BIOL 1040 Exam #2

7. Name and describe important problems and obstacles faced by the first terrestrial vertebrates for adapting to life on land? S14

- Gas exchange - shift from gills to lungs. - Water conservation - prevention of desiccation. - Structural support - neutral buoyancy vs. limbs to support body weight. - Locomotion - shift from swimming to walking. - Sensory organs - those that work well in water but not on land. - Sexual reproduction - overcoming their dependency on water.

8. Describe the three major lineages of tetrapods on land. How is each different from the other? S 14

1.Amphibians . . . use small lungs and their body surfaces. 2.Reptiles have . . . lower metabolic rates and simple lungs. 3.Birds and mammals have . . . higher metabolic rates and more complex lungs. Note: Technically, birds should be included with the reptile group.

13. Know the structure and function of the small intestine. S22

A Closer Look at the Small Intestine Small Intestine - A long flexible tube with large circular folds & numerous macroscopic & microscopic finger-like projections for increased surface area (~ 300 m2). 300 m2 is roughly 4-5 x's the surface area of the lung (at 70 m2). The area of a tennis court is about 260 m2 (2700 square feet).

5. In tetrapod evolution, what is the name of the animal believed to come onto land from the water? S12

Acanthostega

8. How does peristalsis work in our esophagus ? S12

After Swallowing, Peristalsis Moves Food Through the Esophagus to the Stomach During swallowing . . . Soft Palate & Uvula - move up & back to close off the nasopharynx. Tongue - pushes the bolus backwards. Epiglottis - a cartilagenous flap of tissue - moves down to cover the glottis (opening to windpipe). Larynx ("voicebox") moves upward. Upper Esophageal Sphincter - relaxes to allow passage of the bolus. Peristalsis - carries the bolus downwards to the stomach. Pharynx (throat) is at the intersection of the nasal cavity, mouth, larynx/trachea & esophagus. Glottis - the combination of the vocal cords/folds and the space or opening in between the folds. The sound of burping is caused by the vibration of the upper esophageal sphincter as stomach gas passes through it & is expelled.

8. What are the distinguishing features of tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg? S17

All vertebrates after amphibians have amniotic eggs

14. What are balloon angioplasty and stents? What is re-stenosis? S28

Angiogram - an x-ray visualization of the inside or lumen of a blood vessel using a contrasting dye. Angioplasty - an invasive procedure where a blood vessel is enlarged (or cleared) to improve or restore blood flow. Stent - an expandable wire mesh tube that is inserted into a blood vessel to provide extra support or maintain a functionally open vessel. •A "stent" is a small wire mesh tube that is inserted into an occluded artery, then stretched via inflation of the balloon (i.e. balloon angioplasty). •Contrasting dye is typically iodine or barium compounds. •Typically, in angioplasty, the catheter is inserted via one of the femoral arteries, up through the aorta.

22. What are the structure and functions of blood? See notes below slide. S40

Blood Consists of Red & White Blood Cells Suspended in Plasma. From before . . . Blood - a fluid connective tissue specialized for transport of various substances, homeostasis and protection. Specific Functions of Blood: 1.Transport gases, nutrients, waste products & hormones. 2.Help destroy pathogenic microorganisms. 3.Distribute antibodies involved in immune responses. 4.Maintain water balance & pH. 5.Help regulate body temperature. 6.Carry platelets & clotting factors for clotting & prevention of blood loss.

2. What are the three (3) lineages of jawed fishes. S8

Chondrichthyans "Cartilaginous fishes" - have a skeletal system mostly of cartilage Includes sharks and rays Entire skeleton made of cartilage; Cartilage of skull, jawbone and spine are calcified for increased strength (with calcium salts). Ray-finned Fishes Calcified skeletal system made of true bone*. Bones in fins radiate out from a single bone. Includes tuna, trout, and goldfish. Lobe-finned Fishes Calcified skeletal system made of true bone*. Bone in fins extend out from multiple bones resembling a limb. Includes the Coelacanths and lungfishes. *Aka "Osteichthyans" Osteichthyes = Boney fishes; Actinopterygii = Ray-finned fishes; Sarcopterygii = Lobe-finned fishes.

5. Be able to list the cardiac cycle in order and how long each part requires in time. S15, 16, 17, 18.

Diastole - 0.4 seconds Systole - Atria contact - 0.1 seconds Systole - Ventricles contract - .3 seconds

14. Know the enzyme and its function and the location it is used.

Enteropeptidase (bound to walls of duodenum) activates trypsinogen (to trypsin), which then activates more trypsinogen; trypsin then activates chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase & prolipase.

4. In animals, what are the four (4) main categories of tissues? What is the definition/description of each? S7

Epithelial Tissue Covers the Body and Lines Its Organs and Cavities. Epithelial tissues are named according to: The number of cell layers they have. Simple (single layer). Stratified (multiple layers). The shape of the cells on their apical surface. Squamous—flattened like a fried egg. Cuboidal—as tall as they are wide. Columnar—taller than they are wide. General functions include . . . Protection. A higher level selectively permeable barrier involved in secretion, absorption, excretion & filtration. Prefix "Epi" - Greek for above, on, over, nearby, upon; outer; besides; in addition to; among; attached to; or toward. "Theli" is Greek for soft, tender, feminine. Apical Surface - side away from the basal membrane facing the "environment". Basement Membrane is NOT a plasma membrane; it is a thin layer of extracellular proteins that fuse with, attach to, or become the extracellular matrix.

2. What are the distinguishing features of animals? S3

Eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophs. Individual cells lack cell walls. Acquire food & nutrients via ingestion (i.e. eating) with internal digestion. Typically diploid & reproduce sexually: Form haploid eggs & sperm (via meiosis) that fuse during fertilization to form a diploid zygote. Zygote divides by mitosis to form a multicellular embryonic blastula. Blastula infolds to form a gastrula with two or three germ layers - Ectoderm, Endoderm & Mesoderm. Gastrula develops into a new adult.

1. Compare oxygen diffusion in air, to fresh water, to marine water? S3

Important Evolutionary Considerations Regarding Gas Exchange Systems Early life originated in an aquatic environment. Small bodies with high surface to volume ratios can effectively exchange gases via their body surfaces. Larger bodies spend more energy/effort and require more sophisticated gas exchange systems. Oxygen diffuses more slowly in water than in air. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. i.e. . . . There is less O2 available in water than in air. It is more difficult to obtain O2 from water than air. Multicellular plants & animals started to emerge from the oceans approx. 500 - 600 mya. Cold water dissolves more O2 than warm water: •Water @ 0C holds about 14.6 mg O2 per liter (i.e. ppm) (compared to 209,000 ppm in air) •Water @ 25C holds about 8.6 mg O2 per liter. •Salty (sea) water holds less O2 than fresh water. Seawater contains approx. 7 & 90 ppm O2 & CO2, respectively.

13. What are the four (4) organ systems with enhanced surface areas for exchange? Describe them. S37

Indirect Exchange in Complex Animals Four Organ Systems With Enhanced Surface Areas for Exchange: 1.Circulatory System → Capillary beds. Distributes gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body. Exchanges materials between blood and body cells via interstitial fluids. 2.Respiratory System → Alveoli. Exchanges gases between the external environment and blood. 3.Digestive System → Villi & microvilli. Acquires/absorbs food and eliminates wastes. Includes the liver & liver functions. 4.Urinary System → Convoluted tubules & the Loop of Henle. Eliminates metabolic waste & excess water. Surface area of average lungs & small intestines are estimated to be about the same size / area of a tennis court (2700-2800 square feet). The circulatory system interacts (exchanges materials) with all other organ systems, however, only the above systems have specialized "enhanced" areas with increased surface areas to facilitate exchange. The circulatory system functions like a conveyor belt (e.g. for luggage at the airport). The liver is often described as the largest gland of the animal body. It retrieves & secretes materials (e.g. glucose, vitamins, N-wastes) to/from the blood.

17. What are the prosimians and give examples, and the locations of their normal habitat. S7

Mouse Lemur, Ring-tailed Lemur; Loruses; Bush Babies, & Tarsiers These primates are tree-dwellers that mainly inhabit the tropical regions of the world.

8. What are the general characteristics of nervous tissue, and the structure and function of the two basic cell types. S28, 29

Nervous Tissue Forms a Communication Network. General Characteristics of Nervous Tissue: Tissue comprising the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Three basic functions: 1.Sensory input - i.e. the perception of stimuli. 2.Integration of data - the analysis of stimuli in preparation for a response. 3.Motor output - the elicitation of a response appropriate for stimuli. Composed of two basic cell types: 1.Neurons - cells that perceive stimuli and transmit or conduct information (impulses) to other cells. 2.Neuroglia - an assortment of non-conducting cells that support & nourish neurons (see later). Neurons & Neuroglia Nuclei of glial cells appear as dark dots. Vertical structure may be a bundle of axons w/ myelin sheath/schwann cells. Inset is the cell body w nucleus & nucleoli.

9. Organs and organ systems, what are their vital functions? S30

Organs & Organ Systems 20.8 Organs Are Made Up of Tissues From before . . . Organ - a combination of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function. Each tissue performs a specific function in the organ. Organ System - a group of related organs that work together to perform a group of related functions. Each organ system performs a vital function for the organism. The Heart & Small Intestine are organs made up of various amount of the Four Basic Tissues. Each organ system performs a vital function for the organism - i.e. you might be able to live without all or part of a single organ, but you could not live without the entire organ system - e.g. you might be able to survive without a stomach (as in gastric by-pass surgery), but you certainly could not survive without a digestive system.

3. Explain and give examples of how living things are ordered. What are the levels, and new "emergent" properties that arise at each level. S4, 5

Structure Fits Function at All Levels of Organization in the Animal Body. In Biology . . . Anatomy & Physiology - are the study of the forms & functions of an organism's structures. From before . . . Living things are ordered. They have a hierarchy of organization, structure & function. Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organisms. New "emergent" properties arise at each level - i.e. each level has functions greater than the previous/less complex level.

3. What are the two circuits called in humans? S9

The Human Cardiovascular System Illustrates the Double Circulation of Mammals. Two Circuits for Blood Flow: Pulmonary Circuit Carries blood to/from the right & left lungs. Systemic Circuit Upper Systemic - carries blood to/from the head, chest & arms; Lower Systemic - carries blood to/from the trunk & legs.

