Biol 223 - Finals (Aulner)

Malignant tumor

A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs.

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells. - when vibrates, causes action potentials

porphyria

A sunlight sensitivity disorder which causes its victims to be allergic to UV rays - inherited genetic disorder - victim can't make enough completed hemoglobin proteins (porphyrins)

Relaxation phase

AChE breaks down the ACh causing the voltage gates to close and the sarcomere to lengthen

Saltatory Conduction

AP much faster (fast, fast, slow) only used with myelin sheath - faster - 2-step - fast slow movement

How does Na+ move into the intracellular?

Acetylcholine is released from the Motor Neuron and binds to Na+ ion channel causing the ligand gates to open allowing the Na+ to enter the cell

Action example (Describe how muscles are named)

Adductor longus - adding adduction

During keratinization, the cells eventually die and produce an outer layer of dead, hard cells that resist abrasion and forms a permeability barrier

Describe the process of keratinization

nerve deafness (sensorineural deafness)

An inability to hear, linked to a deficit in the body's ability to transmit impulses from the cochlea to the brain, usually involving the auditory nerve or higher auditory processing centers. - sound waves are transmitted

Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Cervical Plexus: C1-C4 Brachial Plexus: C5-T1 (spinal nerves C5-T3) Lumbosacral Plexus: L1-S4 Lumbar plexus:L1-L4 (spinal nerves L1-L4) Sacral Plexus: L4-S4 Coccygeal plexus: S5-C0

Ligands

Chemical substance that can generate or create a response in a target cell. *tells the cell general directions (speed up/ open door, etc)

(10). 1. Connective Tissue Proper 2. Supporting Connective Tissue 3. Fluid Connective Tissue

Classification of connective tissue

Stratum spinosum

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - a total of 8-10 layers of many-sided cells (keratinocytes) - some mitosis - some keratin production (stays inside of the cells and creates inside the cells) Function: - produces keratin fibers - lamellar bodies form inside keratinocytes (additional keratin fibers and lipid-filled, membrane-bound organelles)

motion sickness

Effect when visual and/or motor feedback is inconsistent with vestibular info - brain, vision, and auditory signals doesn't agree - occurs because the brain simultaneously perceive differing sensory input from the semicircular, canal, eyes, and proprioceptors in the lower limbs

Hypertrophy

Enlargement of skeletal muscles due to increased number of myofibrils as occurs with increased muscle use. Cardiac muscle usually a result of hypertension or other disease

ischial spines

Farther apart in female

Multipennate (pennate, fiber pattern)

Fascicles are arranged at many places around the central tendon. They are spread out at angles to many smaller tendon Example: Deltoid

Circular (fiber pattern)

Fascicles are arranged in a circle around an opening and act as sphincters to close the opening Examples: Orbicularis oris, Orbicularis oculi

Bipennate (pennate, fiber pattern)

Fascicles are on both sides of the tendon Example: Rectus femoris

Unipennate (pennate, fiber pattern)

Fascicles are on only one side of the tendon Example: Palmar Interosseus, Semimembranosus

Parallel (fiber pattern)

Fascicles lie parallel to one another and to the long axis of the muscle Examples: Trapezius, Rhomboideus, Rectus abdominis

Fusiform (fiber pattern)

Fascicles lie parallel to the long axis of the muscle. The belly of the muscle is larger in diameter than the ends Examples: Biceps brachii (two-headed), Triceps brachii (three-headed)

Pennate (fiber pattern)

Fascicles originate from a tendon that runs the length of the entire muscle. There are three different patterns - have fascicles that emerge like the barbs on a feather from a common tendon that runs the length of the entire muscle

Somatic vs autonomic nervous system (2)

Fig 16.1

Macrophages

Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.

1. Protecting underlying structures - for example the outer layer of the skin and the epithelium of the oral cavity protect the underlying structures from abrasion 2. Acting as a barrier - prevents many substances from moving though it, for example, the skin acts as barrier to water and reduces water loss from the body. The skin also prevents many toxic molecules and microorganisms from entering the body 3. Permitting the passage of substances - permits other substances to move thought it ( acts as a filter) 4. Secreting substances - mucous gland, sweat glands, and the enzyme secreting portions of the pancreas are all composed of epithelial cells that secrete their products onto surfaces or into ducts that carry them to other areas of the body 5. Absorbing substances - the plasma membranes of certain epithelial cells contain carrier proteins which regulate the absorption of materials

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1. secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney tubules 2. secretion by cells of glands

Functions of Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Sarcomere

Functional unit of skeletal muscle contraction. From Z line to Z line Includes: Actin , myosin, I band, A band, H Zone, M line, Titin

1. Enclosing and separating other tissues - sheets of connective tissue form capsules around organ, such as the liver and kidneys. Connective tissue also forms layers that separates tissues and organs. For example, connective tissues separate muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves from one another 2. Connecting tissues to one another - strong cables, or bands, of connective tissues called tendons attache muscle to bone, wheres connective tissue bands called ligaments hold bone together 3. Supporting and moving parts of the body - bones provide rigid supports, joints allow movement 4. Storing compounds - adipose tissue store high energy molecules 5. Cushioning and insulating - adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissue it surrounds and provides an insulating layer 6. Transporting - blood transports the gases, nutrients, enzymes 7. Protecting - cells of the immune system and blood protect against toxins and issue injury

Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Diffusion 2. Filtration 3. Some secretion 4. Some protection against protection

Functions of Simple Squamous Epithelium

1. Protection against abrasion 2. A barrier against infection 3. Reduction of water loss from the body

Functions of Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Dense Connective Tissue

Has a relatively large number of protein fibers that form thick bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular space

Bipolar Neuron

Has two processes, one dendrite and one axon. Less than 1% of neurons (ex: rods and cones of retina) - rare in human - found in human

pelvic inlet

Heart shaped in male; oval in female

Microglial Cell

Phagocytic cell "wandering macrophages" *found in CNS

Myoglobin

Protein that creates a dark pigment. It binds oxygen and acts as an oxygen reservoir in the muscle fiber when the blood does not supply an adequate amount. Found in slow twitch fibers Helps to preform aerobic respiration

Sarcolemma

Terminal Cisterna: sticks to each side of T tubule making "Triad"- part of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum T Tubule- continuation of the saracolemma Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum- stores Ca++ - cell membrane of the muscle cell - plasma membrane of muscle fibers; surrounds sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) and other content of cell

Belly

The part of the muscle between the origin and the insertion is the?

Muscles structure

Surrounded by concentric cylinders 1. Muscle A. Fascicules- group of muscle fibers 1. Muscle fibers- a. Myofibril- 1. Myofilaments- 2. Motor Units-

Perimysium

Surrounds fascicles

appocrine sweat glands

Sweat glands in the pubic and underarm areas that secrete thicker sweat, that produce odor when come in contact with bacteria on the skin - may signal sexual maturity - they release sweat organic molecules

1. Bursa - a connective tissue bag filled filled with synovial fluid 2. Tendons sheath - bag of synovial fluid that is wrapped around a tendon

Synovial joint might haves include

1. joint capsule with synovial membrane (extension of periosteum) - hold bones together, creates a cavity between the two connecting bones which is filled with synovial fluid 2. joints cavity 3. articular cartilage/hyaline cartilage - provides smooth surface

Synovial joint must haves include

Somatic vs autonomic nervous system (1)

Table 16.1 (1) Receptor molecules *somatic - receptor molecules for acetylcholine are nicotinic *autonomic - in autonomic ganglia, receptor molecules for acetylcholine are nicotinic; in target tissues, receptor molecules for acetylcholine are muscarinic. In target tissues, receptor molecules for norepinephrine are a- or b-adregenic

Late Embryo brain structures

Telencephalon--Cerebrum Diencephalon--Diencephalon Midbrain--Midbrain Metencephalon--pons and cerebellum Myelencephalon--Medulla Oblongata

Fatigue

Temporary state of reduced work capicity

Isometric muscle contraction

Tension increases but length of muscle does not change Example: posture muscles

endolymph

The semicircular ducts are filled with

1. clot forms 2. epithelial cells grow into the wound 3. formation of granulation tissue 4. formation of connective tissue scar

Tissue repair process

Length and tension in skeletal muscle fibers

To create the greatest force the Sarcomere cannot be at it's extended length or the shortest length. Must be "just right"

Tonic and Phasic example

Tonic - wearing your pants, feeling the pants on your skin, the set temperature inside Phasic - when you pull your pants, stretching or feeling the skin

(3.) 1. Covering and lining epithelium- forms the outer layer of the skin; lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems; covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral body cavity. 2. Glandular epithelium- surrounds glands within the body.

Two forma of epithelial tissue

1. Dense regular 2. Dense irregular

Two groups of dense connective tissue

Dura Mater

Two layers that are thick, white and have a lot of collagen. two layers are periosteal dura and meningeal - continuous with epineurium of the spinal nerves - tough mother - outtermost layer - dense irregular ct - collagen - white tough

1. Skeletal muscle 2. Cardiac muscle 4. Smooth muscle

Types of muscles tissue

Myofilaments

Thin protein filaments (Actin or myosin)

effects of nutrition on human bone

Vitamin D is necessary for the normal absorption of calcium from the intestine - insufficient V-D in children causes rickets, a disease resulting from reduced mineralization of the bone matrix (bones with inflammed joint) -osteomalacia, a softening of the bones due to calcium depletion Vitamin C -necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblast -V-C deficiency results in bones and cartilage with fewer collagen fibers because collagen synthesis is impaired - in children V-C deficiency can retard growth - it can result in scurvy, which is marked by ulceration and hemorrhage in almost any area of the body - wound healing is hindered in patients with V-C

Polarized Cell Membrane

When it has membrane potential. Polarized by the Na/K pump

Treppe

When a muscle fiber is stimulated in rapid succession with each contraction increases in force but completely relaxing between stimulation. Possibly due to increase in Ca++ Muscular Phenomenon

Graded depolarizaion

When the neuromuscular junction only lets out a certain amount of ACh

*Right at the insertion

Where is the muscle force located?

(5) The enzyme tyrosinase converts the amino acid tyrosine to dopaquinone - dopaquinone can be converted to a variety of related molecules (the melanins) *melanin production is determined by genetic factors, exposure to light, and hormones

How we obtain the melanin pigments?

Lines/ Bands in the sarcomere

I Bands: only thin filaments, each contain a z disk and actin myofilaments. region will extend to end of mysoin filament A Band: all myofilaments H zone: thick myofilaments, region in A band where actin and myosin do not overlap M line: directly in the middle of myofilament, middle of H zone Titin: proteins that help spring muscle back to normal

RMP (Resting Membrane Potential)

Intracellular is -90mV less than extracellular

Ligands gated

Ion Channels that open with a specific chemical substance

goblet cells

a column-shaped cell found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, which secretes the main component of mucus.

comminuted fracture

a complete fracture in which the bone breaks into more than two pieces- usually 2 major and a smaller fragment

Osteoporosis

a condition in which the bones become fragile and break easily

Transverse (cross) section (planes of section)

a cut at a right angle to the length of an organ

Oblique section (planes of section)

a cut that is made across the length of an organ at other than right angle

Longitudinal section (planes of section)

a cut through the length of the organ

1. Lining of blood vessels and the heart 2. Alveoli (air sacs of lungs) 3. Lining body cavities 4. Portions of kidney tubules

Locations of Simple Squamous Epithelium

1. Keratinized - primarily in the skin 2. Nonkeratinized - mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and vagina

Locations of Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stroke

Loss of blood flow to the brain, caused by bleeding in the brain or meninges or a clot. Results in local area of cell death

Size example (Describe how muscles are named)

Maximus - large Minimus - small Longus - long Brevis - short

Regeneration

(biology) growth anew of lost tissue or destroyed parts or organs - the new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed, and normal function is restored

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

* 2% of nervous tissue * Sensory Division * Motor Division - detect stimuli in and around the body, send information to CNS, communicates messages from CNS to body - all nervous tissue outside of CNS - nerves, ganglia, sensory receptors - divided into sensory and motor divisions

Monosynaptic reflex

**one sensory neuron, one motor neuron with one synapse simple neuron pathways- sensory neurons synapse directly with motor neuron

Effects of the sympathetic vs. parasympathetic stimulation

*Liver - sympathetic effect - glucose releases into the blood - parasympathetic effect - none *Wall (stomach, intestines) - sympathetic effect - decreased tone - parasympathetic effect - increase motility *Sex organs - sympathetic effect - ejaculation, erection - parasympathetic effect - Erection

basement membrane (basal lamina)

- complex structure produced by the basal surface of the epithelium in the underlying connective tissue - provides physical support and anchoring of epithelial tissue - acts as a barrier to regulate passage of large molecules between epithelium and underlying connective tissue

Merkel cells

- cells of epidermis - are specialized epidermal cells associated with the nerve endings responsible for detecting light touch and superficial pressure

Efferent

- conducted or conducting outward or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied).

Intraepidermal macrophages (Langerham cells)

- cells of epidermis - less than 1% of your epidermal cells - are part of the immune system - are wandering macrophages ( they're moving around, wandering, looking for debris, pathogen then kills it)

Variables

- changes in our environmental condition, such as hot, or cold outdoor temperature are called? (because their values are not constant)

sphincter pupillae

- circular smooth muscle - constrictor of the pupil/makes pupil smaller - parasympathetic innervation (relax mode)

Iris (Vascular tunic)

- colored part of the eye - controls light entering the pupil - smooth muscle determines size of pupil - consist of sphincter pupillae, dilator pupillae - allows more or less light pass through your eyeball

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) or Auditory Nerve

- coming from cochlea then a nerve Fucntion: Sensory - senses of hearing and balance (ear to brain)

Synchondroses

- connected by hyaline cartilage - little or no movement - temporary and replaced by syntostosis (fully ossified bone) ex. epiphyseal plates, sternocostal (first rib and sternum), sphenooccipital (sphenoid and occipital) (cartilaginous class)

Aqueous humor

- fluid in the eye, found between the cornea and the lens - liquid in the anterior cavity - thin, watery fluid - divided into chambers (anterior and posterior) - Glaucoma (eye injury due to high eye pressure, build up of aqueous humor; not draining properly)

Blood

- fluid matrix between cells which flow rapidly through the body, carrying nutrients, oxygen, waste products, and other material Location: within the blood vessels; white blood cells frequently leave the blood vessels and enter the interstitial spaces

Dense irregular collagenous connective tissue

- forms most of the dermis, which is tough, deeper portion of the skin - as well as the connective tissue capsules that surround organs such as the kidney and spleen - composed of collagen fibers that run in all directions or in alternating planes of fibers oriented in a somewhat single direction - tensile strength capable of withstanding in all directions

Smooth muscle

- forms the wall of hollow organs such as the stomach and small and large intestines - is also found in the skin and eyes Function: moving food through the digestive tract and emptying the urinary bladder - controlled involuntarily - cells are tapered each end, having a single nucleus, and are not striated

Optic Nerve (II)

- ganglion cells Function: Sensory - sense of vision Consequence: Blindness on the affected side

Joint capsule receptors

- gives sensory information about joint position

vestibule

- gives the information about head position - like a snowglobe *otoliths - ear stones -calcium carbonate crystale - sits inside the vestibule - as the position of the head changes, as when a person bends over, gravity causes the otolithic membrane to move

Exorcrine glands

- glands with ducts and their cells secrete their products into their ducts ex. sweat, oil glands, mucus glands

Endocrine glands

- glands without ducts - glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream - have extensive blood cells - secretes directly into the interstitial fluid or the blood stream

Oculomotor Nerve (III)

- goes to extrinsic eye muscles (the superior, inferior, and medial rectus and the inferior oblique muscle, and the levator palpebrae superioris muscle), except for superior oblique and lateral rectus Function: Motor - motor to eye muscles

Trochlear Nerve (IV)

- goes to superior oblique Function: Motor - motor to superior oblique/ proprioceptive to that muscle

Tissue level

- groups of similar cells that have a common function - ex. smooth muscle tissue

Peripheral adaptation (type of adaptation)

- happens at the receptors - receptors fire less - fewer AP - when sensory receptors decrease their level of activity - highly adaptive ex. Meissners corpuscles - if stimulus is not moving, you adapt to it very quickly ex. pen of fingertip, overtime you can't feel the pen unless you move it

Central adaptation (type of adaptation)

- happens in CNS (brain and spinal cord) - same number of action potentials but you ignore them ex when you quit paying attention to the stimulus, ignoring the action potentials ex. hearing a background noise but you're not paying attention

Trigeminal Nerve (V)

