Bio2500 Final exam study guide, Bio 2500 Labs, Bio 2500 Everything

TB symptoms

•Cough •Chest Pain •Coughing up Blood •Fatigue •Night Sweats • Chills •Fever •Loss of Appetite •Weight Loss

Three groups of helminths relevant to medicine

1.Nematodes .(roundworms): GI tract or blood infections. 2.Cestodes (tapeworms) 3.Trematodes (flukes). Three modes of human invasion: - Skin penetration - Contaminated food - Insect vector Under control in developed countries, millions of deaths / year in underdeveloped countries

One of the most common wards where HAIs occur is the intensive care unit (ICU), where doctors treat serious diseases. About 1 in 10 of the people admitted to a hospital will contract a HAI. They're also associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and hospital costs.

For a HAI, the infection must occur: §up to 48 hours after hospital admission §up to 3 days after discharge §up to 30 days after an operation §in a healthcare facility when someone was admitted for reasons other than the infection. Symptoms of HAIs will vary by type. •urinary tract infections (UTIs) •surgical site infections •gastroenteritis •meningitis •pneumonia The symptoms for these infections may include: •discharge from a wound •fever •cough, shortness of breathing •burning with urination or difficulty urinating •headache nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Helicobacter pylori is a

Gram-negative, microaerophilic bacterium found in the stomach.

Helicobacter pylori cells survive the acidic environment of the stomach by (1)producing urease, an enzyme that converts urea to ammonia, thereby creating an alkaline microenvironment, and (2) burrowing within the mucus layer that coats the stomach lining. Urea is normally found in gastric juices because it is released as proteins are degraded.

H. pylori cells use their flagella to move through the mucus, following the pH gradient from the acidic gastric lumen to the nearly neutral underlying epithelial cells. The bacterial cells then attach to the mucus-secreting epithelium or multiply adjacent to it. The ability to both move away from the acidic lumen and produce ammonia from urea are required for H. pylori to colonize the stomach.

Tansfer of TB

Latent TB Infection TB bacteria can live in the body without making you sick. This is called latent TB infection. In most people who breathe in TB bacteria and become infected, the body is able to fight the bacteria to stop them from growing. People with latent TB infection do not feel sick and do not have any symptoms. -TB Disease TB bacteria become active if the immune system can't stop them from growing. When TB bacteria are active (multiplying in your body), this is called TB disease. People with TB disease are sick. They may also be able to spread the bacteria to people they spend time with every day.

A nosocomial infection is contracted because

of an infection or toxin that exists in a certain location, such as a hospital. People now use nosocomial infections interchangeably with the terms health-care associated infections (HAIs) and hospital-acquired infections. For a HAI, the infection must not be present before someone has been under medical care.

Algae differ from other eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms such as land plants because they lack

organized vascular system and they have relatively simple reproductive structures. Most algae are aquatic; they may be microscopic or macroscopic. All algae contain chlorophyll a, a pigment also found in green plants and cyanobacteria. Red algae and brown algae also contain other pigments that absorb different wavelengths of light and give them their characteristic appearance. Algae are major producers of molecular oxygen as well as important users of carbon dioxide.

Epidemiology is the science that studies the

patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and informs policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare.

Yeast synthesize important antimicrobial medicines such as

penicillin and griseofulvin.

The coagulase test identifies whether an organism produces the exoenzyme coagulase, which causes the fibrin of blood plasma to clot. Coagulase test is used to identify the

presence of either bound coagulase or free coagulase, which is an extracellular enzyme. Free coagulase reacts with a component of plasma called coagulase-reacting factor. The result is to cause the plasma to coagulate. The coagulase plasma has been inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis and allowed to incubate at 37˚C for 24 hours. Staphylococcus aureus produces free coagulase; Staphylococcus epidermidis does not.

The "H" (hemagglutinin) and the "N" (neuraminidases) are both

proteins that are found on the outer shell or envelope of the virus. Different viruses have different hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins. -•It has eight segments of single-stranded RNA, which are enclosed in a protein capsid. •The capsid is surrounded by a lipid envelope derived from the host cell membrane. •Embedded in the envelope are two kinds of glycoprotein spikes—hemagglutinin antigen (HA) and neuraminidase antigen (NA)—which have a role in viral pathogenesis.