10. Describe the structure and function of the small intestinal tissues. S31

The Small Intestine as an Organ The Tissues of the Small Intestine are Organized Into Layers of Specific Function Columnar Epithelium - secretes digestive juices & absorbs nutrients. Blood Vessels - absorb nutrients from epithelial cells & transport them to circulatory system. Connective Tissue - bind tissues together. Two layers of smooth muscle - create peristaltic movement of intestine contents.

1. What are the three (3) Domains, and the four (4) Kingdoms of Eukarya? S2

Three Domains/four Kingdoms: Bacteria, Archaea & Eukarya; Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals.

18. What caused the extinction of the dinosaurs? S8

​​Cretaceous/Tertiary Extinction event believed to have been caused by the Chicxulub Asteroid, and to have killed off the dinosaurs (along with 16 percent of marine families, and 18 percent of land vertebrate families). Dust occluded sunlight for up to six months, halting or severely impairing photosynthesis, and thus seriously disrupting continental and marine food chains. This would then kill most plant life and phytoplankton which would also kill many of the organisms that depended on them to survive.

24. Where are the origin and development of blood cells located? Contract Totipotent, to pluripotent, to multipotent. S42

•Origin and Development of Blood Cells •Red marrow is abundant in the ribs, sternum & pelvis. •Leg bone shown is the femur (below would be the tibia & fibula). •Stem Cells - unspecialized cells (technically referred to as "multipotent hematopoietic stem cells" (or hematocytoblasts) that retain the capacity for mitotic cell division and differentiate into other more specialized cells. Pluripotent - can differentiate into any cells of the body derived from the three germ layers, but cannot form placental cells; multipotent - are more restricted, i.e. can only differentiate into a few related cell types. •Megakaryocytes - "giant" transitional cells that fragment to form membrane-bound platelets - which release various "clotting factors" (note: platelets do not have nuclei, are not cells, but cell fragments). •White blood cells (leukocytes) - several types for a variety of functions; generally involved in "housekeeping" and defense - i.e. engulf damaged or foreign cells, some involved in "search and destroy" immune responses (see later). §Neutrophils - amoeboid cells that squeeze through capillary wall and phagocytize foreign material. §Eosinophils - release enzymes used to fight parasites and destroy allergens. §Basophils - contain/release heparin & histamine. §Lymphoid Stem Cells - of, or pertaining to the lymphatic system. §Myeloid Stem Cells - of, or pertaining to bone marrow (or the spinal cord).

19. What are the distinguishing features of the great apes? S9

"Great Apes" include the Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimpanzees (& Bonobos), and Humans, but NOT the Gibbons. Lack a tail; relatively larger brains with respect to size. More flexible behavior. Less instinctive, more adaptable. More social. 2n = 48 ?. Note: The "Great Apes" (aka the "Hominidae") includes the Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimpanzees (including the Bonobos) & Humans; the "Apes" includes the Great Apes plus the Gibbons. Gibbons (aka the "Lesser Apes") in many ways more closely resemble the monkeys; more importantly they are comprised of many other subgroups, each having quite variable diploid chromosome numbers, ranging from 38 - 50 (or more) whereas the Great Apes (except Humans) have 48 chromosomes (Humans have 46).

6. What hypothesis described selective pressures for tetrapods to leave oceans? S13

- Abundance of terrestrial food (plants & insects). - Greater availability of oxygen in air (than in water). - Few if any predators. - "Drying Pond Hypothesis": First tetrapods became trapped in tidal pools/ponds. Supportive legs helped elevate heads above water to gulp air. Ability to "walk" allowed return to oceans (or movement to new ponds).

14. What are the distinguishing features of amphibians? S3

- Considered to be the first tetrapods able to move on land. - Include salamanders, frogs & caecilians. - Use their moist skins for gas exchange to supplement their lungs. - Caecilians are amphibians that lack legs. They are found in wet, tropical regions of the world, including Southeast Asia, India, parts of East and West Africa, Central America, and in northern and eastern South America.

11. What are the adaptions for birds? S20

- Feathered wings that act as airfoils. - Large flight muscles to provide power. - Many features to reduce weight. - Theropod = Beast-footed; Among the features linking theropod dinosaurs to birds are a furcula (wishbone), air-filled bones, brooding of the eggs, and (in coelurosaurs, at least) feathers. - Features to reduce weight include: Present-day birds lack teeth; The tail is supported by only a few small vertebrae; - Feathers have hollow shafts; Hollow bones with honeycombed structure makes them strong but light.

3. What are the characteristics of Chondrichthyans? S9

- Flexible skeleton made of cartilage; some calcification of vertebrae & skull. - Fast-swimming predators, with sharp vision and a keen sense of smell. - Electrosensors on their heads detect electric fields created by muscle contractions in their prey. - Mechanoreceptors in a lateral line system that detect vibrations of other fish. - 5 - 7 individual gill slits w/o cover. - Rays - adapted for life on the bottom, with dorsoventrally flattened bodies and eyes on the top of their heads. Electrosensors allow them to detect minute electrical conductivity changes emitted by cells of other fish; lateral line functions like the mechanoreceptors of the ear for balance, but here help them detect pressure waves created in the water by other fish. (Note-most/all? Fish have lateral lines). The opening behind the stingray eye is the "spiracle" - i.e. the first gill slit; it acts as a "snorkel" to allow oxygenated water to flow over gills that serve the eye & brain. It is especially important for the ray when it lies on the bottom blocking the mouth & bottom gills. Some sharks also have spiracles, but they are mainly rudimentary for them.

12. What are the distinguishing features of mammals? S21

- Hair to insulate their bodies. - Milk-producing mammary glands to nurse their young. Internal development - within a uterus that shelters & protects the developing young while allowing the female to actively move about. - Endothermic amniotes with high rates of metabolism. - Efficient respiratory and circulatory systems (well-developed lungs & a four-chambered heart) to support their high rate of metabolism. - Skeletal improvements - larger skull for a larger brain; a variety of teeth for a variety of diets; limbs located beneath the body rather than at sides.

9. What are the distinguishing features of reptiles? S18

- Most are tetrapods. - Produce an amniotic egg protected by a waterproof shell. - Skin covered with scales, and waterproofed with keratin. - Obtain their oxygen via lungs. - Ectothermic - ("cold-blooded) - regulate body temperature by absorbing external heat (instead of generating their own).

3. What are the four steps of food processing?

1. Ingestion - the act of eating. 2. Digestion - the physical & chemical breaking down of food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. 3. Absorption - the take-up of the products of digestion by the cells lining the digestive tract. 4. Elimination - the removal of undigested materials out of the digestive tract.

4. Describe and name the four main evolutionary variations in respiratory organ systems? S7

1. Integumentary - gas exchange through the body surface (or skin) - small, wet, or fully immersed animals with a high surface: volume ratio. 2. Gills - countercurrent gas exchange between blood and water - the fishes & amphibians, & crustaceans - shrimp 3. Tracheal system - a network of tubes that direct/conduct gas flow - the insects. 4. Lungs - saclike organs for (more) active gas exchange - in land-dwelling tetrapods (e.g. amphibians, birds, reptiles & mammals).

4. What are the 4 basic food biomolecules in their complex form and their monomers. S7

1. Protein ® amino acids. 2. Carbohydrate (disaccharides & polysaccharides) ® monosaccharides. 3. Nucleic Acids ® nucleotides. 4. Fats (& lipids) ® glycerol & fatty acids. Digestion of food chemicals shown involves proteases, glycosidases, nucleases, & lipases

1. Describe and define the four methods of obtaining and processing food. S4

1.Herbivores - eat plants (e.g. cattle, snails, sea urchins, rabbits) 2.Carnivores - eat meat (e.g. lions, hawks, spiders, snakes, jelly fish). 3.Omnivores - eat plants & animals (e.g. humans, bears, raccoons, pigs). 4.Detritivores - eat dead & decomposing organic matter (earthworms, some insects, microbes). Amoeba engulfing a green alga - herbivore, carnivore or omnivore? Amoebas are classified as omnivores because they gain their nutrition from a wide variety of food sources.

13. What are the three (3) groups of mammals and describe their distinguishing characteristics? S22, 23, 24

1.Monotremes Egg-laying mammals that partly develop both inside & outside the female's body with incubation; newly-hatched young lick up milk secreted from modified sweat glands (e.g. the Duckbill platypus & Echidna ). "Monotreme" means 'single opening'. It is based on the fact that the urinary, defecatory, and reproductive systems all open into a single duct (the cloaca) in these animals. Monotreme is a taxonomic "order". Echidnas (aka spiny anteater) and the platypus are the only egg-laying mammals (monotremes); both are native to Australia. There are 4 species of Echidnas, and only 1 of platypus. A single egg of the Echidna develops for about 22 days inside the female echidna body/uterus; after which the egg is laid, and then somehow is moved to a pouch where it hatches in about 10 more days. The eggs of the Platypus develop in utero for about 28 days, with only about 10 days of external incubation. (chicken eggs spend 1 day in the reproductive tract and 21 days outside the chicken body). 2. Marsupials The "pouched" animals; the young begin development inside the female's body, but are born very immature and crawl into the abdominal pouch where they attach to a mammary nipple to complete their development (e.g. Kangaroos, Koalas & Opossums). 3. Placental Mammals - (aka Eutherians) The largest group of mammals where developing young are dependent on the placenta (an organ of nutrition & waste exchange between maternal & fetal blood); the developing fetus is "parasitic" on the female, but this allows the female to move about freely during fetal development. Eutherians - the "true beasts" - a taxonomic division "clade" of mammals that specifically have a placenta, and the young completely develop internally. What about mammary glands & hair on whales & dolphins? Mammary glands occur in folds/slits of skin in the groin region, posterior to anus. Hair occurs on/near rostrum/snout, and on young fetus.

