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Erin and Anstey (1995a,b) reviewed a total of 58 studies conducted to test the theory of punctuated equilibrium, they concluded:

"Paleontological evidence overwhelmingly supports a view that speciation is sometimes gradual and sometimes punctuated, and that no one mode characterizes this very complicated process in the history of life."

(0.0001)^2

When species do interbreed, possible evolutionary outcomes include:

(1) Reinforcement of prezygotic isolation (2) Hybrid speciation (3) Stable hybrid zones

When species do interbreed, possible evolutionary outcomes include:

(1) Reinforcement of prezygotic isolation (2) Hybrid speciation (3) Stable hybrid zones

(1/2)^4

(1/2)^6

King Charles (K), in the pedigree shown to the right, is a heterozygous carrier of porphyria, a recessive metabolic disorder. His genotype is therefore P+/P' (P' is the porphyria allele). Queen Charlotte (Q), Charles' wife, is homozygous for nonporphyria, her genotype is P+/ P+. -Assume the allele P' has a population-wide frequency of 0.0001, and that the royal family does not inbreed. (Ignore the pedigree, just remember that Olaf is King Charles' great-grandson). What is the probability that Olaf gets porphyria by inheriting one copy of the P' allele descended from King Charles and a second copy at random from the population in general.

(1/8)(0.0001)

SNAP tests

(used for Giardia and heartworms) would be used in a situation where a rapid field test is advantageous or in a situation where it would be more difficult to ship samples back to a diagnostic lab for more thorough testing

Regulatory genes (TF) can be co-opted to produce new phenotypes

- Bringing their gene network with them

While developmental processes differ, many processes use the same (homologous) genes across different species

- Change in expression pattern or acquiring new functions

Homoplasious anatomical structures often use the same regulatory genes

- Homoplasious = similar but independently evolved (whereas homologous = similar by descent). - Homoplasy by parallel evolution: same developmental underpinnings. - Homoplasy by convergence: different developmental underpinnings

Reinforcement may occur, however, as a result of secondary contact following incomplete divergence in allopatry or as part of parapatric speciation

- If there's no reinforcement then prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive isolation evolve gradually via genetic drift - the same as for allopatric speciation. - If there is reinforcement then prezygotic reproductive isolation evolves faster than postzygotic isolation due to the combined effects of drift and natural selection.

Cretaceous- Tertiary (K-T Boundary) - High Impact extinction

- Iridium is rare in the earths crust but high in meteorites 0 shocked quartz particles and microtektites helped narrow down where the crater could be - found in Chicxulub in Mexico's peninsula

How to root a tree of life based on rRNA seq data

- a common ancestral gene can provide a molecular out group. One member of a gene family is used as an out group compared to an other member (ex- aaRS, tRNA synthase gene)

The Burgrass Shale Fauna (most spectacular fossil deposits ever found)

- little overlap between species found in Ediacaran and Burgess deposits -arthropods, segmented worms, mollusks, and chordates with out jaws *roughly comparable to the diversity we see today

RR= 60 Rw= 280 ww= 160 The fixation index or inbreeding coefficient (F) for the flower color locus is equal to:

-0.17 F = (Hexp-Hobs)/Hexp = (0.48-0.56)/0.48 = -0.17.

What are some of the economic ecosystem of forests?

-50% of wood is burned for fuel (cooking & heating) leftover is used for lumber & paper -Food & Medicine: Animals, plants and mushrooms -Fibers & Dyes -bark may have pharmaceutical value: to treat enlarged prostates

What consequences did the material ejected from the crater have on the earth's climate and atmospheric and oceanic chemistry?

-Acid rain and widespread wildfires. • Intense global cooling and darkening. • Massive earthquakes. • Enormous Tsunami waves. • Disruptions of temperature regimes and chemical gradients in the Atlantic.

The Dinosaur-Bird Transition

-Archaeopteryx has been long famous as the oldest definitive fossil bird (~150 Ma), as well as a mix of avian and reptilian features. -Feathers and hollow bones existed on theropods before they could fly

The hypothesis that the mass extinction at the K-T boundary is due to a large asteroid hitting the earth

-Based on the amount of iridium needed to produce the anomalies and the density of iridium in the typical meteorites, Alvarez et al. (1980) suggested that the asteroid was on the order of 10 km wide -Found shocked quartz and microtektites

What are some of the major types of worlds forests biomes?