HPV

§Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a DNA virus from the papillomavirus family that is capable of infecting humans. §Like all papillomaviruses, HPVs establish productive infections only in keratinocytes of the skin or mucous membranes. §Most HPV infections are subclinical and will cause no physical symptoms. §However, in some people subclinical infections will become clinical and may cause benign papillomas (such as warts [verrucae] or squamous cell papilloma), OR Cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, oropharynx and anus. §In particular, HPV16 and HPV18 are known to cause around 70% of cervical cancer cases.

characteristics of streptococcus

•Characters of Streptococci -Gram positive cocci -1µm in diameter -Chains or pairs -Usually capsulated -Non motile - -Non spore forming -Facultative anaerobes -Fastidious -Catalase negative (Staphylococci are catalase positive)

genome of hepititis

•Circular DNA •Unusual, partially doubles stranded •Long stranded: 3020-3320 nucleotides •Short stranded: 1700- 2800 nucleotides

Blood agar is useful for

cultivating fastidious organisms and for determining the hemolytic capabilities of an organsm. -Some bacteria produce exoenzymes that lyse red blood cells and degrade hemoglobin; these are called hemolysins. Bacteria can produce different types of hemolysins. Beta-hemolysin breaks down the red blood cells and hemoglobin completely. This leaves a clear zone around the bacterial growth. Such results are referred to as β-hemolysis (beta hemolysis). The hemolysins produced by streptococci perform better in an anaerobic environment. Because of this, it is standard procedure to streak a blood plate and then stab the loop into the agar to provide an area of lower oxygen concentration where the streptolysins can more effectively break down the blood cells.

A roundworm, or nematode, has a

cylindrical, tapered body with a digestive tract that extends from the mouth to the anus. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a model eukaryotic organism that has been the subject of numerous studies in genetics and development because it matures quickly.

Starch agar is a differential medium that tests the ability of an organism to produce certain

exoenzymes, including a-amylase and oligo-1,6-glucosidase, that hydrolyze starch. Starch molecules are too large to enter the bacterial cell, so some bacteria secrete exoenzymes to degrade starch into subunits that can then be utilized by the organism. Starch agar is a simple nutritive medium with starch added. Since no color change occurs in the medium when organisms hydrolyze starch, we add iodine to the plate after incubation. Iodine turns blue, purple, or black (depending on the concentration of iodine) in the presence of starch. A clearing around the bacterial growth indicates that the organism has hydrolyzed starch.

Tapeworm have

flat, ribbon-shaped bodies and some types can reach over a meter in length. They have no digestive system, and do not feed directly on the tissues of their host. As the worm grows, these segments break off and are eliminated in the feces along with tapeworm eggs. When a suitable intermediate host ingests the eggs, the eggs hatch.

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)

known as a stool transplant is the process of transplantation of fecal bacteria from a healthy individual into a recipient. It has been proven to be a highly effective treatment for patients suffering from Clostridium difficile infection (CDI).

-Influenza (the flu) is a contagious respiratory illness caused by i

nfluenza viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. § §In virus classification influenza viruses are RNA viruses/ Subfamily: Orthomyxoviridae. §Influenza virus A §Influenza virus B §Influenza virus C

Halophiles are

organisms that live in high salt concentrations. They are a type of extremophile organism. Halophiles are categorized as slight, moderate or extreme, by the extent of their halotolerance. Slight halophiles prefer 0.3 to 0.8 M, moderate halophiles 0.8 to 3.4 M, and extreme halophiles 3.4 to 5.1 M NaCl.[1] Halophiles require NaCl for growth, in contrast to halotolerant bacteria which do not require NaCl but can grow under saline conditions.

Phenylalanine deaminase medium tests the ability of an organism to

produce the enzyme deaminase. This enzyme removes the amine group from the amino acid phenylalanine and releases the amine group as free ammonia. As a result of this reaction, phenylpyruvic acid is also produced. Phenylalanine agar, also known as phenylalanine deaminase medium, contains nutrients and DLphenylalanine. It is used to differentiate members of the genera Proteus from other Enterobacteriaceae (E. coli). After incubation, 10% ferric chloride is added to the media; if phenylpyruvic acid was produced, it will react with the ferric chloride and turn dark green. If the medium remains a straw color, the organism is negative for phenylalanine deaminase production.

Endospore Stain

some bacteria have the ability to form an endospore, which is a resistant, dormant structure that protects the bacteria from unfavorable environmental conditions. -Endospores are highly resistant to heat and chemicals. -Total absence of ATP. -Dependent on population density.

Diatoms:

the major producer of oxygen. and most of oil and gas reserve. Contain silicon dioxide.

M tuberculosis as causative agent for

tuberculosis

Dinoflagellates have

two flagella and often produce toxins, some Bioluminescence property.

A lichen, or lichenized fungus, is actually

two organisms functioning as a single, stable unit. Lichens comprise a fungus living in a symbiotic relationship with an alga or cyanobacterium (or both in some instances). There are about 17,000 species of lichen worldwide.