Describe the steps of negative and positive homeostasis and give descriptive examples of each type. S38 through 46

1.Sensors / Receptors - that monitor & detect changes in the environment (i.e. stimuli), and send information to the control center. 2.Control Center (integrator) - that processes information from sensors, and determines if/when an adjustment is necessary. 3.Effectors - that bring about, or cause an appropriate change in the environment. Note - homeostatic control systems normally use "negative feedback". Positive feedback normally causes a growing cascade reaction in which a lot more response (or product) is created. They are typically not ongoing homeostatic processes but rather reactions or processes to create specific states of physiological condition (e.g. the formation of a blood clot; the birth of a child as a result of labor). •Other Examples of Feedback Control Insulin Control of Blood Glucose - high levels of blood glucose (e.g. after a meal) trigger the release of insulin; insulin signals cells of the body (liver & muscles) to store glucose; blood glucose levels decline to normal. Metabolic Pathways - the end product of metabolic pathways often "feeds back" to either inhibit or stimulate the first enzyme of the pathway. High amounts of end product shut down the production of that product. Labor Positive Feedback - the first mild contractions during childbirth stimulate greater & stronger contractions until birth has occurred. The Formation of a Blood Clot (positive feedback) - the first platelets to arrive at a wound release clotting factors, and signal for more platelets to come help form the clot. Feed Forward Control - Gastric juice secretions in anticipation of a meal. •For Labor, the initial stimulus is pressure from the baby's head against the cervix. This causes stretch receptors of the cervix to send an impulse to the mom's hypothalamus to release oxytocin, which is eventually released by the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin then stimulates contractions, which in turn cause more pressure against the cervix, leading to more oxytocin secretion & more contractions. •Cellular respiration: 10 Rxns of glycolysis + 9+1 reactions of Krebs + electron transport all function together to produce chemical energy (ATP) when needed. ATP levels climb when not needed, which feeds back to inhibit key enz

17. Leptin - is a hormone that signals the brain to suppress appetite. Sometimes the leptin is genetically deficient, or the leptin cell receptors are mis-shaped and cannot dock with the leptin molecule. S41

A Closer Look at Leptin A peptide hormone produced by fat cells. Discovered in mutant obese mice. High levels are produced/released in a body with high fat content. Signals the brain to suppress appetite (i.e. enough fat has been stored). Genetically (leptin deficient) obese mice (and people) . . . Do not produce enough leptin or (leptin receptors). Some return to "normal" when given leptin. Most obese people are "leptin resistant" - i.e. they produce leptin, but their leptin receptors are defective. Obese mouse mutant was discovered in 1950; Jeffrey Friedman discovered Leptin & cloned the gene in 1995; thus fat tissue was shown to be part of the endocrine system (that secreted leptin). As a result of Friedman's work, science & medicine have come to the realization that obesity is a problem with biology/physiology (not with people; like type II diabetes). Leptin deficient mouse vs. normal mouse. Genetically obese child before & after treatment with leptin.

5. Describe the structure and function of epithelial tissues. S8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13.

A Closer Look at Simple Squamous Epithelium Typically a single layer of flattened, irregularly shaped cells. Line the internal surfaces of the air sacs of lungs, and the walls of blood vessels. Function in protection & diffusion. Here, "protection" is taken to be mainly structural (or barrier) protection - i.e. selectively keeping some substances separated, while allowing other substances to pass. A Closer Look at Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Typically a single layer of cube-shaped cells. Line the surfaces of kidney tubules and various glands. Function in secretion and absorption. Exocrine glands characteristically secrete materials into a cavity, duct or chamber. Shown is a pancreatic exocrine gland that secretes digestive enzymes into ducts that lead to the intestines. A Closer Look at Simple Columnar Epithelium Rectangular pillar or column-shaped cells. Nuclei typically near the base of each cell. Found in the lining of the digestive tract; function in secretion and absorption. Secretion of digestive juices & absorption of digestion products. Specialized forms can be "ciliated" (as in the trachea & bronchi, fallopian tubes-oviduct) or covered in "microvilli" (as in the small intestines) A Closer Look at Stratified Squamous Epithelium Layers of squamous cells are piled one upon another. Form the outer layer of skin; line the inner surfaces of the nose, mouth, esophagus, vagina. Function in protection (and replacement). Replacement - i.e. the production of new cells via division of stem cells that replace those at the surface that are continuously being shed or lost; dandruff is a good example of excessive loss of epithelial cells from the scalp. Stem cells are located adjacent to the basement membrane.

13. What are Thrombus, Embolus, and Stroke? S27

A Closer Look at Thrombus, Embolus & Stroke Plaque tissue/cells begin to rupture; clots start to form; may break loose. Thrombus - stationary clot attached to artery wall. Embolus - dislodged clot that can move with blood. Stroke - occurs when an artery of the brain is blocked by an embolus (embolism); artery may swell (aneurism) and then burst; brain tissue dies due to lack of oxygen. Fat & cholesterol deposits build up in the layer of smooth muscle cells just below the endothelium (i.e. the inner surface cells). Note: Technically an "embolism" is a dislodged chunk of anything (fat, clot, debris) that gets to a small blood vessel and can not travel any further. It thus plugs at that point depriving the nearby tissue of any service from the circulatory system.

12. What is a Myocardial infarction? How does it occur? What does plaque formation cause? S26

A Closer Look at a Heart Attack Heart Attack (aka Myocardial infarction) - Death or damage of heart tissue due to partial or complete coronary arterial blockage and lack of oxygen to tissue. Plaque formation involves: 1) Damaged endothelium. The smooth, delicate lining of blood vessels is called the endothelium. High cholesterol, smoking, high blood pressure, or diabetes can damage the endothelium, creating a place for cholesterol to enter the artery's wall; 2) Cholesterol invasion. "Bad" cholesterol (LDL cholesterol) circulating in the blood crosses the damaged endothelium. LDL cholesterol starts to accumulate in the wall of the artery; 3) Plaque formation. White blood cells stream in to digest the LDL cholesterol. Over years, the toxic mess of cholesterol and cells becomes a cholesterol plaque in the wall of the artery.

16. Explain the diffusion between blood and tissues, interstitial fluids, nutrients, wastes, reverse osmosis and edema if not removed correctly. Remember what the lymph system does. S31

A Closer Look at the Diffusion Between Blood & Tissues Capillaries . . . Have very tiny diameters (allow passage of 1 RBC at a time). Have very thin walls (one cell thick - to maximize diffusion). Exchanges gases, nutrients & wastes across interstitial fluids. Are under positive pressure - results in reverse osmosis of water into interstitial spaces. Can lead to edema if not removed. Capillary walls are comprised of one cell layer of endothelial cells, and may or may not have a basal "membrane" or matrix of connective tissue. Avg. capillary diameter is approx 7 - 25 um; avg. RBC size is 6 - 8 um. RBC's are biconcave to increase their surface to volume ratios.

16. A proper human diet must contain the essential nutrients. What does essential mean and what are some examples? S 36, 37, 38

A Proper Human Diet Must Include Sufficient Vitamins & Minerals Vitamins & Minerals are "essential": They cannot be made by the body. They are (generally) required in minute amounts. They are absolutely needed for good health. Vitamins: Organic nutrients required in small amounts (0.01 - 100 mg/day). Often form part of coenzymes and regulate metabolic activities. Classified as "water-soluble" vs. "fat-soluble". There are 13 different vitamins. Minerals: Simple inorganic nutrients required in small amounts (1 - 2500 mg/day). Required for various physiological functions. Approximately 20 inorganic elements

11. Some babies are born with a liver disorder and must be placed under a special light to correct the issue. What is it? S 19

A Side Note on Liver Disorders Jaundice - yellowing of the skin & eyes due to large amounts of bilirubin in blood; usually a symptom of other problems (involving breakdown of blood & hemoglobin). Hepatitis - inflammation of the liver; can be caused by . . . Drugs, toxins, alcohol. Viruses (Hepatitis A, B, C). Commonly associated with jaundice. Cirrhosis - excessive fat deposition & scarring (e.g. with alcoholics). RBC's last about 3 - 4 months before they are "recycled". Heme degradation: Heme ® Biliverdin ® Bilirubin (these rxns occur in the spleen & liver). Bilirubin is then transported to the liver where it is converted to the water-soluble form (bilirubin diglucuronide), which is then packaged with bile, & eventually secreted into digestive tract to be eliminated. Hi levels of bilirubin glycoside in urine can be an indication that gall bladder duct is plugged Hepatitis - there are vaccines for A & B, but not C; there are medications for the latter. Note - the liver converts Bilirubin (from the blood stream) to bilirubin diglucuronide (the conjugated & more water soluble form). Bilirubin diglucuronide is packaged into bile, which is then eventually excreted via the large intestines. Blue-green light (480-500nm) is used to photodegrade bilirubin in jaundiced infants. Here, newborns are rapidly converting fetal hemoglobin to adult hemoglobin, which means fetal RBC's are destroyed as adult RBC's are made, leading to a temporary excess of bilirubin.

10. What are the distinguishing features of the amniotic egg? S19

Amnion - a transparent membranous sac that surrounds the developing embryo and is filled with fluid. It helps protect the embryo during development. Allantois - sac connected to the embryo's abdomen. It absorbs nutrients from the albumin and accumulates nitrogenous wastes. Chorion - enable the embryo to obtain O2 from the air & dispose of CO2. Albumin - storage protein of the egg (i.e. "eggwhite"). Yolk/Sac - contains/consists of minerals, vitamins, protein, fats and cholesterol to nourish the developing embryo. Air space - forms as the egg cools and the contents contract during development. Shell Membrane - a keratinized membrane that protects against dessication and bacterial infections. Shell - a porous CaCO3 matrix that protects the egg/embryo. Note: The amnion & amniotic fluid are likened to the "water portion of the pond" carried onto land by the reptiles. The chicken eggshell is 95-97% calcium carbonate crystals, stabilized by a protein matrix that keeps the shell from being too brittle. The avian eggshell (and the egg shell membrane) protects the egg against damage and microbial contamination, prevention of desiccation, regulation of gas and water exchange for the growing embryo, and provides calcium for embryogenesis. The eggshell membrane is comprised of mostly collagen & glycoproteins. Albumin is 30- 35% protein, with some minerals; yolk is 25% fat & 15% protein w 3 x's the amount of energy as albumin, & contains all the fat soluble vitamins (including provitamin A, i.e. beta carotene).

14. What are the differences in how animals regulate their internal environments between reptiles and mammals? S 38

Animals Regulate Their Internal Environment. Internal Environment includes: Temperature, CO2 & O2 levels, pH, blood pressure , osmotic pressure & water content, glucose & ATP availability. Regulation maintains an optimal internal environment in the presence of widely fluctuating conditions in the external environment. All organ systems help to maintain an optimal internal environment. Homeostasis - the dynamic maintenance of the normal or optimal steady-state internal environment of a cell or organism by self-regulating mechanisms in response to widely fluctuating changes that occur in the external environment. Snow owls live mainly in arctic tundra regions with a lot of snow. Male snow owls are almost completely white; females have speckled brown feathers. Down feathers around beak and feet; Birds/owls are "endotherms"; lizards/reptiles are ectotherms.

