the proper amount of insulin administered, the body is constantly going from too high to too low rather than staying close to the set-point.

diabetes

the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESDR) in the US In 2009 ESDR was responsible for over 90,000 deaths in the US. This is caused by damage to the small capillaries, making them "leakier" with a subsequent loss of proteins, sugars, etc. that should not be going into the urine

Clostridium difficile

the major cause of antibiotic induced colitis and diarrhea

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is defined as

the metabolic rate measured with the subject awake in the morning, fasting, at neutral ambient temperature and resting horizontally in the respiratory steady state. It is measured in Watts per m2 of body surface area (BSA). BMR decreases in both genders with age, regardless, males typically have a higher BMR than does a woman of the same age. Body surface area (BSA) is estimated with the approximation formula: BSA (cm2) = WEIGHT0.425 (kg) × HEIGHT0.725 (cm) × 71.84

autism, heart disease, asthma, lung disease, autoimmune disease

the microbiome may be related to:

lateral gene transfer

the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than via vertical transmission (the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring)

nephron

the name of a group of viruses that includes more than 100 different strains or types. At least 50 percent of sexually active men and women acquire genital HPV infection at some point in their lives. By age 50, at least 80 percent of women will have acquired genital HPV infection

Human papillomavirus (HPV)

the name of a group of viruses that includes more than 100 different strains or types. At least 50 percent of sexually active men and women acquire this infection at some point in their lives. By age 50, at least 80 percent of women will have acquired this infection

In the case of neonicotinoids the degradation of acetylcholine occurs as normal but...

the neonicotinoids mimic the effects of acetylcholine, bind to the receptors, and the signal stays on.

carrying capacity

the number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation.

Seroprevalence is

the number of persons in a population who test positive for a specific disease based on serology (blood serum) specimens; often presented as a percent of the total specimens tested or as a proportion per 100,000 persons tested.

macroevolution

the origin of new taxonomic groups

speciation

the outcome of reproductive isolation followed by divergence overt time

What is meant by allele frequencies?

the percentages of each of the different alleles of a particular gene in a population (or set of populations)

Diabetes, often referred to by doctors as diabetes mellitus, describes a group of metabolic diseases in which

the person has high blood glucose (blood sugar), either because insulin production is inadequate, or because the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin, or both. Patients with high blood sugar will typically experience polyuria (frequent urination), they will become increasingly thirsty (polydipsia) and hungry (polyphagia).

The water on Earth stayed in gaseous form until...

the planet's surface cooled to below 100 degrees C

Two major obstacles remain for successful application of autologous BMT:

the possibility of contamination of the marrow inoculum with tumor cells, and the absence of graft-vs.-tumor activity (in contrast with that seen in allogeneic BMT), both of which contribute to the observed higher rates of tumor recurrence. Thus, developing schemes for ex vivo marrow purging and for recipient immune modulation posttransplant is an active area of research.

gut bacteria

the primary reason we can break down the foods we eat into molecules that can be absorbed through the intestine

When the core body temperature drops,

the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy.

typological species concept

the species concept where species is a group whose members share certain characteristics that distinguish them from other species

Personhood is

the status of being a person. Defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law and is closely tied with legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality, and liberty. According to law, only a natural person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and legal liability.[1]

population ecology

the study of populations in relation to their environment

The metabolism of a person is defined as

the sum of all chemical reactions in which energy is made available and consumed in the body.

set-point

the target value of a controlled variable that is maintained physiologically by bodily control mechanisms for homeostasis.

Most of the descendants of the external cells become

the trophoblast (trophectoderm) cells. This group of cells produces no embryonic structures. Rather, it forms the tissue of the chorion, the embryonic portion of the placenta.

The reprogramming of adult cells into iPSCs involves

the use of retroviruses to genetically alter a cell's DNA and thus limits their use in therapy.

Lactobacillus

the vagina has a low pH due to this; secretes lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide

How did the Everglades help the nutrient rich waters of Lake Okeechobee?

the vegetation there would remove many of the nutrients before the water was discharged into the ocean

Until mid 1950's phylogenies were constructed by experts based on

their opinion (subjective criteria)

peripatric speciation

there is divergence of a small population from a widely distributed, ancestral population

Allopatric speciation by vicariance

there is divergence of two large populations

Stromatolites

these are colonies of cyanobacteria that form biosedimentary domes of calcium carbonate. These are amongst the earliest fossils.

What are index species?

these are taxa whose ages we already know

ligan-gated channel

this channel is controlled by binding of a ligand to a membrane protein (either on the outside of the inside)

stress activated channel

this channel is controlled by mechanical force on the cell

voltage-gated channels

this channel is controlled by membrane potential

The E. coli long-term evolution experiment

this experiment started in 1988 by scientist Robert Lenski: a dozen identical populations of asexual bacteria were grown, collected, and evaluated for accumulated differences and eventually isolated a naturally occurring population of E. coli that was able to metabolize citrate

African-American college women

this group of women were 70% more likely than white women to have abnormal Pap smears and more than twice as many continued to test positive for high-risk HPV strains two years after diagnosis

conjugation

this occurs a physical connection (conjugation tube) is made between two cells. The DNA on a plasmid is duplicated and the copied DNA is transferred

morphological species concept

this species concept defined a species as a group of organisms with similar anatomical characteristics

Cervarix, Gardasil and Gardasil 9

three HPV vaccines available

Bovine insulin differs from human in only... porcine by....

three amino acid residues, and porcine insulin by only one.