- has 3 branches - dental hygiene nerves - has the greatest general sensory functions of all the cranial nerves and is the only cranial nerve involved in sensory cutaneous innervation of the head - trigeminal means threes twins Functions: Mixed Motor - chewing muscles Sensory - face, gums, anterior tongue

Dense regular collagenous connective tissue

- has abundant collagen fibers - forms structures such as tendons and ligaments Function: able to withstands great pulling forces exerted in the direction of fiber orientation; great tensile strength and stretch resistance Location: Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (attach bones to each other)

Accessory Nerve (XI) or Spinal Accessory Nerve

- has both cranial and spinal roots Function: Motor - motor to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius

Hyaline cartilage

- has large amounts of both collagen fibers and proteoglycans - is found where strong support and some flexibility are needed ex. rib cage, within the trachea and bronchi, growing long bones, nasal cartilages, embryonic skeleton

Fibrocartilage

- has more collagen fibers than proteoglycans - has thicker bundles of collagen fibers - found in the knees, in the jaw, and between the vertebrae (intervertebral disk)

Multipolar neurons

- have 3 or more processes, 1 axon, other processes are dendrites. These are the most common and are the major neuron in the CNS. Function: neurons transmit information in the form of action potentials, store "information" and integrate, and evaluate date; glia support, protect and form specialized sheaths around axons Location: brain, spinal cord, ganglia

Special sense

- have localized receptors (the sensory receptors are in a specific place) - they have specialized organs

General senses

- have receptors distributed over a large part of the body - they are divided into two groups, somatic and visceral - happens in numerous place

calcium ion

- helps to expose the active site of the actin - binds to troponin - wobble, flip over, rotate, fall down, then pulls tropomyosin off of the active sites, then myosin head attach

Set point

- ideal normal value of a variable around which homeostasis is maintained through a normal range of values that are acceptable to the body *these mechanisms are not able to maintain body temperature precisely at the set point

Phasic receptors

- inactive - tend to fire only when there's a change in stimulus - adapt rapidly so they are most sensitive to changes ins stimulus ex. Pacinian and Meissner corpuscles

Development

- includes the changes an organism undergoes though time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death

Osteoarthritis

- inflammation of join, leading to pain and stiffness of the joint - causes infectious agents, metabolic disorder, trauma, immune disorders - general wear and tear erosion of articular cartilage primary problem - can be delayed with exercise

Peritonitis

- inflammation of the peritoneum/common cause death after abdominal surgery

Gap junctions

- intercellular junction - is a small, specialized contact region between cells containing protein channels (ion channels) that aid intercellular communication by allowing ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the other (ex. nutrient exchange)

(2). Tight junctions

- intercellular junction - the cell membrane protein of two different cells fused into one protein - nothing can pass though it (impermeable between the two cell) - involves water-proofing - hold cells together and form a permeability barrier

Tight junctions example

- intercellular junction example - is common in the epithelium of the digestive tract - in the stomach and the urinary bladder, chemicals cannot pass between cells

Gap junction example

- intercellular junction example - this junction may coordinate the movements of cilia between ciliated epithelial cells - in cardiac muscle, through intercalated disks

tight junction structure

- intercellular junction structure - made of proteins in the plasma membrane of adjacent cell that join one another to make a very tight seal - no space between 2 cells at the place of junction - form a ring that completely surrounds each cells

Differentiation (development)

- involves changes in a cell's structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state - for example, immature cells differentiate to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells

Surface anatomy

- involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body - for example, the sternum (breastbone) and parts of the ribs can be seen and palpated (felt) on the front of the chest (for examination and testing)

Volume (loudness)

- is a function of sound wave amplitude, or height - measure in decibels - refers to the intensity of the sound - how hard you hit the tympanic membrane

Pitch

- is a function of the sound wave frequency - measure in hertz (Hz) - the higher the frequency the higher the pitch

Organs system level

- is a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit - for example, the urinary system consists of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra

System

- is a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems

Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)

- is a somatic motor nerve that arises from the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata. Function: Motor - controlling tongue muscle

Abducens Nerve (VI)

- is a somatic motor nerve that innervates one of the muscles responsible for moving the eyeball Function: Motor - motor to lateral rectus

Transitional epithelium

- is a special type of stratified epithelium - the shape of its cells changes from cuboidal to columnar to squamouslike when stretched

X-ray

- shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph - bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the rays and create underexposed areas that appear white on the photographic film - only in 2-D images

Hemidesmosomes

- similar to one-half of a desmosome - attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane - they hold the epithelium down to whatever it lays on

unicellular exocrine glands

- single cells exocrine gland - ex. mucous cells and goblet cells

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

- single layer of cells; some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, and others do not - contains the goblet cells Function: secretes mucus; ciliated tissue moves muscle Location: Lining of the nasal cavities Function: Lining of the Trachea

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

- single layer of cube-shaped cells - some cells have microvili or cilia

simple squamous epithelium

- single layer of flattened cells

Simple Columnar Epithelium

- single layer of tall, narrow cells - some cells have cilia

Epidermis

- skin - is stratified squamous epithelium - is separated from the underlying dermis by a basement membrane - contains no blood vessels - living cells receives nutrients and excrete waste products by the diffusion of substances between the epidermis and the capillaries (the smallest of blood vessels) of the dermis

Muscle cells

- some of the longest cells - 1mm (shortest) - 30cm (longest) avg - 10cm

Positive feedback

- something that increases/magnifies the changes in homeostasis - moves me further away from the set point - makes me less "normal" - occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater - mechanism that can make something happen FAST - can be detrimental instead of helpful

(8). Negative feedback

- something that will oppose (negate) a change in homeostasis - brings me back toward the set point - keeps me "normal" - maintains homeostasis - is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted; therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the response to the original stimulus results in deviation from the set point, becoming smaller - see page 10

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

- specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum, stores and releases Ca++ - Covers myofibrils and includes the Terminal Cisternae - terminal cisternae (surrounds t-tubules)

(6). Describe in general the structure of both the human shoulder and hip joints, the types of movements allowed by each and any injuries/disorders discussed in lecture

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6. Define the terms volume and pitch and describe the unit used to measure each

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6. Describe how human memory is stored and retrieved

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6. List the effects of the sympathetic vs. parasympathetic stimulation of those organs/structures indicated by your instructor

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white ramus communicans

carries the preganglionic fibers into a nearby sympathetic chain ganglion

Anatomy of a Long Bone: Diaphysis

shaft, composed of compact bone

Chondroblasts

cartilage forming cells

epidural anesthesia

catheter goes on top of Dura Mater

Cell membrane proteins + intercellular cement

cell to cell connection consists of? - consist of a thin layer of proteoglycan gel (protein+sugar) - D in photo

Stable cells

cells that stop regenerating when growth is complete but can resume regeneration if injured - the liver and endocrine glands

medulla

central axis of the hair, and it consists of two or three layers of cells containing soft keratin

Normal Curvatures

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral

Buccal (head)

cheek

Pectoral (trunk)

chest

Mental (head)

chin

open fracture

compound fracture; broken bone with an open wound

cervical curvature

concave

lumbar curvature

concave

Axon

conducts impulses away from the cell body

Commissural Tracts

connect one cerebral hemisphere to the other hemisphere *induces the corpus callosum

Cerebral tracts

connect the cerebral cortex to other parts of CNS 1. Association Fibers: 2. Commussural Fibers: 3 Projection Fibers

Prefrontal area

connected to limbic system Function: personality, judgment,/concern, complex learning intellect

red bone marrow

connective tissue in the spaces of spongy bone or in the mendullary cavity; the site of blood cell production

Scar

connective tissue that fills a wound area

Association tracts

connects the cerebral cortex within the other parts of the CNS - connect different areas in the same hemisphere

Projection Fibers

connects the cerebrum to other parts of the brain and spinal cord

Systemic physiology

considers the functions of organ systems

ball-and-socket joint

consist of a ball (head) and the end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into which portion of the ball fits - multiaxial (structural classifications of synovial joints)

Gray Matter

consist of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, very. little myelin *cortex of the CNS consists of this on the surface of the brain *PNS gray metter consists of clusters of neuron cell bodies *looks like butterfly (called horns)

plane joint (gliding joint)

consist of two flat bone surfaces of about equal size between which a slight gliding motion can occur - are considered unixaxial ex. intervertebral (structural classifications of synovial joints)

saddle joint

consist of two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to each other so that their complimentary surfaces articulate - are biaxial joints (structural classifications of synovial joints)

Stratified epithelium

consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer attached the deepest layer to the basement membrane

Loose Connective Tissue

consists of relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy network, with numerous spaces filled with ground substance and fluid

Synovial joint

contain synovial fluid and allow considerable movement between articulating bone

gray ramus communicans

contains postganglionic fibers that innervate glands and smooth muscles in the body wall or limbs

Pleural cavity

contains the lungs

Pelvic cavity

contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

thoracic curvature

convex

sacral curvature

convex posteriorly

cleavage lines (tension lines)

elastic & collagen fibers oriented more in some directions than others and produce? - It is important for health professionals to understand directions because an incision made parallel to this lines is less likely to gap than incisions made across them - an incision made parallel to this line results in less gapping, faster healing, and less scar tissue

Photoreception

detection of light, perceived as sight

Primary Motor Cortex

direct control of muscles

(9). State of dynamic equilibrium

dynamic - constant changing equilibrium - staying the same - we are always in the normal ranges around a set point ex. blood pressure goes up and down depends on what happens in the environment

Head

each origin of attachment

Otic (head)

ear

Motor Output

efferent function- conducts actions away from the CNS and toward the muscles or glands

Dorsal body cavity

encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain, and spinal cord

medial excursion

return the mandible to the midline

Orbital (head)

eye

spina bifida

failure of one or more vertebral arches to close during fetal development

reposition

return to anatomical position from opposition

Andipocytes

fat cells

yellow marrow

fat stored within the mendullary cavity or in the spaces of spongy bone

long bone example

femur

Symphyses

fibrocartilage uniting bone by a pad of fibrocartilage ex. symphysis pubis, between the manubrium sternum and the body of the sternum, intervertebral disk, xiphisternal

Digital (manual-hand)

fingers

Diarthrosis

freely movable joints (how joints move) - all synovial joints

Antecubital (upper limb)

front of elbow

Pubic (trunk)

genital

Dense regular connective tissue

has protein fibers in the extracellular matrix that are oriented predominantly in one direction

compound glands

have a branched duct

Multipolar Neuron

have many dendrites and one axon. Most of neurons are this type - most CNS

dentate fractures

have rough, toothed, broken ends.

conductive deafness (middle-ear deafness)

hearing loss that occurs if the bones of the middle ear fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea - the spinal organ and neuronal pathways for hearing functions normally, but there is a mechanical deficiency in the transmission of sound waves from the external ear to the spinal organ

Calcaneal

heel of foot

Steps to repair a fracture 1

hematoma formation blood released from damaged blood vessels forms a hematoma

Coxal (Lower Limb)

hip

Lordosis curvature

hollow back; an exaggeration of the convex curve of the lumbar region

Popliteal

hollow behind knee

Abdominal cavity

houses digestive organs, such as the stomach, the intestines, and the liver, in addition to the spleen

Cranial cavity (dorsal)

houses the brain

Mediastinum (thoracic cavity)

houses the heart and its major blood vessels, in addition to the thymus, the trachea and the esophagus

Ventral body cavity

houses the internal organs (collectively called viscera)

Vertebral canal (dorsal)

houses the spinal cord

(14). first, second, third degree burn

how burns are classified?

By the shape of secretory portion of the gland

how to determine a gland?

rule of nines

how we estimate the percentage of burned skin by using multiples of nine

articular cartilage

hyaline cartilage that covers ends of bones

All or Nothing firing of neuron

if stimulus produces a depolarization that reaches threshold all ion channels open. If depolarization is not strong enough none of the channels will open

closed fracture

if the soft tissues around a closed fracture are damaged

general

in female: kighter in weight, wider laterally but shorter superiorly to inferiorly and less funnel-shaped; less obvious muscle attatchment points in females

Ganglia

in the pns, gray matter consists of clusters of neuron cell bodies

hairline fractures

incomplete fractures in which the two sections of bone do not separate; they are common in the skull

Anaerobic exercise

increases the muscular strength and mass and causes fast twitch fibers to enlarge

Aerobic Exercise

increases the vascular of it's muscle and cause slow twitch fibers to enlarge

Differential Recruitment

increasing the number of muscle fibers contracting less force = one or two muscle units contracting more force = all muscle units contracting

Babinski reflex

indicator of CNS damage Normally seen in infants- not big deal if present in adults then there is a problem

Tendonitis

inflammation of a tendon or the attachment point due to overuse of skeletal muscle

osteomyelitis

inflammation of bone and bone marrow

Meningitis

inflammation of menages caused by viral or bacterial infection symptoms: stiff neck, headache, fever, paralysis, coma or death

Pericarditis

inflammation of the pericardium

acne vulgaris

inflammation of the skin follicles

AChE inhibitors

inhibitors AChE from breaking down the ACh, therefore the ACh can continue the AP

white blood cells (leukocytes)

innate capacity to recognize and differentiate any foreign material

Meningeal Dura

inner layer and is continuous with the dura of the spinal cord

Lumbar puncture

insertion between L3-L4, removes CSF from subarachnoid space to examine for meningitis or blood or to measure CSF pressure

Goniometer

instrument used to measure joint angles

Nerve Plexus

intermingling of nerves - bunch of nerve together in a place

Platelets

involved in blood clotting to reduce bleeding from a wound

rotator cuff injury

involves damage to one or more of these muscles of the rotator cuff or their tendons 1. infraspinatus 2. subscapularis 3. supraspinatus 4. teres minor

diabetic retinopathy

involves optic nerve degeneration, cataracts, retinal detachment; often caused by blood vessel degeneration and hemorrage

medial rotation

inward (medial) movement of a body segment in the transverse plane (toward the midline)

Non-gated

ion channels that are always open *leak channels"

Voltage gated

ion channels that use an electrical currant to open

Carcinoma origin

is a cancer derived from epithelial tissue - include nearly all lung, breast, colon, prostate, and skin cancers

Bone

is a hard connective tissue that consist of living cells and mineralized matrix

opposition

is a movement of thumb and little finger toward each other

Autopsy

is a postmortem examination of the organ to determine the cause of death or to study the changes caused by a disease ex. microscopic examination of tissue

ellipsoid joint

is a reduced ball and socket configuration in which significant rotation is largely excluded - biaxial joint (structural classifications of synovial joints)

nail

is a thin plate consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin

pivot joint

is a uniaxial joint in that restricts movement to rotation around a single axis - consists of a relatively cylindrical bony process that rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partly ligament (structural classifications of synovial joints)

hinge joint

is a uniaxial joint in which a convex cylinder in one bone is applied to a corresponding concavity in the other bone (structural classifications of synovial joints)

kyphosis

is an exaggeration of the concave curve of the thoracic region

Visual physiology

is completely backwards!!!!!!