15. Compare and contrast arteries and veins. "Arteries Away" means what? Veins have what special structures that help keep the blood moving back to the heart?

Arteries move blood away from the heart; veins bring blood to the heart Return of blood to the heart involves . . . Skeletal muscle contractions. Muscles press against veins, pushing blood closer towards heart; Unidirectional check valves prevent backflow. The "respiratory pump". Chest vs. abdominal cavities expand & shrink during inhalation & exhalation. Blood flows into superior vs. inferior vena cavae. •Gravity has nominal effect on blood flow (over normal periods of time), but sudden changes in position (e.g. quickly standing up after lying down) can have noticeable effects. Autonomic vasoconstriction will decrease vein diameter, to force blood out of the veins back towards the heart. Similarly, when ill or faint, the person lays down & raises their legs to promote blood flow back to the heart. •In space, astronauts get "puffy face syndrome" & "bird legs" because the heart is programmed to pump more blood to the upper body, while gravity helps to move blood to the lower parts of the body. This phenomenon is exaggerated in zero gravity. Respiratory pump promotes blood flow into the inferior vena cava due to a slight decrease in pressure during inhalation (followed by a slight increase in pressure during exhalation)

26. What are the steps the occurs when blood vessels are injured? S44, 45, and 46

Blood Clots Plug Leaks When Blood Vessels are Injured Tissue damage ® exposed collagen ® Platelets bind & aggregate ® Clotting factors released ® Prothrombin ® thrombin ® Fibrinogen ® fibrin Clotting factor VIII is released by platelets; it converts inactive prothrombin to active thrombin (a serine protease), which then proteolytically converts fibrinogen to filaments of fibrin. Fibrin filaments trap more platelets and RBC's that collectively form the clot, thus plugging the leak. Hemophiliacs lack the ability to produce clotting factor VIII or IX (hemophilia A vs. B, respectively).

17. What structures have the highest blood pressures? Where is the greatest cross sectional area? Where do different blood velocities occur, fastest, slowest, etc... S32

Blood Pressure: Highest in aorta & arteries during systole. Lowest in veins & vena cavae approaching the heart. Cross Sectional Area - greatest in capillary beds. Blood Velocity: Fastest in aorta & arteries. Slowest in capillary beds. Diameter of aorta is approx. 2.5-2.8 cm (up to 3 cm); diameter of superior & inferior vena cavae are both approx. 2.3-2.4 cm.

21. Describe the process of capillaries allowing the transfer of substances through their walls? An how does the lymphatic system aid in that process? S39

Capillaries Allow the Transfer of Substances Through Their Walls From before . . . Blood pressure promotes release of water into interstitial space (via "reverse osmosis"). Osmotic pressure is insufficient to drive uptake of interstitial fluid. Excess fluids (4 - 8L per day) are drained by lymphatic system and eventually returned to the circulatory system.

1. What does the circulatory system provide to the body? Define Circulatory System. What are it advanced functions? S2

Circulatory Systems Facilitate Exchange With All Body Tissues. Introductory Concepts: All cells must receive nutrients, exchange gases, and remove wastes. Diffusion alone is inadequate for large and complex bodies. In most animals, circulatory systems facilitate these exchanges. Circulatory System - an organ system that moves various substances to and from the cells of the body. Usually comprised of a heart, blood and blood vessels. Advanced functions: stabilize pH (via bicarbonate buffering system), temperature regulation, help fight infections.

4. What are the three (3) lineages of lobe finned fishes that survive today? S11

Coelacanths - (once thought to be extinct) living deep in the oceans. Lungfishes - can gulp air into lungs; inhabit stagnant waters in the Southern Hemisphere. Tetrapods - adapted to life on land; include amphibians & terrestrial vertebrates.

5. How does digestion occur from food vacuoles, to gastrovascular cavities, and finally alimentary canals? S8

Complexity of digestive compartments vary with complexity of organisms. Simplest: Protists & Sponges - cells engulf food particles (phagocytosis) to form food vacuoles. Cnidarians & Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity & a closed digestive system. Food & waste enter & exit by the same opening. Cnidarians & flatworms start the process of digestion in the gastrovascular cavity (where food is broken/digested into smaller fragments); small fragments are then ingested via phagocytosis to form food vacuoles (where digestion is completed); finally, undigestible material is eliminated back into the gastrovascular cavity via exocytosis. Hydra feed by stinging their prey with cnidocytes, then using their tentacles to bring the food into their gastrovascular cavity. The water flea is a microscopic crustacean, 0.2 - 3.0 mm in length.

7. When heart cells are grown close to each other, how do they beat/contract? Tell me all about the Sinoatrial node cells and everything they do. (Look in the notes below the slide. S19

Control of the Cardiac Cycle 23.5 The SA Node Sets the Tempo of the Heartbeat Cultured Chick heart embryo cells are intrinsically contractile - they spontaneously (intrinsically & individiually) contract every 0.7-0.8 seconds. When nearby cells grow together, their contractions become synchronized. (left = single beating cell; right = several cells beating in unison. Similarly, the SA node "beat" by themselves w/o any stimulus from the nervous system - they too are intrinsically contractile. They are "nodes" of specialized contractile muscle cells capable of transmitting an impulse of current along specific paths in the heart. Control of the Cardiac Cycle 23.5 The SA Node Sets the Tempo of the Heartbeat Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Located on upper dorsal wall of right atrium. Initiates a heartbeat every 0.85 sec; referred to as the "pacemaker". Emits electrical impulse causing both atria to contract and activate the AV node. Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Located at the base of the right atrium near the septum. Receives impulse from SA node, causing it to emit a second impulse. AV impulse signals the ventricles to contract from the bottom upward. Cultured Chick heart embryo cells are intrinsically contractile - they spontaneously (intrinsically & individiually) contract every 0.7-0.8 seconds. When nearby cells grow together, their contractions become synchronized. (left = single beating cell; right = several cells beating in unison. Similarly, the SA node "beat" by themselves w/o any stimulus from the nervous system - they too are intrinsically contractile. They are "nodes" of specialized contractile muscle cells capable of transmitting an impulse of current along specific paths in the heart.

15. What are the distinguishing features of primates? Which characteristics gave them the capability to adapt to life in the trees? S4

Distinguishing Features of Primates Include . . . - Limber shoulder and hip joints - allow climbing and brachiation. - Five mobile digits & with opposable toes & thumbs - allow highly flexible & dextrous grasping hands and feet. - Short snout, flattened face; close forward-facing eyes - promote stereoscopic vision & depth perception. - Extremely sensitive hands and feet (loaded with a variety of sensory receptors) - aid in manipulation & highly coordinated use of hands, feet, fingers & toes Primates = an "order"

What does the enzyme use for its substrate and ten the product. Where does the product go? capillary, lymph system, etc.? S22, 23, 24, 25, 26.

Enzymes of Carbohydrate & Protein Digestion Salivary amylase (neutral pH optimum) starts digestion of starch in mouth; intestinal amylase continues starch (and glycogen) digestion in sm. Intestine. Note - the same enzyme(s) also digest glycogen. Enzymes of Nucleic Acid Digestion Pancreatic Nucleases DNases - degrade DNA. RNases - degrade RNA. Endonucleases. Exonucleases Nucleotides would be degraded into bases, ribose & phosphate via a glycosidase (nucleosidase) & phosphohydrolase. This occurs in the microvilli surfaces of small intestines. Bases, ribose & phosphate are then absorbed, transported to liver where they are further degraded/metabolized. Purine N-bases are converted to uric acid in the liver, then excreted. Excess uric acid causes gout. Enzymes of Fat & Lipid Digestion Fat & (Phospho)Lipid Digestion: Triglycerides & phospholipids are hydrolyzed to monoglycerides + fatty acids. MG's & FFA's are absorbed by epithelial cells, and converted back to triglycerides. New triglycerides form chylomicrons that are taken up by lymphatic capillaries (lacteals). Note: there are digestive phospholipases (PLA2) secreted by the pancreas, activated by trypsin, & promote digestion of membrane phospholipids. Remember, PLA2 is the main "poison" in some snake venoms. Chylomicrons are large lipoprotein particles that consist of triglycerides (85-92%), phospholipids (6-12%), cholesterol (1-3%) and proteins (1-2%) . They transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body; Other lipo proteins are better known as HDL's ("good cholesterol"), LDL's ("bad cholesterol") & VLDL's. The Liver Processes & Detoxifies Blood from the Intestines Liver has first access to nutrients absorbed in the intestines. Blood from the digestive tract drains into the hepatic portal vein to the liver. From before . . . the liver performs many functions: Converts glucose in blood to glycogen; stores it, then releases sugars back into the blood as needed. Converts excess calories into fats that are stored in adipose tissues. Converts toxic substances (e.g. alcohol, drugs) into less toxic forms for excretion via urine. Synthesizes many serum proteins including blood-clotting proteins and lipoproteins that transport fats and

15. Compare and contrast the carnivore, herbivore, and ruminant animals alimentary tracts look like? S29, 30

Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems Relate to Diet. Carnivores Pointed incisors, enlarged canines for piercing & tearing flesh; sharp jagged molars for cutting flesh. Large expandable stomachs for greater storage capacity. Shorter alimentary canals, with small cecum. Can not digest cellulose Herbivores Sharp, straight-edged incisors for clipping grasses; flat molars & premolars for grinding cellulosic material; small canines. Longer alimentary canal with a larger longer cecum. Contains bacteria & protists that digest cellulose. Ruminants have multi-chambered stomachs. Textbook (9th Ed) uses coyote & koala as examples of carnivores & herbivores, respectively. Note: Vertebrates can not produce cellulase to digest cellulose; thus herbivores rely on the microbes inhabiting their digestive system (cecum). Cecum - sometimes referred to as the "blind gut", i.e. food materials & digestion products enter & exit via the same opening. In horses, microbial fermentation occurs in the cecum, and the microbes release volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate and butyrate), which can then be absorbed by their digestive system. Non-ruminant herbivores: Mice, rabbits, elephants; Non-ruminants: birds, Humans & primates, swine, equines, reptiles, avians, fish, canines and felines. Other differences: Carnivores saliva does not contain digestive enzyme (amylase) as do herbivores (and humans); pH of carnivore stomach is much more acidic (1 vs 2 or 3). •Ruminant Stomachs Have Four Chambers 1.Rumen - largest chamber; populated with numerous microbes that digest cellulose. Microbial fermentation produces volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, pyruvic). Volatile fatty acids are absorbed by animal for nourishment. 2.Reticulum - passes smaller food particles to next compartment; forms the cud from larger particles for regurgitation; collects dense heavy objects (grains, metals, stones). 3.Omasum - further reduces particle size, absorbs VFA's, removes water. 4.Abomasum - the "true stomach"; secretes digestive enzymes & digests microbes from rumen. •Vertebrates lack the enzyme cellulase, and thus cannot hydrolyze the beta [1-4] glycosidic bond of cellulose. However, cellulase is abundantly produced