Protozoa are a diverse group of

unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which are motile. Historically, protozoa were defined as unicellular protists with animal-like behavior, such as movement or i.e., motility.

E. coli generally reach the bladder by moving up the

urethra, the use the fimbriae that attach specifically to receptors on bladder epithelial cells. The bacteria then enter the underlying epithelium by endocytosis and multiply rapidly to create intracellular bacterial communities like Biofilm. The bacteria slowly establish a dormant intracellular reservoir that resists antibiotics and is undetected by the immune system, often leading to chronic or recurrent infections.

Viruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms

§ §Antigenic drift where individual bases in the DNA or RNA mutate to other bases. Causes seasonal Influenza. § §Antigenic shift is where there is a major change in the genome of the virus. This occurs as a result of recombination. § In 2009, a new strain of H1N1 virus appeared that resulted from reassortment between bird, swine (pig), and human viruses. This new strain spread quickly, causing a pandemic (swine flu).

Influenza A

§ §Influenza A virus; the most virulent human pathogens among the three influenza types. §Influenza A virus; capable of infecting human as well as animals (ducks, chickens, pigs, whales, horses and seals). Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a large variety of influenza A. §Influenza A virus is the main cause of worldwide pandemics. § §Influenza A viruses subtypes e.g., (H1N1), (H5N1),....

Influenza A

§Influenza viruses lack mechanisms for the "proofreading" and repair of errors that occur during replication. As a result of these uncorrected errors, the genetic composition of the viruses changes as they replicate in humans and animals, and the existing strain is replaced with a new antigenic variant.

Lyme Disease

•According to the Center for Disease Control, Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector borne illness in the United States. •7,500 cases were reported in 2014 in Massachussettes and 1,000 cases in Rhode Island

Three Domains of Life

•Bacteria - true bacteria - •Archaea - odd bacteria that live in extreme environments, high salt, heat, etc. • •Eukarya - have a nucleus and organelles

transmission of lyme disease

•Before Lyme Disease bacterium can be transmitted, it has to be attached to the body for 36-48 hours •Common places to find a tick on the body are: •Groin •Armpits •Scalp •Legs. •Nymphs are tiny, immature ticks that most humans become infected by. •Spring and Summer months are when they mostly feed off a human body. •Adult ticks are most likely to be found on the body before they can transmit the bacteria.

What is Lyme Disease?

•Blacklegged ticks that carry the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi which is transmitted to humans or animals through an infected tick bite. •Also called a "deer tick" (Ixodes scapularis) •Can be found in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, and north-central US.

Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)

•Constituents: Nutrients, lactose, neutral red, eosin and methylene blue. •Appearance: A clear red medium •A selective stain for Gram-negative bacteria. •It is a blend of two stains, eosin and methylene blue in the ratio of 6:1. •A common application of this stain is in the preparation of EMB agar, a differential microbiological medium, which inhibits the growth of Gram-positive bacteria and provides a colour indicator distinguishing between organisms that ferment lactose (e.g., E. coli) and those that do not (e.g., Salmonella, Shigella). •Lactose fermentation produces acids, which lower the pH. This encourages dye absorption by the colonies, which are now coloured purple-black. •Lactose non-fermenters may increase the pH by deamination of proteins. This ensures that the dye is not absorbed. •On EMB if E. coli is grown it will give a distinctive metallic green sheen

Protists Are the Simplest Eukaryotes

Kingdom Protista contains eukaryotes that do not fit in any of the other three eukaryotic kingdoms. Biologists traditionally organize protists into three main groups: •algae •slime molds/water molds •protozoa

heterotroph and autotroph organism.

-Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in their surroundings using light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). -Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and rely on other organisms — both plants and animals — for nutrition.

Mannitol salt agar

-Mannitol salt agar MSA contains the carbohydrate mannitol, 7.5% sodium chloride NaCl, and the pH indicator phenol red. Mannitol provides the substrate for fermentation and makes the medium differential. -Sodium chloride makes the medium selective because the concentration is high enought to dehydrate and killmost bacteria.