-Boreal Forests (11% of the entire earth) : mostly clear-cut logging and it is the primary source of the worlds industrial wood and wood fiber. -tropical rain forest: warm areas and receive 79 in. or more of rain annually. -temperate deciduos forests: colder w. higher rainfall (4 seasons long) -Tropical dry forests: dry with enough precipitation to support trees, little vegetation found in Southern Mexico -

Mobile genetic elements (never a good thing)

-DNA based transposons- move around by cut and paste -RNA transposons or retrotransposons- originate from viruses, inserted into DNA of infected cell (duplicate and copy - > reverse transcriptase)

hybrid zone in ipomopsis

-Diane campbell examined fitness in mountain flowers at different elevations -aggregata grew at higher elevations and was pollinated by hummingbirds -tenuituba was at lower elevations and pollinated by hawkmoths

The Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthase (aaRS) Gene Family

-Different members of the aaRS gene family are responsible for charging different amino acids onto their cognate tRNAs ('affiliated tRNA'). -The aaRS gene family was formed via gene duplication in the common ancestor and members are found in Bacteria, Archeae, and Eucarya. -Phylogenetic trees can be constructed from aaRS gene sequences. Because aaRS genes share common ancestry, one aaRS gene can be used to root a tree constructed from another.

Rate of vertebrate extinction

-From 1986- 1990 15 verts were added to extinction list - at this rate it would take 7,000 years to eliminate half of the 45,000 vert species EXTINCTION RATES 100 TO 1000 TIMES THE NORMAL RATE AH SCARY

What are some advantages with wind energy?

-Giant turbines convert mechanical energy to electrical -EROI of 23:1 -Directly uses existing energy -Most production occurs on windfarms: Plains and Nearshore Areas *Denmark uses 20% of electricity

the problems with the phylogenetic species concept

-Good, well detailed phylogenies are not well established for most organismal groups. •Species-specific, diagnostic traits can be interpreted differently by different scientists.

What are some major advantages of hydropower and wind power?

-It generates 19% of the worlds electricity. -EROI (Energy Returned on Investment) is higher than oil (10:1) -No direct pollutant emissions

What are some disadvantages of wind energy?

-Its intermittent and is strongest in remote locations -Turbines are unsightly -Bird and bat deaths -When wind isnt blowing there must be an alternative energy source

What are the key concepts used in landscape ecology?

-Landscapes are patchy, -patchiness creates boundaries that may or may not affect, soil affects connectivity -the location of a patch is important: ex. farms that are closer to natural habitat get a higher pollination. -the characteristics of a particular patch are dependent on its location within the landscape

Why does stasis occur?

-NOT do to a lack to genetic diversity -environment can effect change -No single explanation for stasis in particular lineages

Where is extinction most significant?

-North America- freshwater mussels, crayfish, amphibians, and fish are at the greatest risk -Tropical Forests- millions of hectares of forests destroyed annually. Forest areas adjacent to clearings have dramatic changes in environment conditions

The Biological Species Concept

-Populations of species that do not hybridize, or fail to produce fertile offspring when they do, are then reproductively isolated and considered to be good species. -This species concept stresses the importance of reproductive isolation between populations

Coyne and Orr (1997) tested the prediction that the degree of prezygotic reproductive isolation should evolve faster for sympatric than allopatric sister species pairs.

-Prezygotic isolation evolved faster in sympatric than allopatric species -Evidence of reinforcement in the divergence of sympatric Drosophila

RNA as an early life form (other than ribozyme activity)

-RNA is essential in genetic information processing machinery (Ribosome and tRNA) -RNA forms basic forms of biological energy (ATP and GTP)

testing the endosymbiosis theory

-Sequence genes, such as the small subunit rRNA, that are present in all life - including mitochondria and chloroplasts - and determine their position in the universal phylogeny.•If the organelles arose via endosymbiosis, then their rRNA genes should branch from within the Bacteria. •If, instead, the organelles arose independently from within the Eucarya, then their rRNA genes should branch from within the Eucarya.

What are the disadvantages of hydropower?

-Siltation limits dams' lifetimes -Decomposition of flooded vegetation emits methane - -Distruption of wildlife

sympatric speciation

-Species that have always overlapped geographically -and for them interbreeding and gene flow are always a possibility.

Amato et al. found agreement among species concepts.

-Under the three separate species concepts, the two historical morphospecies turn out to contain eight different species in total! -That is, regardless of the concept used, the result was the same. -Such studies often reveal that species diversity is greater than previously thought.

Using Fossil records to discover the last common ancestor

-Unicellular life is abundant in the fossil record ~3.5 BYA, but it is only good enough to trace evolutionary decent ~2.5 BYA

The Last Common Ancestor was a Community

-Universal phylogenies differ among genes • Suggests that organisms swapped their genes frequently • Depending on the gene, its phylogeny may be different than the organism that harbors it

Possible effects from the meteor

-acid rain and wildfires -global cooling and darkening -massive earthquakes -enormous Tsunami -disruption of temp and chemical gradians

Test of the endosymbiosis theory- sequence the genes and see their position on the universal phylogeny

-basic metabolic/ housekeeping genes were transferred to the nucleus - genes for DNA replication, transcription, and protein transfer stayed in the organelles chromosomes

Why is obtaining oil getting more expensive, and where are people now looking for it?