2. Compare and contrast the "NO" circulatory system to the "Open", "Closed one circuit", two-chambers-one circuit, three-chambers-two circuits, four-chambers-two-circuits". What are the pros and cons of each and an example of each? S3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

Evolutionary Variations in Circulatory Systems In animals like Cnidarians, the gastrovascular cavity is sufficient for circulation. However, they do not possess a "true" circulatory system. The influx of food, and efflux of waste is their "circulation". Birds & reptiles are the vertebrates that make the transition to the most advanced heart: 4 chambers/2 circuits. The Open Circulatory System Open = blood freely exits the circulatory system, mixes with interstitial fluids, bathes internal organs & tissues, & re-enters the system. Found in Arthropods, most Molluscs & some invertebrates. Consists of . . . Single-chambered heart w/ check valves & ostia. An ostium (pl. ostia) is a generic medical term for "hole" - for example, there are coronary ostia in the aorta through which blood flows to the coronary arteries. Most people are born with two coronary ostia, one each for the left coronary artery and the right coronary artery. Open-ended blood vessels. Hemolymph - circulatory fluid. Hemocyanin - Cu2+ O2 carrier. Not designed for / involved in O2 / CO2 transport (in insects). "Other invertebrates" with an open circulatory system include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, millipedes; Molluscs = snails, bivalves. Nematodes & flatworms do not have a circulatory system. Technically, in the grasshopper, the heart is that part found in the abdomen. Grasshopper "blood" does not carry (much) oxygen. In insects, they have a series of trachea/tubes that conduct air; hemolymph conducts proteins, lipids, hormones etc. Hemocyanin in hemocytes transport some oxygen. Remember, insects have a tracheal respiratory system of air ducts. Malphigian tubules absorb waste products from the hemolymph and returns the waste (mainly urea) to the lower digestive system for eventual excretion. Closed Circulatory Systems Earthworm & Fish Each pair of hearts are a single chamber; aka "aortic arches". They pump/direct blood flow from the dorsal blood vessel to the ventral vesse. Actually, peristaltic action is important in moving blood forward in the dorsal vessel & toward the hind end in the ventral vessel. The heart has the valves which seem to prevent changes in direction. Earthworms do not have lungs; ie. They "breath through their integumen

7. Describe the structure and function of the three (3) types of muscle tissue. S26 and 27

General Characteristics of Muscle Tissues: Second most abundant animal tissue. A contractile tissue; individual cells are called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain specialized contractile protein filaments: actin and myosin. Three Main Types: 1.Skeletal muscle 2.Cardiac muscle 3.Smooth muscle Skeletal muscle represents approx. 42 & 36 % of body mass in men vs. women (on the average). The skeletal system (bones) represents approx. 15% of the human body mass (thus, the rest of the body non-bone connective tissue represents approx. 25-30% of the body mass). Three Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle ªDistinctly striated in appearance with multiple nuclei per cell. ªAttached to skeletal system. ªFunction in voluntary motion & generation of body heat. Cardiac Muscle ªFound only in the heart. ªComprised of branched striated cells with one nucleus per cell. ªSpecialized (gap & adhesion) junctions between cells. ªInvoluntary muscle that functions in pumping blood. Smooth Muscle ªComprised of spindle-shaped cells without striations, & have one nucleus per cell. ªFound in the walls of blood vessels & the digestive tract. ªFunctions in the involuntary movement of substances in the body. Skeletal muscle image shows 3+ "myofibrils" (each originally a single cell, but now fused, thus representing a portion of muscle fiber/cell). Skeletal muscle cells can extend the entire length of the muscle. Skeletal muscles are also important in heat generation for body temperature regulation. Smooth muscles are important in dilation & constriction of blood vessels. Adhesion junctions aka "anchoring junctions". Note: some people can control their heartbeat rate (e.g. via meditation, relaxation), but No one can control when the heart actually beats (e.g. I think I'll have a heartbeat "now") Skeletal muscle represents approx. 42 & 36 % of body mass in men vs. women (on the average).

6. Define all connective tissues, structure and function. And, the six (6) types of connective tissues with an example of each type. S14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21.

General Characteristics: Most abundant & diverse tissue of animal bodies. Living cells are sparsely dispersed throughout a non-cellular fibrous, gelatinous or solid matrix. Generally functions to bind structures together, provide support for tissues & organs, protection, and fill spaces between other tissues. Specialized forms store fat, and form blood & bone. The amount of connective tissue in the human body is estimated to be about 10% by weight, and 20% by volume. Sparace et al. estimate 40 - 45% connective tissue, with muscle about 35 - 40%. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, representing 25 - 35% of the total protein of the body. There are five main types of collagen. The word is derived from "Kolla" the greek word for glue. GROUND SUBSTANCE - is an amorphous gelatinous material surrounding the cellular and fibrous components of connective tissue. It is composed mainly of proteoglycans. All six types of connective tissues are present and can be exemplified in the human arm/ elbow region. A Closer Look at Connective Tissues Loose Connective Tissue Most abundant connective tissue. Occurs beneath skin & other epithelial tissues. Loosely packed cells with a loose weave of protein fibers. Ropelike collagen & elastic fibers. Provide strength with elasticity. Intercellular spaces filled with a gelatinous ground substance. Functions mainly in support & holding organs in place. Approximately 25 - 35 % of protein in human body is collagen. Reticular fibers are actually a different type of collagen (i.e. "type III") that is found in softer connective tissues like those in organs; Type I is the more fibrous (and more abundant) collagen as found in tendons, ligaments, skin & bone (and scar tissue) A Closer Look at Connective Tissues Fibrous Connective Tissue Comprised mostly of densely packed collagen fibers with scattered fibroblasts. Major component of tendons and ligaments: Tendons attach muscle to bone. Ligaments attach bone to bone. Very strong, functions mainly in structural support. Fibroblasts are the cells that synthesize and secrete collagen fibers that coalesce to form densely packed fibrous material. Tendon fibroblasts are often simply referred to as such, or a "Tenoblasts". A Clo

5. Explain how fish / many sea animals, use gills, for their structure and function to obtain oxygen and release CO2? Is it cross current? S8, 9, 10

Gills Are Adapted for Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments Advantages & Disadvantages of Gas Exchange in Water. No problem in keeping gas exchange surfaces moist. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. i.e. . . . Cold water dissolves more O2 than warm water: •Water @ 0C holds about 14.6 mg O2 per liter (i.e. ppm) (compared to 209,000 ppm in air) •Water @ 25C holds about 8.6 mg O2 per liter. •Salty (sea) water holds less O2 than fresh water. Seawater contains approx. 7 & 90 ppm O2 & CO2, respectively. èO2 diffuses slower in water than in air. èIt is more difficult to obtain O2 from water than air. Gills are extremely efficient in "extracting" available O2 from water. 80 to 90% of available O2 from water. Seawater contains approx. 7 & 90 ppm O2 & CO2, respectively. Compared to Humans, air in = 21% oxygen, air out = 15% oxygen, thus we are only about 25% efficiency in removing oxygen from air when we breathe. A Closer Look at Gill Structure & Function Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches (all beneath a single operculum), cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, and primitive jawless fish have seven. Surface area of gills is related to fish body mass. E.g. a 1 kg fish will have approx. 10,000 mm2 surface area (=100 cm2 or 0.01 meter2/kg). (Or 10,000 mm2 = 0.1 square feet). "Parallel current exchange" would result in only about 50% exchange/saturation. Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches (all beneath a single operculum), cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, and primitive jawless fish have seven. Surface area of gills is related to fish body mass. E.g. a 1 kg fish will have approx. 10,000 mm2 surface area (=100 cm2 or 0.01 meter2/kg). (Or 10,000 mm2 = 0.1 square feet). "Parallel current exchange" would result in only about 50% exchange/saturation.

23. Which characteristics mark the evolution of Homo? s19, 20

Larger Brains Mark the Evolution of Homo Sahelanthropus tchadensis - 6.5 mya - 320-380 cc. Australopithecus afarensis - 3.5 mya - 400-450 cc. Homo habilis - 2 mya - 510-690 cc. Homo ergaster - 1.5 mya - 750 to 850 cc. Homo erectus - 1 mya - 940 cc. Homo neanderthalensis - 350,000 to 28,000 ya - 1400-1500 cc. H. sapiens (Cro-Magnon) - 100,000-36,000 ya - 1500-1600 cc. H. sapiens (Modern Man) - 1250-1350 cc. • "Larger brain size" means larger than about 500 cc's. •Homo = Man; habilis = handy, manageable; ergaster = working; erectus = upright; sapiens = wise. H. ergaster used more diverse and sophisticated stone tools (i.e. the bifacial hand axe) than its predecessor, H. habilis. •The name Homo neanderthalensis is derived from the fossils found in the Feldhofer Cave of the Neander Valley in Germany (tal—a modern form of thal—means "valley"). •The term "Cro-Magnon" has no "taxonomic" significance; it was named after the French person (Magnon) who owned the land where fossils/remains were discovered. •The taxonomic switch to "Homo" genera (i.e. at H. habilis) is because crude stone tools were found along with fossils. This was considered to be sufficiently "human like" to be considered a Homo species. The types of tools were "modified" flake/chip rocks for cutting, scraping & round rocks for hammering. •The taxonomic switch from H. erectus to H. sapiens was based primarily in increased (maximal) brain size, and finding the most complex stone tools. •For reference, a chimpanzee brain volume is about 350 cc. •The average volume of the human (male) brain has decreased (by about 10-30%) from 1,500 cubic centimeters to 1,350 cubic centimeters over the past 20,000 years. Possible reasons: •A bigger brain takes more energy (20%) to fuel. •Smaller brains have become more efficient & streamlined neurochemistry. •Modern man has a smaller body, thus requires less brain matter to control it. •Brain size may not necessarily be linked to intelligence - e.g. domestic dogs (w/smaller brains) are more intelligent than wolves (with larger brains).