Abdominopelvic cavity

is enclosed by abdominal muscles and consists of the more superior abdominal cavity and the more inferior pelvic cavity - are housed within the peritoneal cavity)

Thoracic cavity (ventral)

is more superior to the abdominopelvic cavity and houses primarily the heart and lungs, among other organs

Oblique plane

is one that is at an angle (unlimited plane)

visual acuity

is the eye's ability to focus an image on the retina so that a clear image is perceived (resolution, high definition)

Pathology

is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes resulting from disease

(13) Histology

is the microscopic study of tissues

dermal root sheath of hair

is the portion of the dermis that surround the epithelial root sheath

Biopsy

is the process of removing tissue samples from patients surgically or with a needle for diagnostic purposes

subpubic angle

less than 90 degrees in male; 90 degrees or more in female

Ependymal cells

lines the ventricles * other part of blood brain barrier * regulate what will go into the ventricles

Parietal serous membrane

lines the walls of the cavities

Parietal peritoneum and visceral peritoneum

lining the abdominopelvic cavity and the external surface of the viscera located in the abdominopelvic cavity, respectively

Parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium

lining the pericardial cavity and the heart's external surface, respectively - filled with pericardial fluid

Intracellular Receptor

lives inside the cell and can carry out function of ligand directly

List the general shapes of human bones

long bone flat bone irregular bone short bone

Aponeurosis

long rope-like Broad and sheets of dense connective tissue

body support

rigid, strong bone is well suited for bearing weight and is the major supporting tissue of the body

Na channels close cells not firing stopping the release of glutamate

rods and cones cells respond to light by?

lateral rotation

rotation away from the midline

oblique fractures

run obliquely in relation to the length of the bone

linear fracture

run parallel to the legth of the bone

Transverse (horizontal) plane

runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions

dual innervation

most viscera (ANS target) receive nerve fibers from both parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions

Fixator

muscle that stabilizes the origin of a prime mover

Somatic Reflex:

muscles involved are skeletal muscles- a person can exhort control of reflex (knee extension when tapped)

Antagonist

muscles that work in opposition to another muscle

Synergist

muscles that work with another muscle to cause movement

Phantom pain

neuron pathway that transmits action potentials is stimulated at any point along that pathway, action potentials are initiated and propagated toward the CNS. Integration results in the perception of pain that is projected to the site of the sensory receptors, even if those sensory receptors are no longer present

Substantiated Nigera

neurons that releases dopamine- creates IPSP: lack of dopamine

Sciatic nerve damage

sciatic nerve compresses against the ischial portion of the hipbone. Symptoms: tingling when standing Causes: pregnancy, improper injection, ruptured intervertebral disc or piriformis

abnormal curvatures

scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis

Fibrocytes

second most abundant cell type; found in all connective tissue proper; maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper

tubular glands

secretory cells form tubes (glands)

(12). Directional Terms

see figure 1.8 and table 1.2

Somatic cortex

sensation from body

Afferent

sensory or signal

Scapular (dorsal)

shoulder blade

(6). Simple epithelium

single layer of cells

Receptor membrane bound

sits on the cell membrane to deliver message from ligand inside the cell

stretch marks (striae)

skin being overstretched the dermis may rupture and leave lines that are visible through the epidermis - torn collagen

cold sores

skin lesions, cased by herpes transmitted oral or respiratory routes; lesions recur

Cranial

skull

Amphiarthroses

slightly movable joints (how joints move) - are slightly moveable joints connected by fibrocartilage or hyaline carilage

Type C Neuron

small diameter and without a myelin sheath (ANS) - slowest - 1 m/sec

Reflex

smallest part of nervous system that will carry out all three nervous systems functions

Plantar

sole of foot

Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone.

solid looking and has osteons parallel to lines of stress; blood vessels enter the substance of the bone itself and the lamellae of compact bone are primarily oriented around those blood vessels Osteons live in lacunae between lamellae, interstitial lamellae occur between osteons. Circumferentual lamella make the bone surface smooth

mineral storage

some minerals in the blood are stored in bone. If blood levels of these mineral decrease the minerals are released from bone into the blood

Auditory cortex

sound sense

(15). Body cavities

spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs

irregular bone example

sphenoid bone

Vertebral (dorsal)

spinal column

Fixators

stabilize joint/s crossed by the prime mover; prevent movement of the origin of the prime mover Example: movement of humerus, muscles of scapula hold scapula in place

Extension

straightening movement that increases angle of joint to straighten articulating bones - anterior side larger

(2). Developmental anatomy

studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood

Sympathetic nervous system

subdivision of the autonomic division of the nervous system characterized by having the cell bodies of its preganglionic neurons located in the the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord (thoracolumbar division); usually involved in preparing the body for physical activity - three Fs (fight, flight...)

Neuromodulators

substances released from neuron that influence the likelihood of an action potential being produced in postsynapitc cell

spiral fracture

take a helical course around the bone

Spinal Shock

temporary condition of muscular flaccidity and loss of motor reflexes in all parts of the body below the transaction

autonomic tone

the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity

cleft palate

the failure of the palate to close during the early development of the fetus

Forces (pull)

the force applied by the lever to move the load.

stress

the fore created within an object that pushes back against the load

subluxation

the partial displacement of a bone from its joint

Synarthrosis

non-movable joints (how joints move) - are joints that don't moves, such as those between the bones of the skull

Type B Neuron

normal size diameter and a myelin sheath *many motor - slower

Nasal (head)

nose

Uniaxial joints

occuring around one axis - move in one axis ex. elbow (hinge)

Multiaxial

occurring around several axes (like shoulders and hip)

Biaxial

occurring around two axes at right angles to each other

Lacunae

potential space within the matrix of bone or cartilage normally occupied by a cell

Fibroblasts

produce fibers and ground substance

Spinal anaesthetic

puncture the dura to the subarachnoid space

Causes of shingles

reactivation of Varicella zoster

Dentrites

receive messages from other cells

Albinism

recessive genetic trait that results from an inability to produce tyrosinase. The result is a deficiency or an absence of pigment in the skin, the hair, and the irises of the eyes

Perineal

region between the anus and external genitalia - perineum

Spinal tap

removal of CSF from subarachnoid space

Talus (lower Limb/pedal)

ankle

vitiligo

areas of complete depigmentation (like Sanja) usually around mouth caused by autoimmune destruction of melanocytes - development of patches of white skin where melanocytes are destroyed by an autoimmune response

Axon

arises from axon hillock - part of trigger zone where action potentials are generated - contains axoplasm and axolemma - end ate presynaptic terminal containing synaptic vesiscle full of neurotransmitter

Brachial (upper limb)

arm

Axillary (upper limb)

armpit

Periosteum

around (perimeter) Double-layered connective tissue that covers the outer surface of bone except where articular cartilage is present; ligaments and tendons attatch to bone through the periosteum; blood vessels and nerves from the periosteum supply the bone;

*Fibrous joints

articulating surfaces of two bone united by fibrous connective tissue - have no joint activity - move little or no movement

Integration

association or decision making function- conducts action potentials within the CNS

transverse fracture

at right angles to the length of the bone

Marfan Syndrome

autosomal dominant; pleiotropic; tall, weak heart

Dorsal

back

Dorsum

back of hand

Nuchal

back of neck

Tendon

band or cord of dense connective tissue that connect a muscle to a bone or another structure

Occipital

base of skull

basal surface of epithelial tissue

base of the tissue which is attached to a basement membrane - involves attachement

decubitus ulcer

bed sores, pressure sores. Develop in people who are bedridden or confined to a wheelchair

(composition of human bony matrix) inorganic material

bony matrix is 65% inorganic - the inorganic material consist primarily of a calcium phosphate crystal called hydroxiapatite

Coup brain injuries

brain trauma occurring at the site of impact

Contrecoup brain injuries

brain trauma occurring on the opposite side of the brain from the impact, because of the brain moving within the skull

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Clasts

break the matrix down for remodeling

stellate fractures

breakage lines radiating from a central point

Mammary (trunk)

breast

Sternal (trunk)

breastbone

pelvic outlet

broader and more shallow in females

sacrum

broader in females

white matter

bundles of parallel axons with their associated sheath in the CNS

White matter

bundles of parallel myelinated axons, form nerve tracts in CNS or conduction pathway which propagate AP from one area of CNS to another

Gluteal

buttock

ischial tuberosity

turned laterally in females and medially in males

inversion

turning ankle so the plantar surface of foot face medially

(12). lanugo, terminal, vellus hair

types of hair?

Subdural

under the dura - below the dura mater

Visual cortex

visual sense

1. Fibrous 2. Cartilaginous 3. Synovial

what are the 3 classifications (types) of joints

inhibits bipolar cells from firing

what does glutamate do in photoreception?

IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)

what effect does acetylcholine have on cardiac muscle?

EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)

what effect does norepinephrine have on cardiac muscle?

blister

what will happen when you take a part proteins in skin in the basement membrane? (disrupting and denature of skin) (when dermis and epidermis comes apart) (caused by heat, friction, radiation etc.)

resting stage of hair

when a new cycle begin - a new hair forms to replace the old hair

hyperrepolarization

when membrane potential becomes more negative and is movement of the membrane potential further away from zero

depolarization

when the inside of the plasma membrane becomes more positive

repolarization

when the inside of the plasma membrane is less positive

Papilla

where the basement membrane is (epithelium, basale) Function: the hills increases the surface area between the two layers (allows to stick (epidermis) to the dermis)

postganglion neuron of the sympathetic division only

which neuron is the only adrenergic neuron?

Hair structure

Made up of hair folilcles- dermal and epidermal sheath surround the hair root. The arrector pili a smooth muscle, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

male pelvis vs female pelvis

Male = narrow (greater propensity for location and elevation) Female = wider *Difference in which width of sacrum

Spatial summation

Many stimuli from different points in space causes graded potential that exceeds threshold

Hip (Coxal) Joint

Structure: ball-and socket joint more stable but less movile than shoulder joint. extremely strong joint capsule reinforced by ligaments that bears much of the body weight while standing, ligaments of head of femur (often bears nutrient artery) Movemement: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation, and circumduction Injuries/disorders: dislocation of bones and tears in musces or tendons are common, fracture of femur and hip bone usually accompany hip dislocation

shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint)

Structure: ball-and- socket joint that has less stability but more mobility than the other ball-and-socket joint, the hip Movement: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation, and circumduction Stability: rotator cuff - four muscles that along with ligaments give stability to the joint Injuries/disorders: dislocation of bones and tears in muscles or tendons are common, sever damage when humeral head dislocates inferiorly, axillary nerve come commonly damage nerve, tendinitis (inflammation of tendons), bursitis (inflammation of bursae), and arthritis (inflammation of joints)

Knee joint

Structure: is stabilized by a combination of ligaments and tendons, is a complex ellipsoid joint *lateral and medial collateral ligament - connects the femur and tibia, stabilize the medial and lateral sides Movement: flexion-extension, and a small amount of rotation Injury/disorders: 1. lateral blow to knee often tear the medial collateral ligament , the ACL, and damage the medial meniscus, 2. Hyperextension of the knee may tear the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament - prevents anterior displacement of tibia), 3. flexion of knee with tibia driven posteriorly leads to PCL injury (posterior cruciate ligament - prevents posterior displacement of tibia)

3. Describe the types, characteristics of and classifications of sensory receptor.

3

shear

500kg/cm2 or 1100 kg/cm2 →← moving past each other without touching

Nervous System Function

Sensory Input, Integration and Motor Output

Serotinin

Site: CNS Effect: excitatory and inhibitory

Glutamate

Site: CNS Effect: excitatory

Nitric Oxide

Site: CNS and ANS Effect: excitatory

Norepinephrine

Site: CNS and ANS Effect: excitatory

Dopmine

Site: CNS and ANS Effect: excitatory and inhibitor

Acetylcholine

Site: CNS and ANS Effect: excitatory and inhibitory

Opiates

Site: CNS and ANS Effect: excitatory and inhibitory

Endorphins

Site: CNS- descending pain pathways Effect: inhibitory

body movement

Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons. These serve as levers to move bones

Role of ATP in Muscular contraction

Skeletal muscles get 36 ATP per glucose molecule. +2 ATP from Glycolosis, +2 ATP Kreb Cycle and +32 from ETC

chickenpox

Skin lesions; usually mild viral disease contracted through the respiratory tract

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Slow motor development- effects many symptoms- most patients do not live past 20 years, usually die to Heart failure Symptoms: muscle weakness, atrophy, contracture (deformation of skeleton that limits movement)

complete fracture

a bone is broken into at least two fragments

Symptom

a change in body function that is felt by a patient as a result of disease

Stimulus

a changed variable

2nd degree burn

epidermis and part of dermis (blistered)

Crural (Lower Limb)

leg

belly

part of the muscle between the origin and insertion

Pelvic (trunk)

pelvis

Refractory Period

period following effective stimulation during which excitable tissue, ie heart muscle, fails to respond to stimulus of threshold intensity

8. define tinnitus

phantom sound sensation, such as ringing in ears; a common problem

Olecranon

point of elbow/ back of elbow

Acromial

point of shoulder

Fibrosis

the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, usually as a result of injury.

arthroscopy

the visual examination of the internal structure of a joint

(16). Serous membrane

the walls of the body cavities and the surface of internal organs are in contact with membranes that are called? - is a two layered membrane with fluid between layers

Myosin

thick filaments that sit in the middle of sarcomere Head: waits to attach to the active site of the actin, when it does it pulls the actins closer together

Femoral (lower limb)

thigh

endosteum

thin connective tissue membrane lining the inner cavities of bone; inside and has no fibrous layer. ONLY has cellular layer

Polysynaptic reflex

**more than one synapse complex neuron pathway multiple synapses with interneurons between the sensory and motor neurons

Dendrites

- cell extensions that receives information from other neurons; often short and highly branched with extensions called dendritic spines

Depolarized Cell Membrane

Cell membrane becomes depolarized when the Na+ comes into the cell

apical surface of epithelial tissue

(Upper, free) exposed to exterior or cavity; (part of epithelial polarity) - involves secretion, protection, and absorption

Lipid Ligand

"Direct Gene Activation" turns genes off/on directly *uses intracellular receptor *names end in "one" steroid, (testerONE)

Protein Ligands

"secondary messenger system" to carry out function within the cell *use membrane bound receptors because protein are so big they cannot pass through the cell membrane. *names end with protein type name

Latent Period Fatigue

(Lag Phase) Time between when the ACh is released and the sarcomere shortens

Neuron Cells

* Amitotic (mostly) - without the ability to do mitosis - do not renegate - non-dividing - cannot be replace if destroyed * create and carry action potentials (electrochemical signals), * longest cells in the body in length (1 meter) and life span (over 100 years) * very high metabolic rate - only lives a few minutes without oxygen

Motor Division

* Efferent * Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) * Somatic Nervous System (SNS) - transmits action potentials away from cns to effector (muscle, glands - receive information

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

* Location: subarachnoid space (between arachnoid and Pia mater) * Originates: in the ventricles * Similar to Blood Plasma * Primary function is shock absorber * Route: from ventricles and exits into the blood stream *average adult has 80-150 ml - fills open space; ventricle, subarachnoid space, central canal

Medulla Oblongata (part of brain stem)

* descending tracts tracts motor fibers crossover * has nuclei (in gray matter) that controls heart rate, BP, Swallowing, vomitting

Satellite Cell

* found in PNS * form the Blood Neuron Barrier * helps with repair

Schwann Cell

* found in PNS * form the myelin sheath in PNS

CNS (central nervous system)

* includes brain and spinal cord * 98% of Nervous tissue lives in CNS - receives messages from and send messages to body

Midbrain (part of brain stem)

* includes the cerebral peduncles and superior/inferior colliculi * visual and auditory reflexes *includes Substantiated Nigera

Pons (part of brain stem)

* relay center for action potentials between the cerebrum and cerebellum * has nuclei for respiration

Sciatic Nerve Damage

* sciatic nerve compresses against the ischial portion of the hipbone * Symptoms: tingling sensation when patient stands up * Causes: sitting on hard surface, pregnancy, improper injection, piriformis syndrome, ruptures intervertebral disc

Hyper-Kelemia

* too much extracellular K+ * K+ leaves the cell, cell becomes more positive * ending with unwanted AP and problems with polarization

Arachnoid Mater

*Thin collagen and elastin proteins *Comes apart quickly after death *looks like a spider web - thin and wispy - middle

Hypothalamus

*controls endocrine system, ANS and "blood taster", has a lot of capilalries Function: monitors many aspects of blood to keep bodies regulated, some pleasure centers, regulates body temp

Cerebellum

*includes arbor vitae *mostly gray matter Function: Motor Coordination *has 50% of neurons but only is 10% of brain mass *person may not have motor coordination if this area is damaged, or pick up on sarcasm *connected to cerebrum by cerebral peduncles

Glial Cells

*more numerous * able to preform mitosis * 1/2 of brain mass is glial cells *support, help and protect the neurons, guard, help, assist the neurons

Hypo-Kelemia

*too little extracellular K+ * more K+ leaves the cell causing depolarization or hyperrepolarization *ending with not enough for AP

Pia Mater

*very thin and clear layer *directly attached to the brain or spinal cord *Denticulate ligament connects it to the brain

Cranial Nerves

- 12 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain - have a word name and a roman numeral (I-XII, from anterior to posterior) - transmit and relay information to and from the brain analogous to the spinal nerves, except they do so by direction to the brain instead of the spinal cord.