-because supply is decreasing as demand increases. -oil extraction is increasingly more offshore and its deeper and more difficult to get. -because polar and deep water sources are used last this is where people may now be looking for it now as well as the global oil reserves predicted to peak.

yellow-rumped warbler complex

-birds on the west coast -thought to be a hybrid species -formed by the combination of genetic material from neighboring species to the north and south

species examples of the morphospecies concept (where it caused wrong answers)

-butterflies -Florida harvester ant size is determined by nutrition so the more they eat, the larger they are and the more they look different

regulatory genes

-can be co-opted to produce new phenotypes -bringing their gene network with them

what we can learn from evo-devo

-certain homologus regulatory genes are highly conserved -structural or regulatory modification of tool kit genes allow them to acquire new functions -gene duplication and divergence is extremely important mechanisms for evolution

Hox Genes

-control the placement of appendages and organs - codes for HOX proteins (transcription factors) - fruit flies and verts have the same DNA seq, chromosomal order, and function of HOX genes

What are some of the ecosystem services of forests?

-decomposition of organic matter returns nutrients to the soil -carbon sink so there is a net decrease of CO2 trees and vegetation absorbs water and prevents mudslides -supports biodiversity -75% of the water entering the forest goes back to the atmosphere via transportation

Mass Extinction

-defined as those intervals in which over 60% of the species that were alive went extinct in the span of a million years. -represent biological catastrophes

the big 5 mass extinctions

-end-ordovician -end-devonian -end-permian -end-triassic -cretacceous-tertiary

How Fast are Species Disappearing?

-extinctions are now occurring at 100 to 1000 times the normal, or background, rate of extinction. -If current rates of habitat destruction continue, the coming centuries or millenia will see a mass extinction on the same scale as the Big Five documented in the fossil record.

The Ediacaran Biota- Precambrian fossil data

-first evidence for macroscopic life in fossil record (565 to 544 MYA) -sponges, jellyfish, and comb jellies - small bilaterally symmetrical animals

Accurate knowledge about evolution is important because it:

-helps to understand why medical research is done the way it is. -helps to understand and relate all biological phenomena. -provides the most workable unifying theme for biology.-helps citizens to make informed voting decisions concerning science funding and the separation of church and state in public education.

Accurate knowledge about evolution is important because it:

-helps to understand why medical research is done the way it is. -helps to understand and relate all biological phenomena. -provides the most workable unifying theme for biology. -helps citizens to make informed voting decisions concerning science funding and the separation of church and state in public education. (all the above)

Eyeless (ey) gene in fruit flies = PAX6 gene in verts

-loss of function mutation causes eye malformations - gain of function in incorrect places produces an eye - PAX6 is conserved in genomes-> why eyes have been able to evolve independently multiple times

What are the chief consequences of deforestation?

-loss of habitats (for example, plantations don't offer heterogeneity). -extinction and loss of species -decreased soil fertility because essential mineral nutrients found in forest soils leach away rapidly without trees to absorb them. -soil erosion in steep deforested slopes affects the hydroelectric power as silt builds up on dams -sedimentation of waterways caused by soil erosion harms downstream fisheries. -eutrophication due to nutrients washing into rivers. -desertification: changes in hydraulic cycle lead to drought, more sun exposure leads to drought and -decreased soil fertility because of change in soil properties. -contributes to climate change since trees release moisture into the air through the hydrological cycle

Concerning research by Jones et al. (2002) on mating patterns in the rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa), which one of the following statements is false:

-males vary more in their individual reproductive success than females. -due to asymmetries in sexual reproduction, sexual selection is more intense in males than in females. -tail crests evolved in males as a result of sexual selection. You Answered -the investment per offspring is larger for females than for males.

Concerning research by Jones et al. (2002) on mating patterns in the rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa), which one of the following statements is false:

-males vary more in their individual reproductive success than females. -due to asymmetries in sexual reproduction, sexual selection is more intense in males than in females. -tail crests evolved in males as a result of sexual selection. -the investment per offspring is larger for females than for males. Correct! (all answers are true)

What bacteria are mitochondria and chloroplasts related to?