•Streptococci can be classified according to:

-Oxygen requirements •Anaerobic (Peptostreptococcus) •Aerobic or facultative anaerobic (Streptococcus) -Serology (Lanciefield Classification) -Hemolysis on Blood Agar (BA) **. •Streptococci classified into many groups from A-K & H-V •One or more species per group •Classification based on C- carbohydrate antigen of cell wall

Causes of Meningitis

-bacteria - viruses - physical injury -cancer -or certain drugs - Severity/treatment of illnesses differ depending on the cause. Thus, it is important to know the specific cause of meningitis. -•Bacterial - Neisseria meningitidis - Streptococcus pneumoniae (Group A and B) - Listeria - Meningococcus - Pneumococcus - E coli K1 strain. •Viral - Arboviral (mosquito-borne) diseases - Influenza - LaCrosse Encephalitis virus - Also enteroviral

Hepatitis : Disease of the liver caused by Virus

. 400 million people worldwide are infected with chronic viral hepatitis and it's one of the top 10 infectious disease killers in the world. Over 20,000 people in the U.S. get hepatitis A each year. With hepatitis B, every year about 40,000 people in the U.S. are infected and 240 million worldwide according to the World Health Organization. With hepatitis C, 130-150 million people worldwide have chronic cases with 16,000 acute cases reported in the U.S. in 2009. Since HCV is not curable, an estimated 350,000- 500,000 of people die from its complications each year.

HIV associated Cancer

1. Kaposi's sarcoma. A tumor of the blood vessel walls, this cancer is rare in people not infected with HIV, but common in HIV-positive people. Kaposi's sarcoma usually appears as pink, red or purple lesions on the skin and mouth. In people with darker skin, the lesions may look dark brown or black. Kaposi's sarcoma can also affect the internal organs, including the digestive tract and lungs. 2. Lymphomas. This type of cancer originates in your white blood cells and usually first appears in your lymph nodes.

Epidemiology of tuberculosis TB

1.The truth of the matter is that anyone can get TB, no one is immune to it. 2. There are people at a higher risk than others, for example once recently infected with TB bacteria it is easier to become infected again. 3.If someone have a weak immune system because of diseases, this also puts him at high risk. There is an increased risk if he spends time with a person with TB, if he visits a country where TB is common, he works where TB is common, and he is a health-care worker who works with clients. . Someone has a higher chance of getting TB once infected with a HIV infection, a child younger than 5 years of age, he has been infected with TB over the last two years, he has other health problems, or if he smokes cigarettes or abuse alcohol. 5. TB is spread through the air from one person to another. 6. The bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. People nearby can breathe in these bacteria and become infected.

HIV associated Infectious disease

1.Tuberculosis (TB). In resource-poor nations, TB is the most common opportunistic infection associated with HIV and a leading cause of death among people with AIDS. 2.Salmonellosis. You contract this bacterial infection from contaminated food or water. Signs and symptoms include severe diarrhea, fever, chills, abdominal pain and, occasionally, vomiting. 3.Cytomegalovirus. This common herpes virus is transmitted in body fluids such as saliva, blood, urine, semen and breast milk. It will cause damage to eyes, digestive tract, lungs or other organs. 4. Candidiasis. Candidiasis is a common HIV-related infection. It causes inflammation and a thick, white coating on the mucous membranes of mouth, tongue, esophagus or vagina. 5. Cryptococcal meningitis. Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes and fluid surrounding your brain and spinal cord (meninges). 6. Toxoplasmosis. This potentially deadly infection is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite . 7. Cryptosporidiosis. The parasite grows in your intestines and bile ducts, leading to severe, chronic diarrhea in people with AIDS.

Viral Hepatitis

5 types: A: fecal-oral transmission B: sexual fluids & blood to blood C: blood to blood D: travels with B E: fecal-oral transmission

vectors.

A living organism that can carry a disease-causing microbe, but most commonly they are arthropods such as mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice, and ticks. A vector can carry a pathogen externally or internally.

Cystitis signs and symptoms often include: §

A strong, persistent urge to urinate § A burning sensation when urinating § Passing frequent, small amounts of urine § Blood in the urine (hematuria) § Passing cloudy or strong-smelling urine § Discomfort in the pelvic area § A feeling of pressure in the lower abdomen § Low-grade fever

Why do we use acid fast staining for Mycobacterium?

Acid-fast organisms like Mycobacterium contain large amounts of lipid substances within their cell walls called mycolic acids. These acids resist staining by ordinary methods such as a Gram stain. It can also be used to stain a few other bacteria, such as Nocardia. Sometimes Acid-fast stained cells look like a red clump of cells (see below):

HIV and AIDS

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a late manifestation of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. "Flulike" or infectious mononucleosis-like signs and symptoms representing the acute retroviral syndrome (ARS) often occur 6 days to 6 weeks after infection by HIV; these subside without treatment. HIV disease progresses asymptomatically for years, although HIV can still be transmitted to others during this time.

Pinworms are a type of parasite that lives in the digestive system of humans. They are common throughout the world.