Muscle spindles

- 3 to 10 striated muscle fiber enclosed by a loose connective tissue capsule, striated only at the ends, with sensory nerve endings in the center - proprioception associated with detection of muscle stretch; important for control of muscle tone - gives information about contraction and relaxation of the muscle fibers - sensation in muscles - provide information about length of muscles - involve in stretch reflex

Tropomyosin

- Blocks the myosin binding site on actin - Moving muscle protein - bluish rope - blocks the active sites of actin

Parasympathetic division

- Craniosacral division •Preganglionic cell bodies in nuclei of brainstem or lateral parts of spinal cord gray matter from S2 to S4 •Preganglionic axons from brain pass to terminal ganglia through cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X, where they synapse with postganglionic neurons •Preganglionic axons from sacral region pass through pelvic splanchnic nerves to terminal ganglia, where they synapse with postganglionic neurons •Terminal ganglia located near organ innervated or embedded in wall of organ - axons of the postganglionic neurons short distances from terminal ganglia to the effectors

Reticular fibers

- Fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched. Form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues. - mainly play a space-filling role in the body - found in the stroma of organs

Elastic fibers

- Fibers made of elastin - has the ability to return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality - like rubber bands - provide elasticity of skin, lungs, and arteries

Class II Levers

- Force of the weight is between the fulcrum and force ex. Wheelbarrow, Mandible, Tibia - work at a mechanical advantage - always STRONG - rarest in the human body - produce a great force (giant weight) with little muscular effort

Class I Levers

- Fulcrum between forces and weight ex. Seesaw - head movement at the atlantooccipital joint, Skull crushers - limited on how much weight can be lifted and how high - might be weak or strong depend on where the forces are - rare in the human body (most are weak) The fulcrum is located between the weight and the force. The force is directed downward, and the weight, on the opposite side of the fulcrum, is lifted. In the body, the fulcrum extends through several cervical vertebrae

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (2)

- Has 2 neurons - spits 2, releases neurotransmitter twice, 2 types of neurotransmitters

Melanocytes

- cells of epidermis - are about 10% of your epidermal cells - produce the pigment melanin, which contributes to skin color - mainly found in the stratum basale - produces the brown or black pigment melanin which gives us coloration

Troponin

- Moving proteins - pulled off Tropomyosin by Ca++ - binds calcium - moves tropomyosin aways - exposes active sites

Gomphoses

- Peg-in-socket joints of teeth in alveolar sockets - Fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament ex. dentoalveolar (class of fibrous joints)

Actin

- Protein of thin filaments - Has Tropomyosin and Troponin proteins on it - contains the active sites - thin myofilaments

Some cranial nerves are?

- Sensory only - Motor only - or Mixed

Sensory receptors

- Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation. - the dendrite end of a sensory neuron - goofy looking, sometimes has extra cell - are commonly classified by three criteria: 1. type of stimulus they detect 2. location in the body 3. receptor structure

Class III Levers

- The force of the muscle (pull) is in the middle ex. Biceps curls (with elbow as fulcrum), Using a shovel - work at a mechanical disadvantage - always WEAK - most common in the human body = longer limbs, faster body movements

Weight

- The lever moves at the hinge and can apply force to a? - the force applied to the lever.

Effector

- carries out the decision - such as sweat glands, can adjust the value of the variable when directed by the control center, usually back toward the set point

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

- a 3-D radiographic image of an organ, such as the brain, is made and stored in a computer. Then a radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, and a second radiographic computer image is made. The first image is -subtracted from the second one, greatly enhancing the differences revealed by the injected dye. These dynamic computer images are the most common way angioplasty, is performed. Angioplasty uses a tiny balloon to unclog an artery.

Aponeurosis

- a broad, sheetlike tendon composed of dense connective tissue - strong sheet of tissue that acts as a tendon to attach muscles to bone

Memory/Memory processing

- a collection, a group of neurons that fire in a specific order - the capacity to store knowledge for later retrieval - collection of neuron activity between groups of interconnected neurons -distributed in large network in the brain rather than confined to a particular storage area - divided into three stages 1. working 2. short-term 3. long term - declarative, procedural

Nervous system

- a major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions - consist of brain, spinal cord nerves, and sensory receptors

Endocrine system

- a major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions - consist of glands such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones ex. hypothalamus, pineal gland, thyroid, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries

Adaptation

- a reduction in sensitivity to as stimulus that is relatively constant and continuous - after exposure to a certain stimulus strength for a time, the response of the receptors or the sensory pathways lessen from when the stimulus was first applied - the local graded depolarization that produces a receptor potential adapts, or returns to its resting level, even though the stimulus is still applied - ex. a person gets dressed, receptors give awareness to the brain, overtime AP from the skin decrease, clothes are not perceived

Serous fluid

- a thin, clear liquid that serves as a lubricant between parietal and visceral membranes - reduces friction between organs

Synovial fluid

- a viscous lubricating film that covers the surfaces of a joint - complex mixture of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, cels derived from serum (blood fluid) filtrate, and secretions from synovial cells - hyaluronic acid provides much of the slippery consistency and lubricating qualities of - thick yellowish fluid

Adipose Connective Tissue

- acts as a storage depot for fat - has little extracellular matrix surrounding cells - full of lipid that the cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell Function: packing material, thermal insulation, energy storage, and protections of organs against injury from being bumped or jarred Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas, around kidneys, in mammary glands, attached to the surface of the colon

Tonic receptors

- almost always active (receptors) - sets the tone, background tone - always firing - generate action potentials as long as a stimulus is applied so that they adapt very slowly ex. Merkel disks and Ruffini end organs

Amyothrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

- also called Lou Gehrig disease - affects people between the ages 40 and 70 - begins with weakness and clumsiness and progresses within 2-5 years to loss of muscles control as both upper and lower motor neurons are selectively destroyed - lose their ability to stand, walk, use their hands, swallow, chew, and eventually to breathe - progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord

*Declarative memory

- also called explicit memory - involves the retention of facts you can easily state or declare - for example names, dates, and places involve declarative memory. - much is lost through time - things you see, hear, read - involves hippocampus and amygdala *hippocampus - is required for factual content, such as a person's name *amygdala - contributes emotional overtones to the memory, such as feelings or like or dislike associated with that person

Subcutaneous tissue

- also called hypodermis - a layer of loose connective tissue - is not part of the skin or the integumentary system, but it does connect the skin to underlying muscle or bone

*Procedural memory

- also called implicit or reflexive memory, involves the development of skills or procedures - is stored primarily in the cerebellum and the premotor area of the cortex - a small amount is lost though time - things that you do; ACTIONS ex. you learned how to take blood pressure through watching a video, you eventually execute what you learned - retain much better, easier, faster to make an engram

Elastic cartilage

- cartilage with abundant elastic fibers; more flexible than hyaline cartilage - provides rigidity with even more flexibility because elastic fibers return to their original shape after being stretched - found in external ears, epiglottis, auditory tubes

Memory engram

- also called memory trace - a network of neuron and their pattern of activity - is involved in the long-term retention of information, a thought, or an idea - strengthened synapse results in memory, process of strengthening=consolidation of memory - generated from memories of multiples features - smell, taste, emotion, etc-each from region responsible ex. picture of you professor's face, a group of interconnected neurons creates a memory of your professor's face

Insertion

- also called the fixed end - MOVING (pulling the _________ toward the origin) - is usually the distal end of the muscle attached to the bone being pulled toward the other bone of the joint

Sympathetic division of ANS

- also called the thoracolumbar division because of its anatomical organization and fight or flight because of it physiological influence. -the sympathetic preganglionic neurons are associated with the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, thus the name thoracolumbar, - Preganglionic cell bodies in lateral horns of spinal cord T1 to L2: thoracolumbar - axons of the preganglionic neurons exit through the ventral roots of spinal nerves T1-L2 - axons course through the spinal nerves for a short distance before they exit the nerves and project to sympathetic ganglia *2 types of sympathetic ganglia - sympathetic chain ganglia - collateral ganglia *Sympathetic Chain Ganglia - Originate in the thoracic and lumbar vertebral regions - sympathetic chain ganglia extend into the cervical and sacral regions - 3 pairs of cervical ganglia, 11 pairs of thoracic ganglia, 4 pairs of lumbar ganglia, and 4 pairs of sacral ganglia - White ramus communicans-connection between spinal nerve and sympathetic chain-preganglionic axons *Collateral Ganglia - unpaired ganglia located in the abdominopelvic cavity - pervertebral ganglia

Organ level

- an organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions - for example, the urinary bladder, heart, stomach, and lung

(4). Keratinocyte

- are about 90% of your epidermal cells - cells of epidermis - produces keratin (which makes the durable and resist abrasion and reduce water loss)

Computer Tomography (CT)

- are computer-analyzed x-ray images. A low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through a 360-degree arc around the patient, and the images are fed into a computer. The computer then constructs the image of a "slice" through the body at the point where the x-ray beam was focused and rotated (a). Some computers are able to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part (b).

(1). Tissues

- are groups of cells with similar structure and function - are collections of specialized cells and the extracellular substances surrounding them.

Desomosomes

- are like protein stitches - protein that extend from one cell to the other - are more of a structural component so they can hold cells really tightly - point of adhesion between cells, each contains a dense plate at the point of adhesion and a cementing extracellular material between the cells

Special senses

- are localized to specific organs that have specialized receptors - have special organs, feel them in one place - have localized receptors - include smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance

Levers

- are machines that consist of a rigid pole or beam that can pivot, or move, at a stationary hinge - muscles/tendons/bones act together as _________ systems move parts of the body or whole body

Sense

- are means by which the brain receives information about the environment and the body - they are divided into two groups general and special

(4). Glands

- are secretory glands composed of primarily epithelium, with a supporting network of connective tissue - individual cells or multicellular organs - perform a secretory functions - they produce mucin, hormones, enzyme, and waste product

Skeletal muscle

- attaches to the skeleton and enables the body to move - is under voluntary control to achieve specific body movements - are striated or banded Function: moves the body Location:attached to bone or other connective tissue

Ligaments

- band of connective tissue that hold bones together - restricts movement of the bone

Rods

- bipolar photoreceptor cells; black and white vision - found over most of retina, but not in fovea. - more sensitive to light than cones - protein rhodopsin changes shapes when struck by light; and eventually separates into two components: opsin and retinal - retinal can be converted to Vitamin A from which it was originally derived. In absence of light, opsin and retinal recombine to form rhodopsin - Rods are unusual sensory cells: when not stimulated they are depolarized. Light causes them to hyperpolarize. - Depolarization of rods causes depolarization of bipolar cells causing depolarization of ganglion cells - Light and dark adaptation: adjustment of eyes to changes in light. Happens because of changes in amount of available rhodopsin, pupil reflexes, and changes in level of photoreceptor function. *Photoreceptive end - cylindrical *Photoreceptor molecule - rhodopsin *Function - noncolor vision; vision under conditions of low light *Location - over most of retina; none in fovea centralis

Choroid

- black in color - covers all the surfaces of the eye except where the light pass through - like a black out curtain - very active melanocytes - associated with sclera. very thin, pigmented

Tendon

- connects each muscles to the bone - are composed of dense connective tissue and can be long and ropelike, broad and sheetlike

Collagen fibers

- consist of protein collagen - abundant protein in the body - is synthesized within fibroblasts and secreted into the extracellular space - are very strong and flexible, but are not very elastic

dense regular elastic connective tissue

- consists of parallel bundles of collagen fibers and abundant elastic fibers Function: able to stretch and recoil like a rubber band, with strength in the direction of fiber orientation Location: Vocal folds and elastic ligaments between the vertebrae and along the dorsal aspect of the neck

Integumentary System

- consists of the skin and accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails

Integumentary system

- consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, nails, and sweat glands - provide protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss and helps produce vitamin D

Dense irregular connective tissue

- contains protein fibers arranged as a meshwork of randomly oriented fibers

Pericardial cavity

- contains the heart - is housed in the mediastinum

Epithilial tissue

- covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body - forms body coverings and glands - tissue

Pleuresy

- damage to pleural membranes, so breathing is painful

Mesenteries of the stomach

- double folded visceral peritoneum attached to the digestive organs - provides pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs

Myeloblast

- early muscle cell - fusion creates the muscle cell with lots of nuclei

Cytology

- examines the structural features of cells - because cells are so small, they must be studied using a microscope

Respiratory system

- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. c - consists of the lungs and respiratory passages. ex. nose, nasal cavity, pharynx (throat), larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Multicellular exocrine glands

- exocrine gland - composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic organ

hyperopia

- farsightedness - don't bend enough, and don't come to focus too far back - can see distant objects clearly, but close objects appear blurry - the cornea and lens system is optically weak or the eyeball is too short - can be corrected by convex lenses that cause light rays to converge as they approach the eye - PLUS lenses

Macula

- where your cone cells are (for visual acuity) - sweet spot of vision - you prefer the vision to land on your retina - your focus on the image

1. Working memory

- is a task-associated memory - most is lost immediately - occurring when brain briefly stories information to perform a task, for example when memorizing phone numbers, codes, etc - transient, only last a few second to minutes but highly detailed - occurs most in frontal cortex - when new information is presented, or when the person is distracted, information previously stored in this memory is eliminated.

astigmatism

- is a type of refractive error that affect the quality of focus - if the cornea or lens is not uniformly curved, the light rays do not focus at a single point but fall as a blurred picture - can be corrected by glasses formed with the opposite curvature gradation

Responsiveness

- is an organism's ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes

Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

- is composed of cartilage cells within an extensive and relatively rigid matrix Consists of: protein fibers, ground substance, and fluid Fibers: collagen or mixture of collagen and elastic fibers - firmest structure in the body after bone

(12). Nervous tissue

- is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is characterized by the ability to conduct electrical signals called action potentials - contains neurons and glia

Dense irregular elastic connective tissue

- is found in the walls of elastic arteries - contains collagen fibers oriented in many directions as well as abundant elastic fibers

Chronic pain

- is long lasting - Not a response to immediate direct tissue injury. - Cerebrum and thalamus may malfunction and misinterpret discomfort as pain. - Brain as a whole may not properly regulate how much pain stimulation is allowed to penetrate to the cerebral cortex. - Migraine, back pain. - Associated with depression, frustration, helplessness, hopelessness.

Compact bone

- is more solid - almost no space between many thin layers, or lamallae of bone Function: produces new blood cell (red marrow); stores lipids (yellow marrow) - found within marrow cavities of bones

(10). Anatomical position

- is standing upright with palms facing forward - refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward

Areolar connective tissue

- is the "loose packing" material of most organs and other tissues - it attaches the skin to underlying tissues - contains collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers, and variety of cells Function: loose packing, support, and nourishment for the structure with which it is associated Location: Widely distributed through out the body; substance on which epithelial basement membranes rest; packing between glands, muscles, and nerves; attaches the skin to underlying tissues

Metabolism

- is the ability to use energy and to perform vital functions - refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism - is necessary for other vital functions

Morphogenesis (development)

- is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism

Reproduction

- is the formation new cells or new organisms - allows growth and development - all living organisms pass on their genes to their offspring

Cardiac muscle

- is the muscle of the heart - is under involuntary (unconscious control) - are striated and usually have one nucleus per cell - are often branched and connected to one another by intercalated disk Function: pumps the blood

(1). Anatomy

- is the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure-for example, the shape and size of bone - is the study of structure - naming parts - examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and its function

Physiology

- is the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things - the study of function - determines how things work

rheumatoid arthritis

- is the second most common type of arthritis 3% of women, 1% men - autoimmune disease against collagen, infection, genetic predisposition - connective tissue disorder that affects the skin, vessels, and other organ ... most obvious in joints

(2). Epidermis

- is the superficial layer of the skin, consisting of stratified squamous epithelium tissue - 40-45 layers of stratified squamous epithelium - avascular - good for regeneration - the multiple cell layers of the epidermis protects against the potential damage from abrasion on the skin's surface - reduces water loss through the skin - consist of apical and basal surface

2. Short-term memory

- lasts longer than working memory and can be stored from minutes to days - are stored by a mechanism involving increased synaptic transmission - is susceptible to brain trauma, such as physical injury or decreased oxygen, and to certain drugs that affect neural function, such as general anesthetics

Chemical level

- least organized - involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact, and combine into molecules (ex. forming of DNA)

Parietal pleura and visceral pleura

- lines chest cavity - lines the lungs - has space called pleural cavity-filled with pleural fluid

(11). Sebaceous glands

- located in the dermis - are simple or compound alveolar that produce sebum (an oily, white substance rich in lipids) - makes hair oil/ sebum - they are classified as holocrine glands - the secretion of sebum onto the hair and surrounding - skin prevents drying and protects against some bacteria

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

- maintains homeostasis of the body by regulating many involuntary activities, including heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, digestive processes, and urinary functions - part of motor division - controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands (involuntary targets) - subdivided into to sympathetic and parasympathetic - "all motor...all the time" - HAS 2 NEURONS - second neuron (autonomic ganglion) FLOW Preganglion neuron ~> postganglion neuron ~> target cell

