Biochem Week 6: Reading 2

What binds to the G protein alpha subunits?

A G protein alpha subunit binds either GTP or GDP depending on whether the protein is active (GTP) or inactive (GDP).

What Second Messengers Do GPCR Signals Trigger in Cells?

Activation of a single G protein can affect the production of hundreds or even thousands of second messenger molecules (Figure 3). (Recall that second messengers — such as cyclic AMP [cAMP], diacylglycerol [DAG], and inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate [IP3] — are small molecules that initiate and coordinate intracellular signaling pathways.) One especially common target of activated G proteins is adenylyl cyclase, a membrane-associated enzyme that, when activated by the GTP-bound alpha subunit, catalyzes synthesis of the second messenger cAMP from molecules of ATP. In humans, cAMP is involved in responses to sensory input, hormones, and nerve transmission, among others. Phospholipase C is another common target of activated G proteins. This membrane-associated enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of not one, but two second messengers — DAG and IP3 — from the membrane lipid phosphatidyl inositol. This particular pathway is critical to a wide variety of human bodily processes. For instance, thrombin receptors in platelets use this pathway to promote blood clotting.

What do GPCR's Do?

As their name implies, GPCRs interact with G proteins in the plasma membrane. When an external signaling molecule binds to a GPCR, it causes a conformational change in the GPCR. This change then triggers the interaction between the GPCR and a nearby G protein

What are G Proteins?

G proteins are specialized proteins with the ability to bind the nucleotides guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and guanosine diphosphate (GDP). Some G proteins, such as the signaling protein Ras, are small proteins with a single subunit. However, the G proteins that associate with GPCRs are heterotrimeric,

How long does G protein remain active?

G proteins remain active as long as their alpha subunits are joined with GTP. However, when this GTP is hydrolyzed back to GDP, the subunits once again assume the form of an inactive heterotrimer, and the entire G protein reassociates with the now-inactive GPCR. In this way, G proteins work like a switch — turned on or off by signal-receptor interactions on the cell's surface.

What do GPCR's Look like?

GPCRs bind a tremendous variety of signaling molecules, yet they share a common architecture that has been conserved over the course of evolution GPCRs consist of a single polypeptide that is folded into a globular shape and embedded in a cell's plasma membrane. Seven segments of this molecule span the entire width of the membrane — explaining why GPCRs are sometimes called seven-transmembrane receptors — and the intervening portions loop both inside and outside the cell. The extracellular loops form part of the pockets at which signaling molecules bind to the GPCR.

What happens when G protein is active?

Whenever a G protein is active, both its GTP-bound alpha subunit and its beta-gamma dimer can relay messages in the cell by interacting with other membrane proteins involved in signal transduction. Specific targets for activated G proteins include various enzymes that produce second messengers, as well as certain ion channels that allow ions to act as second messengers. Some G proteins stimulate the activity of these targets, whereas others are inhibitory. Vertebrate genomes contain multiple genes that encode the alpha, beta, and gamma subunits of G proteins. The many different subunits encoded by these genes combine in multiple ways to produce a diverse family of G proteins

Signal =

a change in the conformation of the GPCR activates the G protein, and GTP physically replaces the GDP bound to the alpha subunit. As a result, the G protein subunits dissociate into two parts: the GTP-bound alpha subunit and a beta-gamma dimer. Both parts remain anchored to the plasma membrane, but they are no longer bound to the GPCR, so they can now diffuse laterally to interact with other membrane proteins.

No signal =

n the absence of a signal, GDP attaches to the alpha subunit, and the entire G protein-GDP complex binds to a nearby GPCR. This arrangement persists until a signaling molecule joins with the GPCR.

What are G- Protein- coupled receptors

they are he largest and most diverse group of membrane receptors in eukaryotes. These cell surface receptors act like an inbox for messages in the form of light energy, peptides, lipids, sugars, and proteins. Such messages inform cells about the presence or absence of life-sustaining light or nutrients in their environment, or they convey information sent by other cells

heterotrimeric,

they have three different subunits: an alpha subunit, a beta subunit, and a gamma subunit. Two of these subunits — alpha and gamma — are attached to the plasma membrane by lipid anchors