Adult pinworms are about 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) long and look like little white threads. Pinworm eggs are so tiny, you'd need a microscope to see them.

treatment of c diff

Antibiotics. Antibiotic therapy for recurrence may involve one or more courses of a medication. Example: fidaxomicin (Dificid). Fecal microbiota transplant (FMT). Also known as a stool transplant, FMT is emerging as an alternative strategy for treating recurrent C. difficile infections. Though FMT is considered experimental and is not yet approved by the FDA, clinical studies are currently underway. FMT restores healthy intestinal bacteria by placing another person's (donor's) stool in your colon through a colonoscope or nasogastric tube. Donors are screened for medical conditions, their blood is tested for infections, and stools are carefully screened for parasites, viruses and other infectious bacteria before being used for FMT.

Endospore resistance

Become resistant due to a combination of : tough outer covering of protein keratin, its dehydrated state, DNA protective proteins.

Clostridium difficile diarrhea a type of infectious diarrhea caused by the bacteria

Clostridium difficile. Clostridium difficile is also known as C. diff, is a species of Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria. While it can be a minor part of normal colonic flora, the bacterium is thought to cause disease when competing bacteria in the gut have been reduced by antibiotic treatment. -Clostridium difficile infection kills 14,000 people a year in America alone. When the bacteria are in a colon in which normal gut flora has been destroyed (usually after a broad-spectrum antibiotic such as clindamycin has been used), the gut becomes overrun with C. difficile. The bacteria release toxins that can cause bloating and diarrhea, with abdominal pain, which may become severe.

where fungi grow?

Different fungi can grow from pH as low as 2.2 to as high as 9.6, and they usually grow well at a pH of 5.0 or lower. They can grow better than bacteria on acidic fruits and vegetables. They can easily survive at refrigerator temperatures and below. Some are resistant to pasteurization, and others can grow at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Some obligate anaerobes live in the rumen of cows, where they are important in the digestion of the plant material.

Characteristics of fungus

Eukaryotic Decomposers - the best recyclers around No chlorophyll - non photosynthetic Most multicellular (hyphae) - some unicellular (yeast) Non-motile Cell walls made of chitin (kite-in) instead of cellulose like that of a plant Are more related to animals than plant kingdom Lack true roots, leaves and stems Absorptive heterotrophs Digest food externally and then absorb it

HIV infection

HIV infection weakens your immune system, making you highly susceptible to numerous infections and certain types of cancers.

HIV structure

HIV is an enveloped virus that has two copies of single-stranded RNA surrounded by a protein capsid . The viral envelope originates from the host cell membrane and encloses the viral core.

Gastritis

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a bacterium that causes chronic inflammation of the inner lining of the stomach (gastritis) in humans. This bacterium also is considered as a common cause of ulcers worldwide; as many as 90% of people with ulcers have detectable organisms. In USA, about 30% of the adult population is infected (50% of infected persons are infected by the age of 60). About 50% of the world population is estimated to have detectable H. pylori in their gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, but stomach, mainly).

helminths

Helminths (Multicellular parasites) Three groups of helminths relevant to medicine 1.Nematodes (roundworms): GI tract or blood infections 2.Cestodes (tapeworms) 3.Trematodes (flukes) Three modes of human invasion: - Skin penetration - Contaminated food - Insect vector Under control in developed countries, millions of deaths / year in underdeveloped countries

Alpha, beta and gamma hemolysis of Streptococcus.

Hemolysis on BA a-hemolysis Partial hemolysis Green discoloration around the colonies e.g. non-groupable streptococci (S. pneumoniae & S. viridans) b-hemolysis Complete hemolysis Clear zone of hemolysis around the colonies e.g. Group A & B (S. pyogenes & S. agalactiae) g-hemolysis No lysis e.g. Group D (Enterococcus spp)

Influenza Symptoms

Influenza (also known as the flu) is a contagious respiratory illness caused by flu viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The flu is different from a cold. The flu usually comes on suddenly. People who have the flu often feel some or all of these symptoms: Fever or feeling feverish/chills Cough Sore throat Runny or stuffy nose Muscle or body aches Headaches Fatigue (tiredness) Some people may have vomiting and diarrhea, though this is more common in children than adults.

Other influenzas

Influenza B virus; less common than influenza A Influenza B virus; it almost exclusively infects humans. § Influenza C virus; infects humans. Influenza C virus; less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children.

Mannitol salt agar or MSA is a commonly used growth medium in microbiolog because

It encourages the growth of a group of certain bacteria while inhibiting the growth of others. This medium is important in medical laboratories by distinguishing pathogenic microbes in a short period of time. It contains a high concentration (~7.5%-10%) of salt (NaCl), making it selective for gram positive bacterium since this level of NaCl is inhibitory to most other bacteria. It is also a differential medium for mannitol fermentors, containing mannitol and the indicator phenol red. Most Staphylococci can grow on MSA but do not ferment mannitol, so the colonies are pink. Those who can ferment mannitol will produce acid and pH will be lowered. The cells will be bright yellow.