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

- means fake - appear to be stratified but it is not - consist of one layer of cells, with all cells attached to the basement membrane - appear to be two r more layers of cells because some of the cells are tall and extend to the free surface, where others are shorter and do not extend to the free surface

Positive feedback (example)

- mechanism during blood loss, a chemical responsible for blood clot formation, called thrombin, stimulates production of even more thrombin - mechanism during birth-near the end of pregnancy, the baby's larger size stretches the uterus, which stimulates contractions of the uterine muscles, which then stimulates additional contractions to help push the baby - in kidney to form urine

Negative feedback (example)

- mechanism when maintaining normal body temperature - if body temperature rises sweat glands (the effectors) produce sweat and the body cools (normal body temperature is critical to our health because it allows molecules and enzymes to keep their normal shape so they can function optimally) - heart rate (when it goes down, you make it go up)

Sutures of the skull

- membraneous joint where 2 fetal skull bones meet - seams found only between the bones of the skull - when two bones grow across a joint to form a single joint - facilitate moulding during birth - slightly moveable joint ex. Coronal = front and parietal bone (class of fibrous joints)

apocrine secretion

- mode of secretion - involves - exocrine glands that have cytoplasm in their secretions - a portion of the cell containing secretory products is pinched off the cell

Merocrine secretion

- mode of secretion - involves the release of secretory products by exocytosis - is used by water-producing sweat glands and the exocrine portion of the gland cells - exocrine glands that secrete without losing cellular material - vesicles empty their contents into the duct through exocytosis

holocrine secretion

- mode of secretion - involves the shedding of entire cells - products accumulate un the cytoplasm of each epithelial cell, the cell ruptures and dies, and the entire cell becomes part of the secretion - is used by the sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin

Cell level

- molecules form organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, which make up cells - contains smaller structure called organelles

(7). Receptor

- monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature by detecting stimuli - works when you have something that tells homeostasis has changed

eccrine sweat glands (merocrine)

- most common sweat gland - releases just sweat - can be used during a lie detector test - it produces sweat when the body temperature starts to rise above normal - the sweat evaporates and cool the body

Connective tissue

- most diverse, abundant, widely distributed - is the "glue" and "filler" of the body ex. tendons, ligaments, fat, bones, cartilage, and blood

Organism level

- most organized - is any living thing considers as a whole-whether composed of one cell, such as bacterium, or of trillion of cells, such as a human - organ systems make up an organism

Conjunctiva

- mucous membrane - thin membrane that covers the anterior surface of your eyeball - skinny, clear, make your eye sparkle - Conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva caused by an infection or other irritation) *Pink eye - a type of conjunctivitis, acute contagious conjunctivitis - where contact lens sits on - mucous membrane covering the anterior surface of the eyeball and lining the lids - is a thin, transparent mucous membrane associated with the eyelids and the exposed area fo the eye *Palpebral conjunctiva - cover the inner surface of the eyelids *Bulbar conjunctiva - covers the anterior white surface of the eye *Conjunctival fornices -the point which the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae meet (superior and inferior)

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

- multiple layers of cells with tall, thin cells resting on layers of more cube-shaped cells Function: Protection, secretion Location: the male urethra, mammary gland ducts

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

- multiple layers of flattened epithelial cells; found in areas with lots of friction; found in the skin - can be nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

- multiple layers of somewhat cube-shaped cells Function: secretion, absorption, protection against infection Location: sweat gland ducts, protective tissue

Synergist

- muscle that assists a prime mover - muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation - muscle that works with other muscles to cause a movement - For example, the deltoid, biceps brachii, and pectoralis major all help flex the shoulder

Adrenergic neurons

- nerve fiber that secretes (spits) norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter substance

Cholinergic neurons

- nerve fiber that secretes acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter substance - spits out acetylcholine

Olfactory Nerve (I)

- no mitosis - slightly undifferentiated neuron (neurons the doesn't know what they're doing) Function : Sensory - sense of smell Consequence: Inability to smell

Referred pain

- pain that feels as if it is coming from some part of the body other than the part being stimulated - sensation in one region of body that is not source of stimulus. Organ pain usually referred to the skin. - Both the organ and that region of the skin innervated by neurons that project to same area of cerebral cortex - Superficial structures, more sensory receptors...brain more 'accustomed' to dealing with superficial stimuli

Digestive system

- performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. - consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

Anatomical anomalies

- physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern - for example, each kidney is normally supplied by one vessel, but in some individuals a kidney is supplied by two blood vessels - either way, the kidney receives adequate blood

Pain threshold

- physiological thing - the required amount of stimulus for you to cause action potentials ex. hitting face really hard (if it hurts you, it will hurt the same amount to others) - point along a curves of increasing perception of a stimulus at which pains begins to be felt

Mast cells

- play important roles in inflammation - contains chemicals, such as heparin, histamine, and proteolytic enzyme, that are released in response to injury, such as trauma and infection

Male reproductive system

- produce and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors - consists of testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis

Muscular System

- produces body movements, generates heat when muscles contract, and maintains posture - consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons ex. temporalis, biceps brachii, rectus abdominis

Bone marrow

- produces new blood cells (red marrow); stores lipid (yellow marrow) Location: within marrow cavities of bone

Female reproductive system

- produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. - consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures.

(6). Keratinization

- production of keratin and changes in the chemical and structural character of epithelial cells as they move to the skin surface (as keratinocytes move from the deeper epidermal layers to the surface, the cell change shape and chemical composition, through this process)

Skeletal system

- provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and adipose (fat). - consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints ex. skull, ribs, sternum, clavicle, femur, tibia, fibula, radius

Pain tolerance

- psychological thing - maximum level of pain that a person is able to tolerate *females have HIGHER pain tolerance

Normal range

- range of values around the set point

Anaxonic nueron

- rare - no axon

Cholinergic receptors

- receives acetylcholine

Adrenergic receptors

- receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine - receives norepinephrine

Growth

- refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which, produces an overall enlargement of all or part of an organism - an increase in the materials surrounding cells can also contribute to growth

Organization

- refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism an how those parts interact to perform specific functions - cellular function depends on the precise organization of large molecules - disruption can result in loss of functions, or even death

Lymphatic system

- removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. - consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs. ex. tonsils, thymus, mammary plexus, thoracic duct, spleen

Urinary system

- removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. - consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine.

3. Long-term memory

- requires the prior formation of short-term memory - more stable storage state that lasts from days to years or a lifetimes - are stabilized by the formation of additional synaptic connection following new protein synthesis - are more resistant to disruption by brain trauma

Thermoreceptors

- respond to temperature as a stimulus - hot and cold stimulus - responds to changes in temperature at the site of the receptor and are necessary for the sense of temperature

Chemoreceptors

- responds to chemical as a stimulus - smell and taste depends on?

Photoreceptors

- responds to light as a stimulus - respond to light striking the receptor cells and are necessary for vision

Nociceptors

- responds to pain - stimulus that is strong to cause tissue damage - responds when you say "ouchh" - or pain receptors - respond to extreme mechanical, chemical, and thermal stimuli - most sensory typically respond to one type of stimulus except? where they respond to more than one

Mechanoreceptors

- responds to touch or pressure as a stimulus - ex. touching the desk, flicking your shoulder - respond to mechanical force such as compression, bending, or stretching of cells - the sense of touch, pressure, proprioception, hearing, and balance all depend on a variety of this receptor

Extrinsic regulation (homeostasis regulation)

- responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems - a process that results from the activities of the nervous system (fast acting, short lived) or endocrine system (slow acting, last longer)

color blindness

- result from the dysfunction of one or more of three photopigments (red, green, blue) involved in color vision - complete or partial absence of perception of one or more colors; most from are more frequent in males

acinar or alveolar glands

- secretory gland that are saclike shape

Proprioception

- sensory information from mechanoreceptor that tells you about your position ex. the position of your leg - is the aware ness of the position of your various body parts

(13). Sagittal plane

- separates the body or a structure into right and left halves - refers to the way the body would split by an arrow passing anteriorly to posteriorly

Cuboidal

- shape of cell - cells are cube-shaped- about as wide as they are tall

Squamouse

- shape of cell - cells are flat or scalelike

Lens

- started out as a whole bunch of epithelial cell - overtime they lose all their cell parts (nuclei), then they form proteins called crystallines, ended up with a clear protein - is transparent and biconvex, with the greatest convexity on its posterior side - layer of cuboidal epithelial cells, and it posterior region contains very long, columnar epithelial cells called lens fibers - is covered by a highly elastic, transparent capsule

Transitional epithelium

- stratified cells that appear cube-shaped when the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ or tube is stretched by fluid Function: stretches readily to hold the area Location Lining of the urinary bladder, lining of the ureters

Gross Anatomy

- study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye - structure that can be examined without the aid of a microscope - can be approached either systematically or regionally

Control center

- such as part of the brain, determined the set point for the variable and received input from the receptor about the variable - decides what to do with the change

Peritoneal cavity

- surround your abdominal areas - houses many internal organs, such as the liver, the digestive organs, and the reproductive organs

Golgi tendon organs

- surrounds a bundle of tendon fasciculi and is enclosed by a delicate connective tissue capsule; nerve terminations are branched, with small, swelling applied to individual tendon fasciculi - proprioception associated with the stretch of a tendon; important for control of muscle contraction - gives sensory info about the tightness or looseness of the tendon - respond to increased tension on tendon

dilator pupillae

- sympathetic innervation (excited, in pain) - radial muscle will pull outward, making the pupil larger or dilated

Hair follicle receptors

- tactile receptor - as the hair moves = the hair follicle moves = neuron starts to fire (reaches threshold) - wrapped around hair follicles or extending along the hair axis; each axon supplies several hairs, and each hair receives branches from several neurons, resulting in considerable overlap - function: light touch; responds to very slight bending of hair - very sensitive

Ruffini end organ

- tactile receptor - branching axon with numerous small, terminal knobs, surrounded by a connective tissue capsule - primarily in dermis of fingers - respond to pressure on skin directly superficial to receptor and stretch of adjacent skin - function: continuous touch or pressure; responds to depression or stretch of the skin

Free nerve endings

- tactile receptor - branching, no capsule - respond to pain, itch, tickle, temperature, joint movement, and proprioception - looks like dendrites - simplest, most common sensory receptor - scattered though most of body - respond to 3 types of temperature sensations 1. cold receptor - activated by menthol - mint cold taste, most numerous 2. warm receptor 3. pain - responds to cold or heat, activated by capsaicin

Merkel disk

- tactile receptor - consist of flattened expansion at the end of axons; each expansion is associated with a Merkel cell - axonal branches end as flattened expansions, each associated with Merkel cell - basal layer of epidermis, superficial to basement membrane - function - light touch and superficial pressure - very sensitive

Pacinian (lammellated) corpuscles

- tactile receptor - onion shaped capsule composed of several cell layers with a single central nerve process - located within the subcutaneous tissue - function: deep cutaneous pressure; vibration - when associated with joints, involved in propioception

Meissner corpuscles

- tactile receptor - several branches of a single axon associated with specialized schwann cells and surrounded by a connective tissue capsule - two-point discrimination (fine touch) - is the ability to detect simultaneous stimulation of meissner corpuscles in two distinct receptor fields by touching at two points on the skin - used to determine texture of objects - numerous and close together on tongue and fingertips ex. fabric felt onto your skin (two point discrimination)

postganglionic neurons

- the autonomic ganglion contains the cell body of the second neuron of the series called? - Preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic in the autonomic ganglia. - the axons of postganglionic neuron extend from autonomic ganglia to effector organs and synapse with their target tissue - is unmyelinated ~> uses continuous conduction

(7). Extracelullar Matrix

- the composition of the noncellular substances surrounding the cells - is all the material you find outside of a cell and a tissue - fills that tissue or the cells - could be water, protein, or fat - usually includes a large amount of extracellular material produced by the connective tissue cells that are embedded within it. - major component of the matrix is a ground substance often crisscrossed by protein fibers

Transduction

- the conversion of a stimulus into an action potential

Parasympathetic nervous system

- the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy - subdivision of the autonomic nervous system; characterized by having the cell body bodies of its preganglionic neurons located in the brainstem and sacral region of the spinal cord (craniosacral division); usually involved in activating vegetative functions, such as digestion, defecation, and urination - activated during rest and digestion - the three Rs (rest,relax,..)

Preganglionic neurons

- the first neuron of the series - its cell body is located in the CNS within either the brainstem or the lateral horn of the spinal cord gray matter, and its axon extends to an autonomic ganglion located outside the CNS - is myelinated (has Schwann cells) ~> uses saltatory conduction

* Long-term potentiation

- the formation of short-term memory involves the enhancement of synaptic activity by? - repetition - is the facilitation of the future transmission of action potentials - by increasing the number of branches - either increase the number of pre-synaptic vesicles that carry neurotransmitters - or in the dendrites, adding more receptors found in the receiving neuron (such as glutamate) - involves the activation of protein kinases by calcium

Origin

- the head of the muscle (where it starts) - NOT MOVING - also called the fixed end - is usually the most stationary, proximal end of the muscle - some muscles have more than one __________? ex. triceps brachii has three ________ that join together to form one muscle. In this case of multiple ________, each ______ is called a head

Receptor potential

- the local/graded potential in a receptor neuron - maybe it reaches threshold or maybe it doesn't (graded)

*Consolidation

- the process of transferring short-term memory to long-term memory - is a gradual process involving the formation of new and stronger synaptic connections that can occur over a period of year and probably involves multiple steps - making new synapse; extending dendrites - makes the final form of the engram - requires repeating the information and associating it with existing memories or a strong emotion - process involves synthesis of new proteins that increase the number and size of synaptic contacts and increases synaptic transmission of long-term potentiation -cAMP and calcium signaling pathways turn on genes that encode proteins involved in synapse formation

Bilateral symmetry

- the property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane - two sided symmetry - type of symmetry shown by human body

Physiology (goals)

- to understand and predict the body's responses to stimuli - to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment

Cardiovascular system

- transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. - consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. ex. carotid artery, jugular vein, superior vena cava, abdominal aorta

Pleural cavities (thoracic cavity)

- two lateral cavities, each of which encloses a lung, and are surrounded by the ribs

melanoma (malignant melanoma)

- type of cancer - is the least common - most dangerous - crazy mitosis goin on

Reticular Tissue

- type of loose connective tissue that provides a supportive framework to soft organs, such as lymphatic tissue, spleen, bone marrow, and the liver - characterized by a network of reticular fibers and reticular cells.

squamous cell carcinoma

- type of skin cancer - start in the stratum spinosum - more likely to spread - wart-like growth - may bleed - treated by removal or destruction

basal cell carcinoma

- type of skin cancer - starts in the stratum basale - the most common type - treated by cutting off - rarely spread

Neuron cell body or soma

- typical cell functions such as protein synthesis and housekeeping; contain Nissl bodies (rough ER)

simple glands

- unbranched duct (sweat gland) - structure of exocrine

Ultrasound

- uses high-frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over the area to be scanned. The sound waves strike internal organs and bounce back to a receiver on the skin - once a computer analyzes the pattern of sound waves, the information is transferred to a monitor to be visualized as a SONOGRAM (son′ō-gram) image.

Anatomical Imaging

- uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures

Cornea (Fibrous tunic)

- very dense - epithelial cell on the side (stratified squamous on front side of cornea, simple squamous on the back side of cornea - mostly made out of collagen (clear) - a little bit of elastin and proteoglycans - transparent portion of the fibrous tunic that makes up the outer wall of the anterior portion of the eye - is an avascular, transparent structure that permits light to enter the eye - as light passes through the cornea, the lights bends, or refracts, then hits the lens which bents it more and sends it backwards - is part of the focusing system

Nervous tissue response to injury

- when a nerve is cut, either it eventually heals or it is permanently damaged - the final outcome depends on the severity of the injury and on it treatment 2 outcome 1. axons are aligned in close proximity - healing and regeneration occur - hypertrophy 2. axons are not aligned in close proximity - regeneration is unlikely to occur - muscle function is completly lost, and the muscle remains atrophied

Autoregulation (Intrinsic regulation (homeostasis regulation))

- when a tissue, an organ, or an organ system regulate itself - automatic response in cell, tissue, or organ to environmental change

Dermis

- where the epidermis rests - a layer of connective tissue - structure of the dermis is responsible for most of the strength of the skin

Location of ganglia

- where the preganglionic neuron spits neurotransmitter to post ganglion - Parasympathetic ganglia are located in or near the their visceral effector organ Sympathetic ganglia lie close to spinal cord (TERMINAL) - Sympathetic ganglia are located in the sympathetic chain

Joint

- where two or more bone meet - portions of bone are join together - aka articulaation

compression

1330-2100 kg/cm2 →←

Sclera (Fibrous tunic)

- white part of the eye - hard - contains white collagen - is a firm, opaque tissue layer that consist of dense collagenous connective tissue with elastic fibers - help maintain the shape of the eyeball, protects its internal structure, and provides an attachment point for the muscles that move it

Fulcrum

- your joints-acts as a? - the point on which a lever rests or is supported and on which it pivots. - the point at which the lever rotates. - THE GREATEST FORCE IS THE ONE FOUND CLOSEST TO THE _________

Columnar

-shape of cell - cells tend to taller than they are wide

1. Compare and contrast the human somatic and autonomic nervous system (Fig 16.1, Table 16.1)

1

1. Describe the anatomy of those special sensory organs discussed in lecture

1

1. List all 12 cranial nerves by name or number and give the function for each.

1

Chapter 14

14

Chapter 15

15

Chapter 16

16

(1-2). Describe how muscles are named, Given the name of a muscle, be able to make predictions about the location, action, size, or structure of the muscle

1-2

(1). List and describe each of the functional and structural classifications of human joints

1.