1. nonspecific, external barriers (skin, mucous membranes) 2. nonspecific internal defense (phagocytic and natural killer cells, inflammation, fever) 3. specific internal defense (cell-mediated immunity, humeral immunity)

three lines of defense against disease

How is WNV mainly transmitted to people?

through the bites of infected mosquitoes

microbe

tiny living organism, such as bacterium, archean, fungus, protist, or virus

Delivery of genes by a virus is termed

transduction and the infected cells are described as transduced. Molecular biologists first harnessed this machinery in the 1970s. Paul Berg used a modified SV40 virus containing DNA from the bacteriophage λ to infect monkey kidney cells maintained in culture.

transduction

transfer of DNA from one bacterium into another via bacteriophages

conjugation

transfer of DNA via sexual pilus and requires cell -to-cell contact

instinct ancestors to today's crustaceans and insects

trilobites

a-amylase and Amyloglucosidase

two enzymes that allow starch to be broken down into individual glucose monomers

The average person has__________________ sweat glands.

two to four million

polyploidy and chromosomal rearrangement

types of cytological divergence

genetic drift and natural selection

types of genetic divergence

zygote mortality, hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, low hybrid fitness

types of postzygotic isolation mechanisms

parasitism, mutualism, commensalism

types of symbiosis

Exercise can increase metabolic rate from

typically 70 Watts at rest to 700 Watts (eg, walking, dancing, sexual intercourse) or 1400 Watts (long distance running)

Streptococcus mitis

typically forms a biofilm on the hard enamel surfaces of the teeth. If gums get inflamed, it can enter the bloodstream and cause infection

transformation

uptake of short fragments of naked DNA by naturally transformable bacteria

RFLPs

variants in DNA exposed by cutting with restriction enzymes

Selection

variation in fitness; heritable. Causes non-random changes in allele frequencies and tends to reduce variation.

Allozymes

variations of proteins

Insulin is present in all

vertebrates and even some versions from fish can be used in human therapy.

bacteriophages

viruses that have evolved mechanisms to insert their genome into a host cell ultimately killing it

What led to widespread glaciation?

volcanic dust in the atmosphere lowered temperatures drastically Volcanic eruptions released gases containing high amounts of Co2 and sulphur dioxide which went into solution leading to, ocean acidification. These major climate changes are thought to have been instrumental in the end-Permian mass extinction.

Aysheaia

was a genus of Cambrian-aged soft-bodied, caterpillar-shaped fossil organisms with average body lengths of 1-6 cm; is remarkably similar to a modern phylum, the Onychophora (velvet worms). Notable differences are the lack of jaws and antennae, and the terminal mouth.

It goes back to Henry's law and the relative partial pressure of dissolved oxygen in the lungs, blood, and surrounding tissues. Ultimately Oxygen moves through the body by

way of diffusion, going from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.

slightly acidic sweat and antimicrobial peptides

what are some of the skin's natural defenses

Habitat Isolation; Temporal Isolation (e.g., different breeding seasons, either yearly or time of day); Behavioral Isolation (different signals: sight, sound, smell, behavior); Mechanical Isolation (mechanical problems—genitalia don't fit together); No fertilization - sperm/pollen transferred but no fertilization. Gametes die (gametic isolation: sperm don't detect the egg or can't fertilize it)

what are the sympatric reproductive isolation mechanisms

The type specimen may not truly represent the whole species, morphological variation exists within species, speciation is an ongoing process

what is the fundamental problem with the typological species

A genotype describes

what the two alleles are at a gene (=locus) in an individual. For example, this is Aa

rest

when a neuron is not sending a signal, it is at...

Alpha cells sense

when blood sugar levels have dropped too low and release glucogon. Beta cells sense when blood sugar levels are too high and release insulin.

coral bleaching

when corals expel the algae living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white

induced immunity: adaptive (active) immunity: natural active

when pathogen enters body in normal way, we make antibodies

trophic cascade

when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the behavior of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation

stationary phase

when resources become scarce cell division will cease

any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans

zoonose

Most physicists agree that the current universe came into existence... (When and how?)

~ 14 billion years ago through an explosion of an infinitely dense, hot point (Big Bang)

Cyanobacteria introduced oxygen into the atmosphere and the oxygen level started to rise. how many years ago?

~2.2 billion

Monotremes and marsupials each have a variant of the

α-hemoglobin subunit that is not found in those mammals that have a placenta. And marsupials have a gene that is found in placentals but not in monotremes.