Why we need to dilute?

Let's say a culture contains about a million CFUs. At 1 CFU per second, that would take 11.6 days to count. Assuming you didn't stop to eat or sleep. Clearly a better way is needed. Because we don't know how much dilution we need. Every time we dilute, we'll also make a new plate to incubate. So we might do 5 dilutions and grow up 5 plates. Then we'll end up throwing away 4 of them. Sound wasteful? Well, dilution and plating is quick and easy compared to the pain of starting your experiment all over again. If you are going to take a little bit of our culture, put it on a plate, and grow it up. But we still have a problem -- too many colonies to count. For example, even 500 colonies on a petri dish, cannot count them. What if you are trying to count a population in the thousands or millions? You could literally have a carpet of colonies (also known as a 'confluent lawn') growing on your petri dish. This is where dilution saves the day. Not just dilution, but serial dilution... meaning dilution over and over again.

M protein as surface antigen produce Strep throat

M protein is a virulence factor that can be produced by certain species of Streptococcus. M protein is strongly anti-phagocytic and is the major virulence factor for group A streptococci (Streptococcus pyogenes). It binds to serum factor H, destroying C3-convertase and preventing opsonization by C3b.

Malaria

Malaria has been one of the greatest killers of humans through the ages. Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by a parasite. People with malaria often experience fever, chills, and flu-like illness. Left untreated, they may develop severe complications and die. There are more than 100 species of genus Plasmodium. The deadliest form is Plasmodium falciparum

meningitis

Meningitis is a disease of the brain, caused by the inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord known as the meninges. The inflammation is usually caused by an infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Meningitis is also referred to as spinal meningitis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterium called

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. If not treated properly, TB disease can be fatal.

Differential test

Phenol Red Broth is a general-purpose differential test medium typically used to differentiate gram negative enteric bacteria. It contains peptone, phenol red (a pH indicator), a Durham tube, and one carbohydrate. We use three different kinds of phenol red broths. One contains glucose; one contains lactose, and the last contains sucrose. The objective of the exercise is to determine which organisms can utilize each sugar. Phenol red is a pH indicator which turns yellow below a pH of 6.8 and pink to magenta above a pH of 7.4. If the organism is able to utilize the carbohydrate, an acid by-product is created, which turns the media yellow. If the organism is unable to utilize the carbohydrate but does use the peptone, the by-product is ammonia, which raises the pH of the media and turns it pink to magenta. When the organism is able to use the carbohydrate, a gas by-product may be produced. If it is, an air bubble will be trapped inside the Durham tube. If the organism is unable to utilize the carbohydrate, gas will not be produced, and no air bubble will be formed.

UTI causes

Short urethra in female The length and position of the urethra put it at risk for fecal contamination and colonization with potentially pathogenic intestinal bacteria. Sexual intercourse About one-third of UTIs in sexually active women are associated with sexual intercourse. Enlarged prostate UTIs are unusual in men until about age 50, when enlargement of the prostate gland compresses the urethra and makes it difficult to completely empty the bladder. Catheterization Medical conditions may require a bladder catheter for periods ranging from several days to months. This allows bacteria to reach the bladder and establish UTIs. Paralysis of the lower half of the body often have recurrent UTIs. This is because they cannot urinate normally due to lack of bladder control.

Streptococcus infection

Streptococcus pyogenes infection of Upper Respiratory track (Strep Throat). §Strep throat is characterized by a sore throat, difficulty swallowing, and fever. §The throat is red, with patches of pus and scattered tiny hemorrhages. §The lymph nodes in the neck are enlarged and tender. §Abdominal pain or headache may occur in older children and young adults. Patients do not usually have a cough, weepy eyes, or runny nose.

Catalase test

Test that determines whether or not bacteria has "catalase" enzyme.

Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase

There are 16 H and 9 N subtypes known, but only H 1, 2 and 3, and N 1 and 2 are commonly found in humans. Hemagglutinin (HA) is a lectin that mediates binding of the virus to target cells and entry of the viral genome into the target cell. Neuraminidase (NA) is involved in the release of progeny virus from infected cells, by cleaving sugars that bind the mature viral particles. These proteins are targets for antiviral drugs.

HIV is most commonly transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person, from an infected mother to her child during paturation or child birth.

Through sharing of sharp objects such as needles, syringes, with an infected person. Also, by poorly monitored blood transfusion between an infected person and an uninfected.