The contraction of a skeletal muscle cell

1. A motor neuron releases ACh into the synaptic cleft of the neuromuscular junction. 2. ACh binds to the ligand/chemically - gated Na+ channels of the sarcolemma causing them to open. 3. Na+ (previously pumped out by the Na+ K+ pump) will rush into the cell from the extracellular fluid. This influx of Na+ is called a "local" or "graded" potential. 4. If the local potential is strong enough (if enough Na+ gets in), this will trigger the opening of the voltage - gated Na+ channels of the sarcolemma. Once the voltage - gated channels start to open...they will all open in a self -propagating, unstoppable wave all over the sarcolemma and down the T - tubules. This is called an Action Potential. 5. The voltage wave passing down the T - tubules will trigger the opening of the voltage - gated Ca++ channels found on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). 6. Ca++ that was stored in the SR will rush out into the sarcoplasm. 7. The Ca++ will bind to troponin proteins and the troponins will "change position"/ "pivot"/ "roll over"/ "fall down" pulling the tropomyosin proteins off of the active sites on the actin filaments. 8. Once the active sites are exposed the myosin heads will attach to and "pull" or "ratchet" the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. [this would be that "sliding filament" idea]

1. Agonist and 2.Antagonist

1. Agonist - muscle that, when it contracts, causes an action 2. Antagonist - muscles that works in opposition to another muscle - a muscle workin in opposition to agonist Example: Flexion of arm (bicep curl) - biceps brachii are agonist Extension of arm (bowling ball throw) - biceps brachii is the antagonist, triceps brachii is agonist

Human synapses types

1. Chemical-ligand synapse: spits out ligand- nerve does not tough the cell 2. Electrical synapse: through a gap junction- cell and nerve are touching

(3). Define: Uniaxial, biaxial, multiaxial joints

3

3. Compare and contrast the anatomy of the throacolumbar and craniosacral division

3

Direct pathway (Descending Spinal Pathways) - Conscious, skilled movement

1. Corticospinal tract - movement below the head, especially of the hands 2. Lateral - movements of the neck, trunk, upper and lower limbs, especially the fingers (ex typing and push-ups) 3. Anterior - movements of the neck and trunk (ex. moving with a hula hoop) 4. Corticobulbar tract - movements of the head and face (ex. facial expression and chewing)

Type of sensory receptors based on their location

1. Cutaneous receptor - associated with the skin; provides information about the external environment 2. Visceroreceptors - associated with the viscera or organs; provide information about the internal environment 3. Proprioceptors - associated with joints, tendons, and other connective tissue; provide information about body position, movement, and the extent of stretch or the force of muscular contractions.

Action Potential Speed influenced by

1. Diameter of Axon: bigger=faster- has less resistance to electricity 2. Myelin sheath or not: myelin sheath=faster- basically insulation Action potential travels fast under the myelin sheath and slower under the Nodes of Ranveir

Dorsal-Column/Medial Lemniscal System (Ascending Spinal Pathways)

1. Fasciculus gracilis - propioception, two-point discrimination, pressure, and vibration from inferior half of body 2. Fasciculus cuteatus - proprioception, two-point discrimination, pressure and vibration from superior half of body

Myosin use of ATP during muscle contraction

1. Grab and pull active site 2. Release and Re-cock Uses 1 ATP per every grab and pull but will NOT release until a new ATP is supplied.

Type of stimulus they detect

1. Mechanoreceptors 2. Thermoreceptors 3. Photoreceptors 4. Chemoreceptors 5. Nociceptors

Describe how muscles are named

1. Location 2. Action 3. Size 4. Origin and Insertion of the Muscle 5. Shape 6. Fiber Patterns

Spinocerebellar Tract (Ascending Spinal Pathways)

1. Posterior - proprioception 2. Anterior - propioception

The contraction of a skeletal muscle cell (relaxation phase)

1. Right after it is released, ACh starts to be broken down by the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which is found floating around in the synaptic cleft and on the sarcolemma. 2. Once the ACh is broken down the ligand/chemically - gated Na+ channels will close. 3. Na+ stops rushing into the cell. 4. The voltage - gated Na+ and voltage - gated Ca++ channels will also close. 5. The SR will actively pump the Ca++ ions back in. 6. The troponins and tropomyosins will move back into their normal positions covering up the active sites. 7. Since the myosin heads can no longer attach to the actins they will "slide" back into their normal position. ***What about K+? Wasn't there a bunch of K+ in the intracellular fluid at the start of this whole thing? What happens to it? *****There are also voltage-gated K+ ion channels all over the sarcolemma (just like there are voltage-gated Na+ channels). They open as part of the Action Potential too, but they are sluggish, slow channels compared to the others. So K+ does leave the cell...so we end up with Na+ on the inside and K+ on the outside. The Na+/K+ Pump will move them back to where they started...re-establishing the RMP.

Indirect pathway (Descending Spinal Pathways) - unconscious movements

1. Rubrospinal - movement coordination (ex. positioning of digits and the palm of the hand when reaching out to grasp) 2. Vestibulospinal - maintenance of upright posture and balance (ex. extension of the upper limbs when falling) 3. Reticulospinal - posture adjustment and walking (ex. maintenance of posture when standing on one foot) 4. Tectospinal - movement of the head and neck in response to visual and auditory reflexes (movement of the head and neck aways from a sudden flash of light)

Functions of cranial nerves could be?

1. Sensory - special senses, such as vision, and the more general senses, such as touch and pain 2. Somatic motor - function involve the control of skeletal muscles through motor neurons. 3. Parasympathetic - function involve the regulations of glands, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscle.

Routes taken by sympathetic axons

1. Spinal nerves •preganglionic axons synapse (at the same or different level) with postganglionic neurons within the sympathetic chain •Postganglion neurons exit the ganglia through the gray rami communicans and re-enter spinal nerves •postganglionic axons project through the spinal nerve to the skin and blood vessels of skeletal muscles 2. Sympathetic nerves •preganglionic axons enter sympathetic chain, synapse (at the same or different level) at sympathetic chain ganglion with postganglionic neurons •which exit the ganglia through sympathetic nerves-supply organs in the thoracic cavity; composed of postganglionic axons 3. Splanchnic nerves •preganglionic axons pass through the chain ganglia without synapsing •Exit at same/different level=splanchnic nerves-contain preganglionic axons •Preganglionic axons synapse with postganglionic neurons in collateral ganglia •Axons of postganglionic neurons to target organs (viscera) via small nerves 4. Innervation to the adrenal gland •splanchnic nerve BUT preganglionic axons synapse with the cells of the adrenal medulla, not the sympathetic chain ganglia or in collateral ganglia •epinephrine and norepinephrine; act as hormones promoting physical activity.

Anterolateral System (Ascending Spinal Pathways)

1. Spinothalamic tract - Pain, temperature, light, touch, pressure, tickle, and itch 2. Spinoreticular tract - Pain 3. Spinomesencephalic tract - Pain and touch

Fiber pattern examples (Describe how muscles are named)

1. Transverse 2. Oblique - angled direction to structure 3. Rectus - straight and same direction of structure with which muscle is associated

Neuron Repair

1. axon and nerve distal to injury break into irregular segments and degenerate--Macrohpages invade to phagocytize the myelin 2. Schwann cells enlarge, undergo mitosis and form a column of cells along the regions that were occupied by the axon 3. at the end of regenerating axon, axonial sprouts are formed. Takes 2 weeks for sprouts to enter schwann cell columns 4. New myelin sheath forms and the neurons reinervate back to where they were.

3. Describe the process by which light is converted into action potentials of the optic n

3

What happens to neurotransmitters after they are released?

1. enzymes degrades the neurotransmitter 2. neurotransmitter is taken back to the neuron that released it 3. they just float off

Initiation of action potential

1. graded potential: Na+ rushing though Na stimulated ion channels 2. voltage gated channels open and Na+ comes rushing in, which opens Ca++ voltage gated channels 3. voltage gated Ca++ channels close 4. K+ leaving through voltage gated K+ channels

endochondral ossification steps

1. hyaline cartilage models are formed in early embryo; chondrocytes enlarge and surround cartilage begins to calcify; chondrocytes die and disintegrate leaving cavities (no blood flow) 2. a bone collar forms around the hyaline cartilage shaft; the cells of the inner perichondrium differentiate into osteoblasts and these cells from bone matrix (no blood flow) 3. the hyaline cartilage in the center of the shaft calcifies, becoming the Center of Ossification; vessels and fibroblasts invade the head of the cartilage; calcified cartilaginous matrix breaks down and fibroblasts convert into osteoblasts and lay down spongy bone; no medullary cavity (blood flow) 4. remodeling and formation of the medullary cavity; osteoclasts break down the spongy bone in the center of the shaft creating the medullary cavity; increased growth in length and diameter 5. secondary ossification centers calcify the epiphyses; capillaries and osteoblasts migrate to the epiphyses and begins to ossify 6. articular cartilage (ends of each side) remains exposed to joint cavities and the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) separates the diaphysis (shaft) from the epiphysis; articular cartilage prevents bone-to-bone contact, and the epiphyseal plate allows bone lengthening

Describe the functions of the human muscular system

1. movement 2. stability/posture 3. guarding entrances/exits of the body 4. heat production 5. nutrient reserve

Describe the process of intramembranous ossification

1. osteocytes are surrounded by bone matrix and osteoblasts are forming a ring on the outer surface of the trabeculae. As the osteoblast lay down bone, the trabeculae increase in size 2. spongy bone forms as the trabeculae join together; resulting in an interconnected network of trabeculae separated by spaces 3. within the spongy bone are trabeculae and developing red bone marrow. Beneath the periosteum is an outer layer of developing compact bone.

Reflex Arc

1. sensory receptors detects a stimulus 2. sensory neuron conducts AP through the nerve and dorsal root to the spinal cord 3. in the spinal cord the sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron 4. the interneuron synapses with a motor neuron 5. motor neuron axon conducts AP through the neutron root and spinal nerve to effector organ

neuromuscular junction and acetylcholine

1.An action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal and causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the presynaptic membrane to open. 2.Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal and initiate the release of the acetylcholine (ACh) from synaptic vesicles. 3.ACh is released into synaptic cleft by exocytosis. 4.ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels on the postsynaptic membrane. 5.Ligand-gated Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the postsynaptic cell, causing the postsynaptic membrane to depolarize. If depolarization passes threshold, an action potential is generated along the postsynaptic membrane. 6.ACh unbinds from the ligand-gated Na+ channels, which then close. 7.The enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is attached to the postsynaptic membrane, removes acetylcholine from the synaptic cleft by breaking it down into acetic acid and choline. 8.Choline is symported with Na+ into the presynaptic terminal, where it can be recycled to make ACh. Acetic acid diffuses away from the synaptic cleft. 9.ACh is reformed within the presynaptic terminal using acetic acid generated from metabolism and from choline recycled from the synaptic cleft. Ach is then taken up by synaptic vesicles.

(10). List and describe the 3 types of arthritis

10

(2). Diagram and describe the structure of typical synovial joint

2

2. Compare and contrast general and special senses

2

2. Compare and contrast the anatomy and physiology of human rods and cones

2

2. Define

2

(3). Define

3

Spinal Nerve Naming

31 pairs Columns of white matter Gray Matter looks like butterfly

Spinal Nerves

31 pairs- *inferior tip of spinal cord stops at L2 *Nervous tissue extends below L2 (loose nerves called horses tail and connective tissue that anchors to coccygeal vertebra called terminal filament that holds the bottom of spinal cord

(composition of human bony matrix) organic material

35% the material consist primarily of collagen and proteoglycans

(4). Classify any muscle you see according to its fiber pattern

4

(4). Define and demonstrate each of the types of joint movements

4

4. Define

4

4. Define and describe sensory adaptation/accommodation

4

4. Describe both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous control in the human body

4

(5). List each of the structural classifications of synovial joints and be able to list example of each 1. plane 2. saddle 3. hinge 4. pivot 5. ball-and-socket 6. ellipsoid

5

5. Describe the tactile receptors found in the skin and the stimuli that each will respond to. (Fig. 14.2 and Table 14.2)

5

5. List and describe the various types of autonomic receptors discussed in this chapter

5

(5-6). Explain how human muscles and bones act as levers Define and give human examples of each of the three classes of levers

5-6

tension

620-1100 kg/cm2 ↑ ↓

(7). Define: luxation and subluxation, rotator cuff injury (beyond normal range of motion)

7

7. Describe the anatomy and physiology of the semicircular canals and the vestibule

7

7. List the ascending pathways (Table 14.3) and descending pathways (Table 14.4) of the human spinal cord by name and sensation/action only

7

(8,9). Describe inn detail the human knee joint, describe its movements and the various ways this joint can be injured

8

8. Define

8

Action Potential

A Self-Propagating unstoppable, depolarization of cell membrane that starts with the first voltage Na+ channel. Follows the "all or nothing" principle

herniated disc

A condition which refers to a problem with a rubbery disk between the spinal bones.

Cancer

A disease in which some body cells grow and divide uncontrollably, damaging the parts of the body around them. - is identified and classified based on characteristic changes in tissues

cupula

A gelatin-like structure containing a tuft of hairlike sensory receptor cells in the semicircular canals. - is in the ampulla - endolymph in the semicircular causes the movement of the cupula - liquid moving around causes dizziness

Benign tumor

A mass of abnormal cells with specific genetic and cellular changes such that the cells are not capable of surviving at a new site and generally remain at the site of the tumor's origin.

Sensory Division

Afferent - transmits electrical signals from specialized receptors in the body towards the CNS - sensory receptor detect stimuli, send input along nerves, generate a response

(3). 1. are organized 2. show some form of metabolism 3. can respond 4. can grow 5. have some form of development 6. can reproduce

All living things........