2. We ventilate, (breathe) we are transporting and exchanging gases with body cells. In cellular respiration, you use ________________ as the last electron acceptor, and generate _____________________________ per turn of the Krebs cycle. S4, 5

Mechanisms of Gas Exchange 22.1 Gas Exchange in Humans Involves Breathing, Transport of Gases, & Exchange with Body Cells Gas Exchange . . . Originates as cellular respiration. Driven by simple diffusion. Different organisms have adapted different systems. Notes: •The summary rxn shown for cellular respiration is exactly the same for burning a block of wood (which is mostly cellulose/glucose & lignin). •Remember, Vitamin B1 (thiamine) is part of the PDHase complex; Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is a component of FAD, and Vitamin B3 (niacin) is a component of NAD. •Many of the volatile FA's produced during digestion feed into cellular respiration at the Krebs cycle. •Summary reaction for oxidizing glucose is essentially the same as that for burning a piece of wood (which is mostly cellulose/glucose). •Remember, cellular respiration (in terms of ATP production from glucose) is approx. 40% efficient. • How many molecules of CO2 are produced in the Krebs cycle per glucose? 4Krebs cycle, also known as the TCA (tricarboxylic acid) or citric acid cycle, takes place inside the mitochondrial matrix. This cycle is a stepwise oxidative and cyclic degradation of acetyl CoA. The cycle acts on the 2 pyruvate molecules generated during glycolysis. The end product of glycolysis is pyruvate. 1 molecule of glucose produces 2 molecules of pyruvate. So 1 molecule of pyruvate is responsible for the release of 2 CO2 molecules during 1 Krebs cycle. Since 1 glucose molecule gives 2 pyruvate molecules. There will be two cycles to utilize both the pyruvate molecules. Thus, 1 glucose molecule is responsible for the release of 4 CO2 molecules during Krebs cycle. The overall reaction for the citric acid cycle is: Inputs / substrates: 2 acetyl groups+6𝑁𝐴𝐷+ +2𝐹𝐴𝐷+ 2𝐴𝐷𝑃+ 2𝑃𝑖 Products formed per glucose: → 4𝐶𝑂2 +6𝑁𝐴𝐷𝐻 +6𝐻+ +2𝐹𝐴𝐷𝐻2 +2𝐴𝑇𝑃 The citric acid cycle (Figure Figure 18.3𝐶.118.3C.1) provides a series of intermediate compounds that donate protons and electrons to the electron transport chain by way of the reduced coenzymes 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝐻NADH and 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝐻2FADH2. The electron transport chain then generates additional ATPs by oxidative phosphorylation. The citric acid cycle also produces 2 ATP by substrate phosphorylation and plays an important role in th

6. Define the vocabulary and list in order the alimentary canal. S9, 10

Most Animals Have an Alimentary Canal Aka Open (or complete) digestive systems have two openings: a mouth & an anus. Food moves only in one direction. Direction of flow: Mouth ® Pharynx ® Esophagus ® (Crop/Stomach/Gizzard) ® Intestine ® Anus. Pharynx (throat). Crop - stores & softens food. Stomach & gizzard - muscular organs that store, churn & grind food; initiate chemical digestion. Intestine - main site of chemical digestion & absorption of digestion products. Anus - expels undigested materials. Note that this slide makes a huge evolutionary jump that bypasses the fishes & amphibians to get to the birds (reptiles). Gizzards typically are muscular, contain tiny grains of sand (or pebbles) that help grind food particles into smaller particles. In birds, the stomach is aka as the proventriculus. In insects, gastric pouches (aka gastric caeca) increase the surface area for digestion in insects; the midgut aka as the stomach or ventriculus. Some diagrams include a gizzard (or proventriculus) at the anterior end of the crop. In humans, food is . . . Ingested and chewed in the mouth or oral cavity. Shaped & pushed by the tongue into the pharynx. Moved along by alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation in the walls of the canal in a process called peristalsis. Allowed into and out of the stomach by sphincters. Most (chemical) digestion & absorption occurs in the small intestine. Undigested materials move through the large intestine where most water is reabsorbed. Feces are stored in the rectum, and then expelled out the anus. Alimentary Canal - aka the "digestive tract" or "gut" - i.e. the long tube in the body of an animal (esp. humans) through which food passes after it is eaten, processed, absorbed and eventually eliminated. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Six sphincters in human body: Upper esophageal, lower esophageal (cardiac), pyloric, ileocecal, involuntary anal; voluntary anal.

11. Describe, characterize the structure and function of the 12 organ systems , the work together t perform life's vital functions. S 32

Organ Systems Work Together to Perform Life's Vital Functions. Consider the Respiratory & Circulatory systems •They function together in CO2 & O2 exchange with the environment There are 12 different organ systems in the human body. 1.Circulatory System - delivers O2 & nutrients to cells of the body; transports CO2 to the lungs & metabolic wastes to the kidneys. 2.Respiratory System - exchanges CO2 & O2 with the environment; helps to regulate blood pH. 3.Integumentary System - protects the body against physical injury, infection, excessive heat or cold, and drying out. 4.Skeletal System - supports the body; protects vital organs (e.g. brain, heart, lungs); provides the framework (levers) for muscle attachment & motion. 5.Muscular System - moves the body, maintains posture & produces heat. 6.Urinary System - removes waste products from the blood & excretes urine; regulates the chemical makeup, pH & water balance of blood. 7.Digestive System - ingests & digests food, absorbs nutrients & eliminates undigested materials. 8.Endocrine System - produces & secretes hormones that regulate activities of the body; thus, maintaining internal steady state (homeostasis). 9.Lymphatic System - returns excess body fluid to the circulatory system; functions as part of the immune system. 10.Immune System - defends the body against infections & cancer. 11.Nervous System - coordinates the body's activities by detecting stimuli, integrating information & directing the body's response. 12.Reproductive System - produces gametes & sex hormones; female system supports the developing embryo & gives birth.

12. What are the organs, enzymes, and secretions at the duodenum junction? S20

Organs, Enzymes & Secretions at the Duodenum Junction Other liver functions include: Detoxifies / degrades toxic chemicals (e.g. pesticides, alcohol, drugs); converts them to a water soluble form for excretion. Removes & stores fat-soluble vitamins A, B12, D, E, K (& Fe). Makes plasma proteins (e.g. albumin, fibrinogen, complement). Helps destroy old red blood cells; converts the heme of hemoglobin to biliverdin and bilirubin in bile. Produces urea (for excretion) from amino groups and ammonia. Note - vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is water soluble. Note - in addition to "toxic" chemicals degraded, the liver also degrades most medicinal drugs, also preparing them for excretion. Functions of blood plasma albumin: bind & transport fatty acids, bilirubin, fat-soluble hormones. Helps buffer blood pH (protein buffering system). Fibrinogen - fibrous protein involved in blood clot formation.

10. Please tell me EVERYTHING about this slide and the notes underneath. What is an Electrocardiogram of a single heartbeat? What is the sequence of steps. Define P wave, QRX complex, and T wave. S21

P-Wave = Membrane depolarization in atrial cells; Atria are about to contract. QRS Complex = Membrane depolarization in ventricular cells; Ventricles contract (R). T-Wave = Repolarization of ventricular cells; ventricles recover from contraction & prepare for the next heartbeat. 1.Signals from the SA node spread through the atria 2.Signals are delayed at the AV node. 3.Specialized muscle fibers pass signals to the heart apex. 4.Signals spread throughout the ventricles. Most cells, including neurons at rest, have a negative charge on the inside with a net positive charge on the outside. ECG = Electrocardiogram; aka "EKG".

20. What is the structure and function of pre capillary sphincters? S38

Precapillary Sphincters: Bands of smooth muscle at branch points in arteriole capillaries. Control blood flow through capillary beds. Blood flow to skin for body temperature regulation & inflammatory response. Blood flow to muscles during strenuous exercise. Blood flow to digestive system following a meal. Histamine is the signal molecule (released by damaged cells) that trigger the inflammatory response. Major capillary beds serve the lungs, digestive system, skin, kidneys & liver (then muscle systems). Only 5 - 10% of body capillaries have blood flow at any moment.

22. What are the differences in skull attachment and other features in chimpanzee versus human? S16, 17

Skull Attachment in Chimpanzee vs. Human Angle of skull attachment allows eyes to face forward, but in bipeds places the head directly over the rest of the body to facilitate/promote upright bipedally. When Chimps stand upright, they need to lower their heads to see forward. Other Skeletal Adaptations for Standing Erect, Human vs. Chimpanzee •Spine exits from directly beneath skull center in Humans (instead of rear of skull in apes). •Longer S-shaped Human spine places center of gravity over feet (vs. curved spine in apes). •Broader bowl-shaped pelvis and hip joints prevent swaying when walking (vs. longer, narrower pelvis in apes). •Longer femur in humans causes the femur to angle inward at the knees (vs. outward in apes). •Broader human knee joint supports more body weight than apes. •Human toe is not opposable; foot has an arch for easier long-distance walking. The bowl-shaped pelvis in humans is also thought to provide better support for internal organ, which would not be required in chimps that are leaning forward on all four "legs". Pelvis = the bowl-shaped group of bones connecting the trunk of the body to the legs and supporting the spine; it includes the hip bones and the lower part of the backbone. Non-opposable big toe in humans is better designed for "pushing off" in walking.

2. What are the four methods of ingesting food? S5

Suspension Feeders - sift/filter small organisms or food particles from water (tubeworms, clams, humpback whales). Substrate Feeders - live in or on their food source, eating their way through it (leaf miners, maggots, earthworms). Fluid Feeders - suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host (leeches, aphids, mosquitos, ticks). Bulk Feeders - ingest large pieces of food (most animals that kill, cut or tear their food into pieces, or whole).