Pathogen is anything that can produce disease.

Typically the term is used to mean an infectious agent (colloquially known as a germ) — a microorganism, in the widest sense such as a virus, bacterium, prion, fungus or protozoan, that causes disease in its host. The host may be an animal, a plant, a fungus or even another microorganism.

Disease may be:

a. Communicable diseases: Diseases that are spread from an infected animal or person to another animal or person (Contagious diseases that are spread from one host to another very readily). b. Non-communicable diseases: Disease that typically cannot be transmitted from one individual to another. Mortality refers to the overall death rate in a population. In developed countries, mortality is most often associated with non-communicable diseases such as cancer or heart attack. In developing countries, however, communicable diseases are still a major cause of death. §Endemic diseases are constantly present in a given population. For example, the common cold is endemic in the United States. §When cases occur only from time to time, they are sporadic. §An unusually large number of cases in a population constitutes an epidemic. § §An outbreak describes a cluster of cases occurring during a brief time interval and affecting a specific population. §When an epidemic spreads worldwide, as AIDS has, it is called a pandemic.

Novobiocin is an

antibiotic interfering with the unpackaging and repackaging of DNA during DNA replication and the bacterial cell cycle. Different types of bacteria have different degrees of susceptibility to novobiocin. This test determines whether the bacterium is either sensitive (susceptible) to novobiocin or resistant to the drug. Knowledge about novobiocin susceptibility is valuable in identification of Gram positive cocci, some of which are susceptible and others of which are resistant. An inoculum from a pure culture is transferred aseptically to a sterile plate of nutrient agar, typically by use of cotton-tipped applicator (swab). In a clinical setting, the applicator often contains other fibers than cotton to prevent any toxic residue found in cotton after processing from interfering with the growth of delicate pathogens. The inoculum is spread over the plate to distribute the bacteria as evenly and thoroughly as possible over the entire agar surface. An antibiotic-impregnated disk containing novobiocin is then aseptically placed in the center of the agar surface. The inoculated plate is incubated at 35-37 C for 24 hours and the results are determined. Growth of the lawn up to the margin of the disk indicates the bacterium is resistant to the antibiotic. An obvious clear zone around the disk, termed the zone of inhibition, indicates the bacterium to be susceptible to the antibiotic.

A saprophyte is an organism that obtains its nutrition from

assimilating organic matter. They absorb nutrient from deal or decaying matters, sometimes from living tissues as foot or vagina

UTIs typically occur when

bacteria outside the body enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply. Most cases of cystitis are caused by a type of Escherichia coli bacteria.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as

brewer's yeast or baker's yeast, has long been used in the production of wine, beer, and bread. Other fungal species are useful in making the large variety of cheeses produced throughout the world.

MacConkey AGAR

•Used to isolate Gram negative enteric (coliforms) •Selective and differential medium. •Selective - Gram positive bacteria are inhibited by the presence of bile salts and crystal violet inhibitors in the medium. Most of gram negative bacteria will grow. •Differentiate- Between Gram negative bacteria by their ability to ferment lactose. •Pink colonies- Bacteria that ferment lactose ( These reactions are due to the acid produced by the fermentation of lactose. The acid end-products act on bile salts, and neutral red is absorbed by the precipitated salts. ). •Pale colonies- Non fermenters are no colored and transparent. •(Note: The Gram positive bacteria do not die on this media, their growth is just inhibited)

Differential media

•Differential media does not necessarily inhibit bacterial growth, but instead makes the bacteria look different • •Differential media works best with closely related organisms, and the differential agent is what causes the bacteria look different • •Owing to the presence of certain dyes or chemicals in the media, the organisms will produce characteristic changes or growth patterns that are used for identification or differentiation. • •A variety of selective and differential media are used in medical, diagnostic and water pollution laboratories, and in food and dairy laboratories. •Some media are both selective and differential, that is, they are able to select against the growth of certain organisms while the organisms that do grow may exhibit some differential growth characteristics. • •Three of the more common selective and differential media are described below and will be used in the laboratory exercise.