Myasthenia gravis

Antibodies bind to ACh receptors that destroy the receptors and reduce the number of receptors. Symptoms weak muscles and flaccid paralysis

Facial Nerve (VII)

Bell's Palsy - paralysis on side of face, drooping Functions: Mixed Motor - motor to facial expressions, throat Sensory - anterior tongue and palate (roof of mouth, no taste bud, only sensations

Cones

Bipolar receptor cells. Responsible for color vision and visual acuity. •Numerous in fovea and macula lutea; fewer over rest of retina. •As light intensity decreases, so does our ability to see color. •Visual pigment is iodopsin: three types that respond to blue, red, and green light. •Overlap in response to light, thus interpretations of gradation of color possible: several millions. *Photoreceptive end - conical *Photoreceptor molecule - iodopsin *Function - color vision: visual acuity *Location - numerous in fovea central and macula

Convergent (fiber pattern)

Broadly distributed fascicles converge at a single tendon - coming from one point Examples: Pectoralis major, Pectoralis minor

Oligodendrocyte

Cell that make up the myelin sheath *all over branching cell *Surround a certain part of neuron making action potentials go faster *found in CNS

Premotor Area

CPG--central pattern generator: more complex motor behaviors (playing music, typing etc)

internal hydrocephalus

CSF cannot exit the brain because the 4th ventricle and cerebral aqueduct are blocked

External Hydrocephalus

CSF cannot return to circulation, CSF is back up in the subarachnoid

Hydrocephalus

CSF not flowing through the brain properly

Sympathetic Division

Cardiac/smooth muscle and glands 3 F's (fight, flight, freeze) - is controlled in high stress - emotional response - high heart rate

Parasympathetic Division

Cardiac/smooth muscle and glands 3 R's (rest, Repair and repose) - rest and digest

Parkinson's disease

Cause: - Defective inhibition of basal nuclei by substantia nigra of the midbrain - Death of dopamine-containing neurons in substantia nigra - Cause of this death unknown Treatment: - Levodopa-precursor to dopamine - Sinemet-combo of levodopa and carbidopa - Carbidopa-prevents L-dopa from breaking down before it reaches the brain - Protein Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor selectively promotes survival of dopamine-secreting neurons - Fetal tissue/stem cell transplant of adult tissue able to produce dopamine may be the future

Stratum basale

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - deepest stratum of the epidermis - single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells - basement membrane of the epidermis attaches to the dermis (by hemidesmosomes) - a layer of cuboidal keratinocytes - lots of mitosis - EGF (epidermal growth factor, a protein that trigger mitosis)) Function: - produces cells of the most superficial strata - melanocytes produce and contribute melanin, which protects against ultraviolet light

Stratum corneum

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - most superficial stratum of the epidermis - 25 or more layers of dead squamous cells - consist of cornified cells (dead keratinocytes) Function: - provides structural strength due to keratin within cells - prevents water loss due to lipids surrounding cells - sloughing (shed or remove) off of most superficial (existing or occurring at or on the surface) cells

Stratum lucidum

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - three to five layers of dead cells - appears transparent, clear - present in thick skin - absent in most thin skin Function: - disperses keratohyalin around keratin fibers

Stratum granulosum

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - two to five layers of flattened, diamond-shaped cells - stops mitosis - Keratohyalin granules production (links together keratin proteins and causes the cells to de-hydrate) - is where KERATINOCYTES DIE (comes in alive, comes out dead) Function: - produces keratin fibers - lamellar bodies release lipids from cells - cells die

Reticular layer

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - consists of skin accessory structures - mat of collagen and elastic fibers - dense irregular connective tissue Function: - is the main fibrous layer of the dermis - strong in many directions - forms cleavage lines

(3). Epidermis

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - superficial part of skin - stratified squamous epithelium - composed of four or five strata Function: - prevents water loss and the entry of chemicals and microorganisms - protects against abrasion and harmful effects of ultraviolet light - produces vitamin D - gives rise to hair nails, and glands

Papillary layer

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - Papillae project toward the epidermis - loose connective tissue Function: - contains blood vessels that supply the overlying epidermis with O2 and nutrients, removes waste products, and aid regulating body temperature - dermal papillae form fingerprints and footprints (friction ridges) (comes from papilla lining up, happens during development)

Dermis

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - deep part of skin - connective tissue - composed of two layers Function: - is responsible for the structural strength and flexibility of the skin - the epidermis exchanges gases, nutrient, and waste products with blood vessels in the dermis

Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)

Comparison skin/subcutaneous Structure: - not part of the skin loose connective tissue with abundant deposits of adipose tissue Function: - attaches the dermis to underlying structure - adipose tissue provides energy storage, insulation, and padding - blood vessels and nerves from the subcutaneous tissue supply the dermis

Eccentric Muscle contraction

Constant tension but opposing resistance is great enough to cause the muscle to increase in length. Produces substantial force

Isotonic muscle contractions

Constant tension during contraction but the length changes Example: upper limb and finger movement

Cell body

Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.

Muscle Fibers

Contractile/contractility: ability of muscle to shorten with force Extensible/extensibility: Able to extend and get longer, stretched beyond its normal resting length and still be able to contract Elastic: go back to normal length, recoil to original resting length Excitable/excitability: ability to respond to and generate electro-chemical signal, respond to stimulus Some of the longest cells- average length is 10 cm Multi-nucleate: have more than one nucleus by fusion of myoblast - contains cylinders to cylinders

Single twitch

Contracts and relax once- Only requires one stimulus

Enteric Divison

Controls smooth muscles in digestive organs

Periosteal Dura

Cranial meninges, outer periosteum of cranial bones

Sources of ATP in Muscle Cell

Creatin Phosphate and Myoglobin

The keratinocytes of the epidermis are constantly lost at its surface but are constantly replaced by new keratinocytes moving from deeper layers. These new keratinocytes are produced when keratinocyte stem cells undergo mitosis in the deepest layer of the epidermis. As new cells form, they push older cells to the surface, where they slough off. The outermost cells in this stratified arrangement protect the cells underneath, and the deeper, replicating cells replace cells lost from the surface

Describe how the epidermis grows

Depressant (drugs)

Decrease number of action potentials

Define

Define

Shape example (Describe how muscles are named)

Deltoid - triangle Quadratus - rectangle Teres - Circle Trapezius - trapezoid Deltoid - diamond Rhomboid - rhombus

Neuron Structure

Dendrites, Axon Hillock, Axon, Nodes of Ranvier, Presynaptic terminals,

Local / Graded Potential

Depolarization happens at the neuromuscular junction

Local depolarization

Depolarization that happens in one spot

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Embedded in the sarcolemma and breaks down ACh

1. Mostly composed of cells (cellularity)- consists almost entirely of cells 2. Covers body surfaces - covers body surfaces and forms glands that are derives developmentally from body surfaces (exterior surface, the lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood vessels, and the lining of the body cavities 3. Distinct tissue surfaces (polarity) - tissue has different side (top and bottom) where they attach to underlying cells 4. Cell and matrix connection - specialized cell contacts bind adjacent epithelial cell together and to the extracellular matrix of the basement membrane 5. Avascular - no blood vessels are found in epithelial tissue, must be nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues, epithelia are supplied by nerve fiber which involves receiving information. If an epithelial tissue is cut, it won't bleed until it reaches the connective tissue that have blood vessels 6. Regeneration - has the ability to regenerate and replace damaged cells with new ones.

Epithelial tissue characteristics

Cerebral Aneurysm

Excessive dilation or ballooning of an artery

Effects of exercise on human skeletal muscle system

Exercise increases: muscle size, strength and endurance. Increases myofibrils and sarcomeres, blood vessels, connective tissue and mitochondria

3rd degree burn

Full thickness damage through skin into nerves and muscles - a burn that destroys the full thickness of the skin and underlying tissue (if nerves are destroyed, then this burn can be painless) epidermis and dermis are damaged - fluid loss (all water producing keratinocytes are gone) - secondary infection (can't keep bacteria out)

Muscles contract to move the entire body, to pump blood through the heart and blood vessels, and to decrease the size of hollow organs, such as the stomach and the urinary bladder.

Function of Muscle tissue

1. Secretes and absorbs ex. secretion by cells of the glands, the stomach, and the intestines absorption by cells of the small and large intestines

Function of Simple Columnar Epithelium

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IV)

Function: Mixed Motor - muscle of swallowing Sensory - posterior tongue and the pharynx (where nasal and oral cavities meet)

(1). 1. Protection - the skin is the covering of the body. Though exposed to the external environment, the skin's structure reduces the negative and harmful effects of ultraviolet light. Acting as a barrier, the skin also keeps microorganisms from entering the body and prevents dehydration by reducing water loss. Acid mantle (a very fine, slightly acidic film on the surface of human skin acting as a barrier to bacteria, viruses and other potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin.) 2. Sensation - the integumentary system has sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain. 3. Temperature regulation - the skin play a major role in regulating body temperature through the modulation of blood flow though the skin and the activity of sweat glands. 4. Vitamin D production - when exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule that can be transformed into the hormonal form of Vitamin D, an important regulator of calcium homeostasis. 5. Excretion - small amounts of waste products are excreted through skin and glands.

Functions of the Integumentary System

Vagus Nerve (X)

Functions: Mixed Motor - parasympathetic motor to thoracic and abdominal organs Sensory - from the thoracic and abdominal organs *punch in the stomach, liver = pain in the organs (not in the muscle)

By the ABCDE rule A - asymmetry (one side of lesion does not match the other side) B - border irregularity C - color D - diameter change E - evolving

How to detect malignant melanoma early?

neuromuscular junction

Group of enlarged axon terminals that rest on invagination of the sarcolemma Consists of axon terminals and the area of the muscle fiber sarcolemma that they supply with nerves •Motor neurons carry action potentials to skeletal muscle, which stimulate muscle fiber action potentials followed by muscle contraction. •The synapse between a motor neuron (presynaptic cell) and a muscle fiber (postsynaptic cell) is called a neuromuscular junction. •Presynaptic terminal of axon at the neuromuscular junction contains synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). •Synaptic cleft: space. •The postsynaptic cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called the motor end-plate. •Ligand gated ion channels

Fascicules

Group of muscle fibers

melanocytes within the hair bulb matrix produce melanin and pass it to keratinocytes in the hair cortex and medulla - varying amounts and types of melanin cause different shades of hair color ex: blonde hair has little black-brown melanin; jet black hair has the most

How hair gets its color?

Concussion

Immediate but transient impairment of neural functions- Causes loss of consciousness

Head

In a case where there's multiple origins, each origins is called a?

Prime mover

In a group of synergists, the muscle that contributed most to the movement is called?

Peripheral nerve anatomy

Inside--Out Axon- endoneurium Fasciclus- perIneurium whole nerve -Epineurium

Stimulant (drugs)

Increase number of action potentials

Oxygen deficit

Insufficient oxygen consumption relative to increased activity at the onset of exercise

What about K+

K+ leaves intracellular which is ok as long as person has extracellular K+ levels within the normal range

Spinal Cord

L2 is where spinal cord ends 31 pairs of nerves come off spinal cord

1. Kidney tubules 2. Thyroid glans

Location of Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Neurotransmitter

Ligand spit out by a neuron

(5). 1. Integumentary system 2. Skeletal system 3. Muscular system 4. Nervous system 5. Endocrine system 6. Cardiovascular system 7. Lymphatic system 8. Respiratory system 9. Digestive system 10. Urinary system 11. Male and Female Reproductive system

List all eleven organ systems of the human body

(14.) 1. Right-upper 2. Left-upper 3. Right-lower 4. Left-lower

List and label the quadrants of the abdomen

1. Epigastric 2. Right and left hypochondriac 3. Umbilical 4. Right and left lumbar 5. Hypogastric 6. Right and left iliac

List and label the regions of the abdomen

(11). 1. Head 2. Neck 3. Trunk (thoracic, abdomen, pelvis) 4. Upper limb 5. Lower limb 6. Dorsal

List six body regions

1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3 Muscle 4. Nervous

List the four primary tissue types, from which all organ of the body are formed

(4). 1. chemical level 2. cell level 3. tissue level 4. organ level 5. organ system level 6. organism level

List the six levels of organization of the human body in order

1. Lining of the stomach 2. Lining of the small intestine 3. Lining of the large intestine 4. Lining of the Gallbladder

Location of Simple Columnar Epithelium

Brain Stem

Mostly axons ascending/descending tracts- mostly white matter

Sliding Filament Theory

Move the filaments within the sarcomere closer together. Shape and size of proteins do not change, just squished together - makes sarcomere shorter

Abduction

Movement away from the midline of the body

Adduction

Movement toward the midline of the body

Neuron Types

Multipolar, Bipolar or Unipolar

Contrast

Muscle (organ) - surrounded by Epimysium Muscle Fascicles - surrounded by perimysium Muscle Fibers cells - surround by endomysium Myrofibrils Sarcomere Actin and Myosin

Lack of exercise

Muscle atrophy, decrease in myofibril etc.

Incomplete/unfused tetanus

Muscle fibers partially relax between Stimulus but force increases when contracted

Atrophy

Muscle size decreases due to decreased number of myofilaments, due to disuse of muscle Atrophy Cardiac muscle due to chronic heart failure

Prime Mover

Muscle that play a major role in accomplishing a movement

What happens when ATP run out?

Muscle will stay exactly how it was because myosin will not release active site. Can cause muscle cramps

Astrocyte

Neuroglia cell that covers neurons and blood vessels. * Regulates what is available to reach the neurons from the blood. * Part of the blood brain barrier but cannot stop heavy metals (lead, mercury) *found in CNS - star cells - play a role in regulating what substances from the blood reach neurons - bodyguard of the neurons - form parts blood brain barrier

Ependymal Cell

Neuroglia cell that lines the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. * Part of blood brain barrier. * They are epithelium * Cerebrospinal fluid is made here. * Common in 4th ventricle and cover cored plexus * Regulate what is in the cerebral spinal fluid *found in CNS - line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal - other part of blood brain barrier

Nervous System Cells

Neurons and Glial

Labile cells

Never go to G0, divide rapidly w/ a short G1 (e.g., Bone marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair follicles) - continues to divide throughout life - repaired completely through regeneration

Complete/Fused tetanus

No relaxation between contractions

Ion Channels

Non-gated, Ligands gated, Voltage gated

osteoclast

O: L:bone surfaces and site of old injured, or unneeded bone F: bone destroying cells; bone reabsorption, or breakdown

osteoblast

O: beneath the periosteum L: growing portion of the bone, including periosteum and endosteum F: bone formation

osteocyte

O: came from an osteoblast L: entrapped in matrix F: Maintain mineral concentration of matrix

pseudo-unipolar neuron

One axon that splits into two branches Sensory neurons

Ligand Specificity

Only cells with specific receptors can respond to ligand

1st degree burn

Only the epidermis (red, painful, and edema) - ex. minor sunburn - may heal in a week or so without scarring

Cramps

Painful spastic contraction of skeletal muscle. Due to dehydration and ion imbalance

T-tubules (transverse tubules)

Part of the cell membrane - runs through the with of the cell - inwards folds of sarcolemma; project into interior of muscle cell; carry electrical impulses

Limbic System

Parts of the cerebrum and diencephalon Function: emotional, interpreting sensory input, basic survival functions *amygdala: fear/anger *hippocampus: where mitosis happens int he brain *emotional brain

Location example (Describe how muscles are named)

Pectoralis - chest Gluteus - buttocks Brachial -arm

compare and contrast RBM and YBM with regards to location and function

RBM location: connective tissue in the spaces of spongy bone or in the medullary cavity RBM function: it is the site of blood cell production YBM: medullary cavity or spaces of spongy bone YBM function: mostly adipose tissue; fat storation

- typed of melanin produced - amount of melanin produced - size of melanosomes (melanin-filled vesicles in cells) - number of melanosomes - distribution of melanosomes

Racial variations in skin color are determined by several major factors. List the factors

1. when blood vessels in the dermis dilate, more warm blood flows from deeper structures to the skin and heat loss increases 2. body temp. tends to increase as a result of exercise, fever, or a rise in environmental temperature(in order to maintain homeostasis, this excess heat must be lost) 3. when blood vessels constrict, less warm blood flows from deeper structures to the skin, and heat loss decreases

Regulation of body temperature

Sarcoma origin

Sarcomas arise from connective tissue

Dermatome Map

Sections of spinal nerves that supply the sensory information to specific areas of the skin *C2-C8: supply head, shoulder, neck, and diaphragm movement *C5-T2: some upper limb movement *T1-T12: rib movement and breathing, vertebral column movement, postural back muscles *L1-L5: lower limb movement

reticular formation

Series of interconnected nuclei that extend from top of spinal cord to the thalamus Function: responsible for sense of alertness- does not respond to smell

Neuron Function

Spit out ligand

MS, GTO, JCR

Steps: 1. give information to the brain 2. brain interprets it into what position you are in 3. a sense base on mechanoreceptors

Origin and In example (Describe how muscles are named)

Sternocleidomastoid (Origin - sternum and clavicle , Insertion - mastoid process of temporal bone)

Loose Connective Tissue 1. Areolar 2.Adipose 3.Reticular

Subcategory of Loose Connective Tissue

Connective tissue proper: 1. Loose 2.Dens

Subcategory of connective tissue proper

reception

The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.

Myofibril

Threadlike structure that extends the length of the muscle fiber Inside the muscle fiber and covered my sarcoplasmic reticulium

1. Ground substance 2. Protein Fibers 3. Cells

Three components of extracellular matrix of connective tissues

Ottis Media (Middle Ear Infection)

Viral or bacterial infection of the tympanic membrane (TM) causing ear pain and pressure

eccrine and apocrine sweat glands

What are the 2 main types of sweat glands?

1. cell body 2. dendrites 3. axon

What are the three parts of a neuron?

(8). 1. Collagen 2. Elastic fibers 3. Reticular fibers

What are the three types of protein fiber found in the extracelullar matrix of connective tissue?