7. Describe how the evolution of lungs facilitated the movement of tetrapods onto land. What is the name of this fossil fish? S12 and 13

The Evolution of Lungs Facilitated the Movement of Tetrapods Onto Land Ancestral lungs evolved ~ 400 mya; then diverged into swim bladders in the fishes & lungs in the lobe-finned fishes & tetrapods. Functions of ancestral lung likely included: Collection of digestive gases for later elimination. Gulping & storage of air in shallow water by lobe-finned fishes. Surface-to-volume ratio gradually increase with amphibians ® reptiles ® mammals. èThe fossil fish Tiktaalik (375 mya) is the likely ancestor of the tetrapods Had lobe-finned legs, lungs and gills. •The common ancestor of the fishes & tetrapods (approx. 400 mya) had a primitive airsac/lung. It became the swim bladder in the fishes, and the lungs in the tetrapods. •Although the fossil fish "Tiktaalik" (Pronounced tik-TAA-lik) had both lungs & gills, the modern day lungfish relatives mostly breath through their lungs while their gills are vestigial/nonfunctional. •Only the Australian (Queensland) lungfish can still breath via its gills (as well as it's lungs). Drawing shown is the Queensland lungfish of Australia. •Fossils of Tiktaalik were discovered in 2004 in northern Canada. Apparently, swim bladders & lungs evolved from a common ancestral structure. The Ancestral lung is thought to have had the following functions: •Filter out & collect dissolved gases & air bubbles in food. •Filter out, collect & temporarily store CO2 given off in cellular respiration, thus preventing acidosis; Belching allowed disposal of gas. •Gulping air combined w/ belching helped to maintain neutral buoyancy, but also served as a place to "store" oxygen. •22.5 The Evolution of Lungs Facilitated the Movement of Tetrapods Onto Land. èThe fossil fish Tiktaalik (375 mya) is the likely ancestor of the tetrapods Had 4 lobe-finned legs, lungs and gills. •The common ancestor of the fishes & tetrapods (approx. 400 mya) had a primitive airsac/lung. It became the swim bladder in the fishes, and the lungs in the tetrapods. •Although the fossil fish "Tiktaalik" (Pronounced tik-TAA-lik) had both lungs & gills, the modern day lungfish relatives mostly breath through their lungs while their gills are vestigial/nonfunctional. •Only the Australian (Queensland) lungfish can still breath via its g

21. What are the characteristics of the hominins? What is the oldest know hominin? S13, 14, and 15

The Hominin Branch of the Primate Tree Includes Species That Coexisted. Hominins - a tribe of extinct species that are more closely related to Humans than Chimpanzees. "Hominins" split off from the gorillas & chimpanzees about 7 mya; they (hominins) include all species shown in figure (starting w/ Sahelanthropus tchadensis). Sahelanthropus tchadensis, the oldest known hominin, lived about 7 to 6 mya. Thought to be the common ancestor of Chimps & Humans. Sahelanthropus tchadensis is one of the oldest known species in the human family tree. This species lived sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago in West-Central Africa (Chad). Walking upright may have helped this species survive in diverse habitats, including forests and grasslands. Although we have only cranial material from Sahelanthropus tchadensis, studies so far show this species had a combination of ape-like and human-like features. Ape-like features included a small brain (even slightly smaller than a chimpanzee's), sloping face, very prominent browridges, and elongated skull. Human-like features included small canine teeth, a short middle part of the face, and a spinal cord opening underneath the skull instead of towards the back as seen in non-bipedal apes. How do we know Sahelanthropus walked upright? Some of the oldest evidence of a humanlike species moving about in an upright position comes from Sahelanthropus. The foramen magnum (the large opening where the spinal cord exits out of the cranium from the brain) is located further forward (on the underside of the cranium) than in apes or any other primate except humans. This feature indicates that the head of Sahelanthropus was held on an upright body, probably associated with walking on two legs. Sahelanthropus tchadensis The First Human-like Hominin Dated ~7 MYA; found in Chad (central Africa). May be common ancestor of Humans & Chimpanzees. Ape-like braincase; small skull / brain size (350-370 cc). Central (humanoid) attachment of skull to spine; bipedal Sahelanthropus tchadensis = Man from the Chadian Sahara 355 mL = 12 oz = a can of coke.

12. What are the structures and function of the integumentary system? S33, 34, and 35.

The Integumentary System Protects the Body. The Integumentary System Consists of . . . Skin, Hair & Nails Skin is Comprised of Two Layers: 1.The Epidermis: A stratified squamous epithelium. Forms the outer surface of the skin. 2.The Dermis: Forms a deeper skin layer. Composed of moderately dense connective tissue with many elastin & collagen fibers. Contains hair follicles, oil and sweat glands, muscle cells, nerves, sensory receptors, and blood vessels. Integument - Latin origin - meaning "covering". The Integumentary system (sometimes equated with the skin) is the largest organ system of the Human body; it represents about 15% of the mass of the human body. The integumentary system of birds includes feathers, beaks & claws; in fish includes scales; essentially = exoskeleton in Arthropods; includes hooves in some animals (ungulates). Horns & antlers are also considered to be part of the integumentary system. Horns are not branched & made of keratin & bone, and are always retained on the animal; Antlers are branched, made of velvet & bone, and are shed annually. •A Closer Look at the Structure of Skin • The epidermis is comprised of living cells (in the deeper layers) that gradually transform into the dead "stratum corneum" of the surface of the epidermis. The epidermis consists of 50 to 100 cell layers. The average epidermal thickness is 0.1 millimeters. The dermis is 0.3 - 4 millimeters thick. • Stratum Basale - single layer of melanocyte stem cells forms the base of the epidermis • Melanocytes & keratinocyte are specialized cells of the epidermis that produce melanin & keratin, respectively. Melanocytes extend dendrites between keratinocytes & transfer melanin (via melanosomes) to keratinocytes. • 95% of cells are keratinocytes & 5% of cells are melanocytes. • Keratinocytes produce "keratinosomes" (secretory vesicles containing keratin-colored orange in diagram) that secrete keratin to the extracellular matrix. • Melanin is a brown pigment that absorbs UV radiation, helping to prevent skin cancer. • Keratin is a water-insoluble protein that water-proofs the skin; helps to protect against dehydration. Alpha-keratins, are found in the hair & the skin, are primarily fibrous and helical in structure. Beta-ker

10. List the structure and function of the small intestine. S16, 17, 18

The Small Intestine Is the Major Organ of Chemical Digestion & Nutrient Absorption Named for its small diameter (2.5 - 3 cm) relative to the large intestine (6.5 - 7.5 cm). Approximately 6 - 7 m long. Specialized for most chemical digestion and absorption of digestion products. Duodenum - the first 25 cm that extends from the stomach. The duodenum is followed by the Jejunum, which is followed by the ileum (all are parts of the small intestine). 1 meter = 3.3 feet; thus, small intestine is approx. 21 feet long. The Small Intestine Is the Major Organ of Chemical Digestion & Nutrient Absorption Named for its small diameter (2.5 - 3 cm) relative to the large intestine (6.5 - 7.5 cm). Approximately 6 - 7 m long. Specialized for most chemical digestion and absorption of digestion products. Duodenum - the first 25 cm that extends from the stomach. An important junction between the digestive tract & accessory organs (liver, gall bladder & pancreas). Region where stomach chyme is squirted into intestines & mixed with digestive fluids from accessory organs. Stretch receptors trigger/regulates hunger & flow of chyme into small intestine. The duodenum is followed by the Jejunum, which is followed by the ileum (all are parts of the small intestine). It secretes enzymes involved in digestion, and hormones that trigger the release of bile & pancreatic juice/enzymes. Enteropeptidase (bound to walls of duodenum) activates trypsinogen (to trypsin), which then activates more trypsinogen; trypsin then activates chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase & prolipase. Duodenum can regulate hunger by distention (promotes satiety); releasing Cholecystokinin (CCK), that closes the sphincter muscle between the stomach and duodenum, thus causing the stomach to hold its contents and fill faster, to stimulate fundus stretch receptors. Liver Largest gland in the body. Produces bile (bile salts) - derived from cholesterol; acts as emulsifier to help disperse & dissolve fats during digestion. Stores glucose as glycogen; releases glucose when needed. Synthesizes glucose from fat & protein breakdown. Gall Bladder Pear-shaped muscular sac attached to liver. Stores bile until needed for digestion. Too much cholesterol ® ® ® gallstones. •Liver can

6. Describe the structure and function of insects tracheal system. What are their advantages and disadvantages of using air versus water for gas exchange? S11

The Tracheal System of Insects Provides Direct Exchange Between the Air & Body Cells. Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Air vs. Water for Gas Exchange. Air contains higher concentrations of O2 than water. (209,000 ppm) Air is lighter and easier to move than water. Air-breathing animals lose water through their respiratory surfaces Insect tracheal systems Use tiny branching chitinous tubes that reduce water loss & pipe air directly to cells. Spiracles open & close to regulate exchange. Air sacs are reservoirs of air that can expand & contract with nearby muscles to ventilate. Spiracles can open & close, thus preventing moisture loss.

3. What are the four attributes for effective respiration? S6

Three (or four) Attributes for Effective Respiration: 1.The gas exchange region must be moist - moisture allows gases to become/stay dissolved as they cross the gas exchange region. 2.The gas exchange region must be thin - diffusion works best over short distances. 3.The gas exchange region must have a large surface area - diffusion increases with increased surface areas (or increased surface to volume ratios). 4.The diffusing gas must have a large concentration difference between the regions where diffusion must occur.

25. What are the conditions of too few Red Blood Cells (RBC's) called, Too many RBS called? What problems do these people face?

Too few RBC's (anemia). Insufficient supply of O2 to cells of the body. Fatigue, fast heartbeat, shortness of breath, pale skin. Too many RBC's (erythrocytosis). Excessively thick blood flows more slowly, increases blood pressure Decreased supply of O2 to cells of the body resulting from slower blood flow. Blood clots form more easily.

9. "What controls the Pacemaker? ______________________________ The autonomic nervous system performs and controls the following: ___________________________________________________________________________________. Look in the notes under S20.

What Controls the Pacemaker ? The Autonomic Nervous System Involves the lower brainstem region of the brain. Controls rate of heartbeat (in parallel with respiration rate). Medulla Oblongata Parasympathetic nervous system. Slows & accelerates heart beat. Spinal Cord Sympathetic nervous system. Accelerates heart beat. Hormonal Control - Hypothalamus processes "stress" & promotes the release of adrenaline. Adrenaline increases the rate and strength of heartbeats. As with control of respiration rate, the medulla oblongata senses pH of blood & cerebrospinal fluid: low pH (while stimulating respiration rate), will also trigger increased & stronger heart beat rates. Similarly, the chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries & aortic arch relay information of the concentration of CO2 & O2 in the blood. But Remember! Cells of the SA node are intrinsically contractile - i.e. they initiate a contraction every 0.85 sec w/o the help of the nervous system. Here the autonomic nervous system does not control the "initiation" of a heartbeat, but rather the rate or frequency of a heartbeat.