Treatment of lyme disease

•Doxycycline, amoxicillin, or cefuroxime axetil are oral antibiotics to treat Lyme disease. •Most people who are treated early recover quickly and completely. •If you have chronic neurology or heart illness you may need an IV for treatment.

protozoa are

•Eukaryotic •Unicellular •Chemoheterotrophs •Vegetative form is a trophozoite •Asexual reproduction by fission, budding, or schizogony •Sexual reproduction by conjugation •Some produce cysts

Fungi

•Eukaryotic (About 80,000 known species) •Aerobic or facultative anaerobic •heterotrophic •Most are decomposers •Mycology is the study of fungi •They have chitin in their cell wall -Yeast are single celled fungi -Mold are filamentous fungi -Mushrooms are reproductive system of class of fungi. Fungi are omnipresent (yeasts, molds and mushrooms) Only few fungi cause disease in animals (mostly in immunocompromised individuals) Economic importance -wine, beer, bread, and cheese production -Antimicrobial medicines -Biotechnology -Many plant pathogens

structure of hepatitis

•Family: hepadnaviridae •Hepa: for liver •DNA: for deoxyribonucleic acid •Virion ( aka Dane particle) •Outer lipid envelope •Icosahedral nuclecapsid core composed of protein •Outer envelope proteins •Bringing and entry into susceptible cells •Size small, 42 nm in diameter

Symptoms of meningitis can be the same for Viral and Bacterial

•Fever and chills •Mental status changes •Nausea and vomiting •Sensitivity to light (photophobia) •Severe headache •Stiff neck

Media for Isolation of Microbes

•General (all purpose): contains basic nutrients for most bacteria. •Enriched: contains extra growth factors & nutrients (Fastidius organism). •Selective: contains ingredients that inhibit growth of some bacteria & allow growth of others. •Differential: contain indicators that change appearance of media in response to differential use of an ingredient

Different H and N combinations arise

•H1N1, which caused Spanish flu in 1918, and the 2009 flu pandemic •H2N2, which caused Asian Flu in 1957 •H3N2, which caused Hong Kong Flu in 1968 •H5N1, a current pandemic threat *** •H7N7, which has unusual zoonotic potential •H1N2, endemic in humans and pigs •H9N2 •H7N2 •H7N3 •H10N7

What Is Hepatitis?

•Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver •Hepat (liver) + itis (inflammation)= Hepatitis •Viral hepatitis means there is a specific virus that is causing your liver to inflame (swell or become larger than normal)

signs and symptoms of lyme

•It takes anywhere from 3-30 days to show any symptoms from a tick bite. •Early Symptoms include: •Fatigue •Headache •Muscle and Joint aches •Swollen lymph nodes •Fever •Rash. •Days to Months after a tick bite include: •Severe headaches and neck stiffness •Rashes on other areas of the body •Facial paralysis •Arthritis •Heart palpitations •Dizziness or Short of Breath

characteristics of fungi

•Macroscopic Fungi (mushrooms) •Microscopic Fungi (molds and yeasts) -Dimorphic: can be either hyphae or yeast -Hyphae: long, threadlike cells -Mycelium: hyphae grow to form filamentous mass visible to unaided eye (The fuzzy mold you see growing on old food). -Filamentous fungi can reproduce sexually and asexually by the formation of spores •Spores can either be sexual or asexual. Fungi are characterized by a cell wall that contains chitin—the same molecule found in the exoskeleton of insects. Their key role is decomposers (saprophyte), absorbing nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter. Some fungi, however, can absorb nutrients from living tissue, acting as parasites. Some fungi can absorb nutrients from living tissue, acting as parasites such as athlete's foot and vaginal yeast infections.

UTI epidemiology

•Second only to respiratory infections (>6 million visits to doctors per year - USA) • •~2% incidence in preschool children 2% - 10 times more common in females • •~5% of school-aged females but rare in school-aged males • •Large majority of adult cases are females - 30:1 • •Forty percent of all females have at least one episode of a UTI at some time in their lives.

Selective & Differential media

•Selective and differential media are used to isolate or identify particular organisms. •Selective media allow certain types of organisms to grow, and inhibit the growth of other organisms. The selectivity is accomplished in several ways: §For example, organisms that can utilize a given sugar are easily screened by making that sugar the only carbon source in the medium. •On the other hand, selective inhibition of some types of microorganisms can be achieved by adding dyes, antibiotics, salts or specific inhibitors which affect the metabolism or enzyme systems of the organisms. For example, media containing sodium azide will inhibit the growth of Gram-negative bacteria. • Media supplemented with penicillin (5-50 units/ml) or crystal violet (2 mg/l) will inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria

tuberculosis TB

•TB infections date back to 8000 BC •Infectious, contagious disease that attacks the lungs but can spread •Many different types • •Two main types -Active •Producing symptoms now- transmittable -Latent •Person has TB, but it is not active •Have no TB bacteria in sputum Cannot be transmitted

Vaccination for lyme disease

•Unfortunately, vaccination for you and your animals are no longer available. •In 2002, the vaccine was discontinued due to insufficient consumer demand. •You are no longer protected against Lyme disease because this vaccine diminishes over a period of time.