(9). 1. basal cell carcinoma, 2 squamous cell carcinoma, 3. melanoma

What are the three types of skin cancer?

cleft lip

a birth defect in which there is a deep groove of the lip running upward to the nose as a result of the failure of this portion of the lip to close during prenatal development

cyanosis

a bluish color to the skin that result from decreased blood oxygen content, is an indication of impaired cardiovascular or respiratory function

scurvy

a disease caused by lack of vitamin C

describe a broken hip

a fracture on the femoral neck

to protect us (or DNA cells) from UV radiation (and the dividing keratinocytes)

a function of melanocytes (melanine

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream

Hydrocephali

a person who has a build up of CSF

(5). Secretion

a process by which substances are produced and discharged from a cell, gland, or organ for a particular function in the organism or for excretion.

Generator potential

a receptor potential that reaches threshold, causes AP

Palpation

a simple technique in which a doctor presses lightly on the surface of the body to feel the organs or tissues underneath

cuticle

a single layer of cells also containing hard keratin

Embryology (developmental anatomy)

a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from conception to the end of the eighth week of development

Ganglia

a swelling or a knot

callus

a thickened and hardened part of the skin or soft tissue, especially in an area that has been subjected to friction.

Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells

a type of adult stem cell that persist in connective tissue

rickets

a vitamin D deficiency in children, resulting in soft bones

jaundice

a yellowish skin color, occurs when excess bile pigments accumulate in the blood

Abdominal (trunk)

abdomen

Scoliosis Curvature

abnormal lateral and rotational curvature of the vertebral column, which is often accompanied by secondary abnormal curvatures

osteomalacia

abnormal softening of bones in adults

Epidural

above the dura mater

Areflexia

absence of reflexes

Accommodation (adaptation)

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Sensory Input

afferent function- sending impulses, signals etc to muscles and selection of how many motor units are needed into the CNS

Sensory Area

all have association area-- sense and then decided what it is a recognizing. Includes: Somatic, visual, and auditory cortex

*Cartilaginous joints

allow only slight movement and consist of bones connected entirely by cartilage - hold two bones together by a pad of cartilage - when bone are connected by cartilage - move little or no movement

Anatomical Imaging (purpose)

allows medical personnel to look inside the body with amazing accuracy and without the trauma and risk of exploratory surgery

active range of motion

amount of movement accomplished by muscle contraction

passive range of motion

amount of movement accomplished by some outside force

Disease

an abnormal state in which the body is not functioning normally

load

an applied force

greenstick fracture

an incomplete fracture on the corvex side of the curve of the bone

Sign

any objective evidence of disease, as opposed to a symptom, which is, by nature, subjective.

describe the microscopic structure of spongy bone

appears porous, has less bone matrix and more space than compact bone consist of interconnecting rods or plates of bone called trabeculae Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels. Trabeculae are oriented along the lines of mechanical stress within a bone. If the force on a bone is changed slightly the trabecular pattern realigns with the new lines of stress.

Nuclei

are clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain

Active sites

are covered up by the tropomyosin rope

Syndesmosis

bones united by fibrous connective tissue, forming an interosseous membrane or ligament ex. radius and ulnar connected by ligament (class of fibrous joints)

Flexion

bending movement that decreases angle of joint articulating bones closer together - anterior side smaller

dorsiflexion

bending of the foot or the toes upward

plantar flexion

bending of the sole of the foot by curling the toes toward the ground

How fast are human action potentials in neurons

between 1-130 meters per second

lateral surface of epithelial tissue

between apical and basal surface where cells are attached to other epithelial cells.

subarachnoid space

between arachnoid mater and pia mater

Sacral

between hips

Fourth Ventricle

between the brain stem and the cerebellum

Third Ventricle

between the right and left thalamus

Type A Neuron

big diameter axon and myelin sheath *sensory neuron pain or temperature has quick action potential - largest diameter fiber - myelinated - fast ones (130 m/sec) - sensory neurons

optic disc

blind spot, no photoreceptors

Drugs are created to...

block or enhance communication between neurons

Visceral

body organs

Somatic

body senses

In regional anatomy ...

body structure is studied area by area

In systematic anatomy ...

body structure is studied system by system

Osteoclast

bone cell that absorbs and removes unwanted bony tissue

how calcitonin regulate calcium levels

bone density increases osteoclast decrease "bone builder" made and release by thyroid gland and inhibits osteoclast secreted from the thyroid gland when blood levels are too high, it inhibits osteoclast activity by binding to receptors on the osteoclasts

Osteoblasts

bone forming cells

spongy bone

bone having many small spaces; found mainly in the epiphysis; arranged into trabeculae

organ protection

bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds

compare and contrast the terms bone remodeling and bone repair

bone remodel - change of the force that is acting on it bone repair- is the process in which a bone repairs itself following a bone fracture

steps to repair a fracture 4

bone remodeling compact bone replaces woven bone, and part of the internal callus is removed, restoring the medullary cavity

Neuromodulators Inhibition or facilitation

by increasing or blocking the communication between neurons Presynaptic inhibition: reduction in amount of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminal. endorphins can inhibits pain sensation Presynaptic facilitation: amount of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminal increases

Lactic Acid

by product in the muscle from only using glycolysis. Created during anaerobic respiration. One cause of muscle soreness

hydroxiapatite

calcium phosphate Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

Sural

calf

steps to repair a fracture 2

callus formation the internal callus forms between the ends of the bones, and the external callus forms a collar around the break

steps to repair a fracture 3

callus ossification woven, spongy bone replaces the internal and external calluses

Permanent cells

cannot replicate; cardiac/striated muscle; neurons

ANS (Autonomic Nervous system)

cardiac/smooth muscle and glands - involuntary targets - they work on their own 1. Sympathetic Division 2. Parasympathetic 3. Enteric Division

short bone example

carpals and tarsals

Psoriasis

chronic skin disease characterized by thicker-than-normal epidermal layer (stratum corneum) that sloughs to produce large, silvery scales; bleeding may occur if the scales are scraped away

cataract

clouding of lens as a result of advancing age, infection, or trauma - most common cause of blindness in the world

Nuclei

clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain

terminal hair

coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males) - follicle has keratinocytes

Clavicular (upper limb)

collar bone

(9). Blasts

create the matrix

Aphasia

damage to the language areas of cerebral cortex leading to absent or defective speech or language comprehension

complication of burns

damage to the respiratory tract and burns of joints often heal with scar tissue formation that limits movement

strain

deformation of an object due to stress

Multiple Sclerosis

demyelinated disease marked by patches of hard edge tissue in the brain or spinal cord. Symptoms: partial or complete paralysis, muscle jerking or tremors

compact bone

dense bone with few internal spaces organized into osteons; forms the diaphysis and covers the spongy bone of the epiphysis

luxation (dislocation)

dislocation or displacement of a bone from its joint

Frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) halves

incomplete fracture

does not extend completely across the bone.

Thalamus

everything from top of midbrain to fornix. *mostly gray matter *directs incoming sensory AP "router" *damage causes mixed up sensory signals

Cell physiology

examines the processes occurring in cells such as energy production from food

Histology

examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them

glaucoma

excessive pressure buildup in aqueous humor - may destroy retina optic nerve, resulting in blindness

Hyperextension

extension of a joint beyond the anatomical position - beyond the normal range of motion

perilymph

fluid contained in the labyrinth of the inner ear

Exercise Physiology

focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise

Neurophysiology

focuses on the functions of the nervous system

Cardiovascular Physiology (systemic)

focuses on the heart and blood vessels

list the common stresses placed on human bones

force load pressure stress strain strength toughness

pressure

force/ area = kg/cm2

Antebrachial (Upper Limb)

forearm

Frontal (head)

forehead

Lateral Ventricle

found behind the septum pellucidum, one ventricle for left and right

Ganglion

gray matter located in the PNS that are clusters of neuron cell bodies

Inguinal (trunk)

groin

epiphyseal plate

growth plate area of hyaline cartilage between the diaphysis and epiphysis; cartilage growth followed by endochondrial ossification results in growth in bone length

growth stage of hair

hair increases in length as new matrix cells are produced, differentiate, become keratinized, and dies - the hair grows longer as cells are added at the base of the hair root

epithelial root sheath of hair

has all the strata found in thin skin

Describe the effects of stress on human bone

it can modify the bone's strenght through remodeling, the formation of additional bone, alteration in trabecular alignment to reinforce the scaffolding, or other changes mechanical stress applied to bones increases osteoblast activity in bone tissue, and the removal of mechanical stress decreases osteoblast activity.

Patellar (lower limb)

knee cap

mendullary cavity

large cavity within the diaphysis

Visceral serous membrane

layer covering the internal organ

Arachnoid Granulation

leak CSF to blood plasma

Lumbar (dorsal)

lower back

(11). Muscle tissue

main characteristics: contract, or shortens with a force and therefore is responsible for movement

Tetanus

make muscles contract We must repeatedly tell muscles to contract

IPSP

makes cell stay closed by moving membrane farther from threshold

Pineal Gland

makes melatonin hormone that regulates our day/night cycles

EPSP

makes the cell fire-

blood cell production

many bones contain cavities filled with red bone marrow, which gives rise to blood cells and platelets

Temporal summation

many stimuli at the same point but at different times, combined stimuli creates graded potential that exceeds threshold

force

mass x acceleration

Osteocytes

mature bone cells

Chondrocytes

mature cartilage cells

Cytes

mature cells

Anatomy (definition)

means to dissect or cut apart and separate the parts of the body for study

Cranial reflex

mediated by pathways in cranial nerves and brain (blinking and swallowing)

Oral (head)

mouth

elevation

move structure superior

circumduction movement

movement of a distal part in a circular motion - moving a body part such that the distal end traces a circle while the proximal ends stays in on position - combination of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction

Pronation

movement that turns the palm down

Supination

movement that turns the palm up

Depression

moves a structure inferior

retraction

moves structure back to anatomic position or even further posteriorly

protraction

moving forward, gliding motion anteriorly

lateral excursion

moving mandible to the right or left midline

eversion

moving the sole of the foot outward at the ankle

Wave Summation

multiple stimulation creates a higher amount of force per stimulation

White Matter

named columns

Umbilical (trunk)

navel

myopia

nearsightedness - their lens bend the light rays too hard - comes into focus too soon - can see close objects clearly, but distant objects appear blurry - is a defect of the eye in which the focusing system, the cornea and lens, is optically too powerful, or the eye ball is too long - is corrected by a concave lens - MINUS lenses

Cervical

neck region

Spinal anesthesia

needle does though/under Dura Mater

Neurons

nerve cells - are the conducting cells of nervous tissue

Ventral Root

on anterior side - contains axons of the motor neurons

Dorsal Root

on posterior side- contains axons sensory neurons

Bipolar neurons

one axon and one dendrite Function: conducts action potentials from the periphery to the brain or spinal cord Location: ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

impacted fracture

one fragment is driven into the spongy portion of the other fragment

Motor Unit

one motor neuron and all the muscle cells it controls. Precise movements use small motor units vs gross movement that use large motor units.

Unipolar Neuron

one process extending from cell body that divides into two branches. Two branches function as one axon. Most of sensory neurons, about 1%.

Stimulated gated Ion Channel

open because of temperature, touch, smell, light etc. Specific to a neuron

Pressure gated Ion Channel

open due to pressure stimulus

Cortex

outer portion of an organ - in the CNS, the cortex consist of gray matter on the surface of the brain

vellus hair or lanugo

pale, fine hair; found as children's and adult women's body hair

Palmar (manual-hand)

palm

Acetylcholine (ACh)

parasympathetic neuron spits _______ to its target cells

flat bone example

parietal bone

Relative refractory period

part of AP following the absolute refractory period, where another AP can be produced with a greater then threshold stimulus strength

Absolute refractory period

part of AP where membrane is insensitive to all stimuli, regardless of the strength

Efferent Neurons

part of motor output function; Carrs out decisions made during integration away from the muscles or glands

Afferent Neurons

part of sensory import; send signals into the nervous system - action potentials towards CNS

anatomy of a long bone: epiphysis

part of the bone that develops from a center of ossification distrinct from the diaphysis

Ciliary body (Vascular tunic)

produces aqueous humor that fills anterior chamber *ciliary muscles - control the size of the lens - pulls on the lens to allow to focus on an image

Synesthesia

production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of the body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body

Spinal reflex

protects the body- polysynaptic, causes stimulation of sensory association and motor neuron

how PTH works/is regulated

protein hormone made by parathyroid gland "bone breaker" osteoclast increase- which breaks down bone and elevate blood levels bone density decreases

Acetylcholine

protein ligand that will open ligand-gated NA+ in or on the cell membrane of Skeletal muscle cells

Creatin Phosphate (CP)

provides a little extra phosphate to make new ATP. taking creatin as a dietary substance will not help muscle production much but will cause kidney damage

arthroplasty

surgical repair or replacement of a joint

Epimysium

surrounds the entire muscle

cortex

surrounds the medulla and forms the bulk of the hairthe cells contains hard keratin

Endomysium

surrounds the muscle cell

edema

swelling

Norepinephrine (NE)

sympathetic neuron spits _________ to target cells

stregth

the ability to resist breakage and permanent deformation

toughness

the ability to resist the spreading of cracks a.k.a self repair

Auscultation

the act of listening for sounds within the body, chiefly for ascertaining the condition of the lungs, heart, pleura, abdomen and other organs and for the detection of pregnancy

Anaerobic Endurance

the amount of time that we can continue using anaerobic respiration

visual accommodation

the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close - the process of changing the shape of the lens

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles - controlled voluntary

how does a clinical professional find the site for a gluteal injection

the landmarks for such an injection are the anterior superior iliac spine and the tubercle of the iliac crest from anterior to posterior

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information - is the nervous tunic of the eyeball - consists of the outer pigmented layer, which is composed of pigmented simple cuboidal epithelium and the inner neural layer ,which responds to light.

debridement

the removal of dead tissue from the burn

Retrieval of memories

the retrieval of a complete memory requires accessing parts of the memory form different "pigeonholes". - a complex memory requires accessing and reassembling segment of memory each time the memory is recalled - you can or cannot recreate an engram *if one neuron from your engram has a degenerative brain disease and is failing (not firing all the time), if it is not firing or is dead, the memory is LOST (it function again when it FIRES)

Pathology

the science of the causes and effects of diseases, especially the branch of medicine that deals with the laboratory examination of samples of body tissue for diagnostic or forensic purposes.

corn

the skin over bony prominences develop a cone- shaped structure

Receptive field

the specific area monitored by one sensory neuron

laminectomy

the surgical removal of a lamina, or posterior portion, of a vertebra

Spongy bone tissue

this consists of an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae, with spaces in-between filled with red bone marrow Function: acts as scaffolding to provide strength and support without the greater weight of compact bone Location: in the interior of the bones of the skull, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis; in the ends of the long bones

semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement - give information about head position *Capula - move left and right - activation the hair cells *endolymph liquid causes the movement of capula - result to dizziness

Meninges

three layers of connective tissue that house/cover/protect the CNS

Meninges

three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord

Aerobic endurance

time we can continue using aerobic respiration

Digital (pedal region)

toes

Dorsum (pedal region)

top of foot

Continuous Conduction

used with out a myelin sheath (slower)

Autonomic Reflex

uses smooth or cardiac muscles person cannot control reflex (eyes constrict with light)

Carpal (manual-hand)

wrist

ANS Physiology

•Maintains homeostasis by adjusting body functions to match the level of physical activity •Dual innervation: innervation by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions; most organs are dually innervated •Sympathetic influences under conditions of physical activity or stress (fight-or-flight response): •Increased HR, vasodilation of BV in skeletal and cardiac muscle, dilation of air passages, increased glucose production, increased body temp, decreased digestion and urine production •Parasympathetic influences during resting conditions: •Stimulation of digestion and urine production, lowers HR, constricts air passages •sympathetic division activity during resting conditions • maintains blood pressure and body temperature

Receptors

•Neurotransmitters: primary substances produced by neurons of ANS. •Acetylcholine released by cholinergic neurons •Norepinephrine released by adrenergic neurons •Certain cells have receptors that combine with neurotransmitters causing a response in the cell - Cholinergic: bind acetylcholine-nicotinic and muscarinic receptors - Nicotinic - cholinergic receptors: all receptors on postganglionic neurons, all skeletal muscles, adrenal glands, respond to either nicotine or acetylcholine (excitatory) - Muscarinic: all receptors on parasympathetic effectors, receptors of some sweat glands, respond to muscarine or acetylcholine (excitatory or inhibitory) •Adrenergic receptors bind norepinephrine/epinephrine - Response mediated by G proteins -Excitatory or Inhibitory - Alpha and beta receptors - Subdivided into categories (usually have opposite effects) -α1 and β1 (usually excitatory) α2 and β2 (usually inhibitory)