20. What happened to the 24th pair of chromosomes in humans? S11

What Happened to the 24th Pair of Chromosomes in Humans ? "Nothing" - i.e. Human chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes (2A & 2B). Evidence: Banding patterns & DNA base sequences of two Chimp chromosomes almost perfectly align (except for loss of the telomeres of two chimp chromosomes, and non-functional centromere remnants of Chimp chromosome in human chromosome # 2). Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes (referred to as 2p & 2q) in other apes/primates.

16. What is a non-prehensile versus a prehensile tale? Give examples of each and describe what each one can do. S6

non-prehensile tails are designed to help an animal with balance as it swings, climbs and jumps through its environment. prehensile tail is the tail of an animal that has adapted to grasp or hold objects - fully prehensile tails can be used to hold and manipulate objects

8. The SA node is know as the "_________________________________" of the heart. S20

pacemaker

15. What are anticipatory regulations/responses, give examples? S49

​​Feed-forward control are like anticipatory responses to known cues - e.g. salivation in dogs when food is being prepared or served; anticipatory regulation of heartbeat in advance of actual physical exertion.

24. Compare the two hypotheses for the spread of Homo sapiens on Earth. S21

​​From Origins in Africa, Homo sapiens Spread Around the World. What caused early Man to migrate out of Africa? Pleistocene Ice Age (~ 2 mya - 11,000 years ago) The Toba super-volcano eruption (~ 70,000 years ago). Two Hypotheses for the Spread of Homo sapiens. 1.Out-of-Africa Hypothesis Proposes that modern humans evolved from archaic humans in Africa. Then modern humans migrated to Europe and Asia to replace other archaic humans. 2.Multi-Regional Continuity Hypothesis Modern humans evolved from archaic humans in the same manner in three different regions: Africa, Asia and Europe. Ancient size of human population around 100,000 years ago was approximately 10,000 - 20,000 ; the Toba super-volcano in Indonesia (between Australia & Vietnam) that erupted around 70,000 years ago triggered a nuclear/volcanic winter. Only an estimated 15,000 humans are thought to have survived. Photo shows caldera of lake Toba in Sumatra (Indonesia); Caldera is approx. 50 miles long diagonally in photo. Causes of migration: Increased population densities likely caused H.s. to spread their range in search of addition resources (foods); or they simply followed the migration of food herds; increasingly sophisticated thought processes facilitated adaptation to new environments encountered as they spread their range. Migrations are thought to have started as the last ice age began to end. Probably food supply was scarce then, also prompting a search for more food.

23. Blood is composed of the following, ?

•Composition of Blood •Blood proteins include albumin (60%), Globulins (18%), Fibrinogen (4%), Lipoproteins (%'s given are % of proteins). •Albumin binds water, cations (such as Ca2+, Na+ and K+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin, thyroxine (T4) and pharmaceuticals (including barbiturates): its main function is to regulate the oncotic (osmotic) pressure of blood. •Salts of blood fluid are mainly NaCl (0.9%), and smaller amounts of Ca2+ and HCO3-. •Normal blood glucose is approximately 0.1% (i.e. 100 mg/dL). Blood represents about 7% of the weight of the human body; average male contains about 4.7-5 liters of blood (or about 1.3 gal; or 10 pints). •Volume of droplet on pin head is approximately 1 microliter. •RBC's represent approx. 99.9% of the red + white blood cells. •Platelets are cellular fragments of "megakaryocytes" that are produced/occur in bone marrow; platelets are later released to bloodstream; they're involved in blood clotting. White Blood Cells - many are located in the interstitial spaces where they fight off infections; on average WBC's last days to 1-2 weeks; RBC's last 100-120 days (3 mo.). •Neutrophils are often referred to as "first responders" - i.e. they are amoeboid cells that arrive at a site of inflammation/infection, squeeze through capillary walls & phagocytize foreign cells/material. •Lymphocytes are the cells that produce antibodies; monocytes also squeeze through capillary wall to become/replenish resident macrophages & dendritic cells. •Monocytes (4 - 8% of wbc's) are phagocytes; they replenish resident macrophages and dendritic cells under both normal conditions, and more quickly in response to inflammation signals. •Macrophages and dendritic cells eventually elicit an immune response. §Eosinophils - release enzymes used to fight parasites and destroy allergens. §Basophils - may assist eosinophils: they contain/release heparin (anticoagulant) & histamine (for inflammatory response). §Lymphoid Stem Cells - of, or pertaining to the lymphatic system. §Myeloid Stem Cells - of, or pertaining to bone marrow (or the spinal cord).

11. Describe the defribillator. If you are holding the paddles to give the person a therapeutic dose, L hand negative paddle, Right hand positive paddle, where do you place them on the person in front of you, their chest is facing you.?

•Defibrillation - the delivery of a therapeutic dose of electrical energy to (through) an abnormally beating (or stopped) heart with a device called a defibrillator. This depolarizes a critical mass of the heart muscle, terminates the dysrhythmia, and allows normal sinus rhythm to be reestablished by the body's natural pacemaker. •Electrical "defibrillation" sends electric current through the heart muscle, uniformly depolarizing all membranes, which restarts control by SA & AV nodes. Typically 200 - 1700 volts (200 - 360 joules - or watts per second). •AC was originally used, then switched to DC; Negative electrode upper left, positive electrode lower right. Electricity (electrons) flow from neg. electrode to pos. electrode.

7. Where does digestion begin in the human and how does it occur? S11

•Digestion Begins in the Oral Cavity Mainly mechanical, some chemical digestion. Chewing - cuts, smashes, and grinds food, making it easier to swallow. The tongue - tastes, shapes the food into a ball (called a bolus), and moves it back towards the pharynx. Salivary glands release . . . A slippery glycoprotein that moistens and lubricates food for easier swallowing. Buffers that neutralize food acids. Salivary amylase that begins the hydrolysis of starch. Antibacterial agents (lysozyme) that kill some bacteria ingested with food. •Teeth functions: Incisors cut; canines pierce & tear; molars grind. •The uvula closes off the nasopharynx so that food does not enter the nasal cavity during swallowing. It is also involved in eliciting the gag (or vomiting) reflex. •Main taste sensations are: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and umami. Maltose is approximately half as sweet as sucrose (or "sugar"). •There are mainly three pairs of salivary glands (Sublingual, Submandibular, & Parotid glands front to back) •Glycoproteins are "mucins". •Lysozyme is abundant in secretions like tears, saliva, human milk, and mucus. It is also present in cytoplasmic granules of the macrophages if the immune system. •Main buffer(s) of saliva are bicarbonate, then phosphate. Note such buffering is needed to reduce tooth erosion by acidic foods. •Amylases release maltose & other saccharides from starch; Lysozyme is an enzyme that degrades bacterial cell walls, which eventually causes bacterial cells to lyse in the absence of their walls.

18. What happens when you are flying on a plane, sitting for hours and you removed your shoes. When you land, you noticed your ankles and feet have swollen and you cannot get your shoes back on. What happened????? Slide 33 check the notes below the slide as well.

•Gravity has nominal effect on blood flow (over normal periods of time), but sudden changes in position (e.g. quickly standing up after lying down) can have noticeable effects. Autonomic vasoconstriction will decrease vein diameter, to force blood out of the veins back towards the heart. Similarly, when ill or faint, the person lays down & raises their legs to promote blood flow back to the heart. •In space, astronauts get "puffy face syndrome" & "bird legs" because the heart is programmed to pump more blood to the upper body, while gravity helps to move blood to the lower parts of the body. This phenomenon is exaggerated in zero gravity. •Respiratory pump promotes blood flow into the inferior vena cava due to a slight decrease in pressure during inhalation (followed by a slight increase in pressure during exhalation).

9. Describe the details the stomach and its enzymes. S13, 14, 15

•The Stomach Stores Food & Breaks it Down With Acid and Enzymes The stomach has folded & elastic walls, and can stretch to accommodate ~ 2 L of food & drink. Stretching of stomach wall triggers release of Gastrin - hormone that stimulates the release of gastric juice. Gastric glands in the stomach wall secrete gastric juice, comprised of . . . Mucus - protects the walls of the stomach. Pepsinogen - an inactive protease. HCl - a strong acid with a pH of ~ 2. Kills ingested bacteria. Breaks apart cells in food. Denatures proteins. Activates pepsinogen ® pepsin. Pepsin activates more pepsinogen. Three layers of smooth muscles churn stomach contents to form chyme; some chemical digestion occurs. •A relaxed empty adult stomach has a volume of about 50 - 75 mL (1 shot = 44 mL; 1 cup = 237 mL). •Gastrin is released by "G" cells in the pyloris (lower) region of the stomach. •HCl helps denature/unfold proteins to give better access to proteolytic enzymes. •Pepsin cleaves proteins into shorter peptides. •Esophageal sphincter valve allows food to enter the stomach, and prevents (most) backflow. •Duodenum is followed by the Jejunum, which is followed by the ileum. A Closer Look at Gastric Juice Production Chief cells release pepsinogen. Parietal cells release HCl. HCl activates pepsinogen; pepsin activates more pepsinogen. Excess acid feedback inhibits the release of gastrin. Less gastrin reduces the release of gastric juice. Epithelium lining the stomach is "simple columnar epithelium". Mucous cells aka "goblet" cells. Parietal - of, or related to the wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure. H2-Blockers reduce the amount of acid produced by the parietal cells, but it still can be released. Proton pump inhibitors block the release (pumping) of protons into the stomach. •Digestive Ailments Include Acid Reflux & Gastric Ulcers. Acid Reflux - aka as "gastroesophageal reflux disease" (i.e. "heartburn") - a condition where the liquid content of the stomach backs up into the esophagus. Can be treated with . . . Lifestyle changes. Antacids (Tums, Rolaids) - neutralize acid. H2 blockers (Zantac) - slow acid production. Proton pump inhibitors (Prilosec) - inhibit the release of H+. Gastric Ulcers - sores or per