-mitochondria- proteobacteria - chloroplasts- cyanobacteria (photosynthetic)

phylogenetic methods can estimate module history

-modules are genetically coherent, dynamic, heritable entities -modules undergo "descent with modification" -phylogenetic methods reconstruct history

Reconstructing phylogeny to find LUCA

-morphology- useful for eukaryote part of the tree -DNA sequence data- must find a gene that would be present in a common ancestor and still in all extant organisms today

cons of the morphospecies concept

-not factual, can be different based on scientists, doesn't account for the environment, -sometimes they share the same pool, but if they look different they could be considered not related

NK-2 "tinman" gene

-originally involved in development of rhythmically contractile structures (pharynx), later co-opted for development of hearts

how do roads and fragmentation affect biodiversity?

-roads fragment population: rodents, ground-dwelling birds, reptiles -reluctant to cross even small dirt roads -wildlife crossings can help

Allopatric Speciation

-speciation as a result of spatial isolation

the morphospecies concept

-species are defined on the basis of measureable morphological differences

Cryptic species in marine plankton (applying species concepts) Amato et al.

-studied two recognized morphospecies in the western North American diatom genus Pseudo-nitzchia. • This alga produces a powerful neurotoxin (domonic acid) and that can accumulate in shellfish and the people that eat them.

cons of the phylogenetic species conecpt

-there aren't well detailed phylogenies, sec

What are the major problems with the mining of coal?

-top soil is lost -land slides -acid & toxic mineral drainage such as sulfuric acid and dangerous dissolved materials like lead, arsenic and cadium, wash from coal and metal mines into nearby lakes and streams. -stream pollution: silt runoff and acid drainage

What are the causes of deforestation?

-unsustainable harvesting, climate change, fires triggered by drought, land clearing practices, construction of roads, tree harvests, mining, subsistence agriculture, disease, and pests -13 million acres lost annually and its mostly in developing countries such as Africa and South America

Loss of fragmentation?

-urbanization -agriculture -Transportation -Deforestation Ewaource Extraction -Flood Control -Oil & Gas pipelines

Pax6 in eye formation

-used interchangeably, regardless of eye type -homologous based on decent not the phenotype -depends on the biological level

Rickettsoises

. It is treated with use of Doxycycline topically. It is transmitted by an intracellular bacterium that is transmitted to the host through the bite of an infected flea or tick.

T+C+=.35; T+C.= .15; T.C+=.15; T.C.=.35 The coefficient of linkage disequilibrium (D) for this population is equal to:

.10

A herpetologist has quantified the relationship between mid-parent and mid-offspring lengths of an iguanid lizard, as shown below. -Using the information in this figure, calculate the narrow sense heritability of this trait.

.2500 (slope)

Suppose that you are interested in the recent introduction of a non-native avian predator, a falcon, and how it has influenced the evolution of flight in one of its prey species, the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Just prior to introduction of the falcon, mean wing length of sparrows was 9.8 cm. Following one season of predation by falcons, mean wing length in the surviving sparrows was 9.1 cm. -If the mean wing length of offspring of these surviving sparrows is 9.5 cm, what is the narrow sense heritability for wing length?

.4290

RR= 60 Rw= 280 ww= 160 What is the expected frequency of heterozygotes assuming Hardy-Weinberg conditions?

.48

RR= 60 Rw= 280 ww= 160 What is the observed frequency of heterozygotes? What is the expected frequency of heterozygotes assuming Hardy-Weinberg conditions?

.56

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 Population mean fitness at the L-locus is equal to:

.8 Population mean fitness = p2*wLL + 2pq*wLl + q2*wll = (0.36)( 0.762) + (0.48)( 0.762) + (0.16)(1) = 0.8.

Boag and Grant (1981) observed that mean body weight in the medium ground finch, Geospiza fortis, before the 1977 drought was 15.24 grams and that mean body weight in the survivors was 16.11 grams. What is the selection differential?

.8700

For Sample 1, conduct a chi-square test of the hypothesis that the pathogen population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. What is the chi-square test value for this sample? sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

If a male with a mitochondrial DNA disease has children with a woman who does not have the disease, then what percent of their children will have this disease?

T+C+=.35; T+C.= .15; T.C+=.15; T.C.=.35 In general, if the initial disequilibrium in a population is D = 0.25 and the recombination rate between two loci is r = 0.25, what will D be between them after two generations of random recombination with no selection?

0.141

A population is in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium for the H locus with alleles H and h. The frequency of the hh genotype is 0.49. What is the frequency of the Hallele?

0.30

0.6264

What are four ways of harnessing the sun's energy directly to heat a home or produce energy?

1)Passive energy: systems of putting the suns energy to use that does not require a mechanical device to distribute the Active solar collection: 2)heating water, 3)photovoltaiccells cells generate electricity,4) thermal.

How are forests harvested?

1)Selective cutting 2)shelterwood cutting 3) seed tree cutting 4)clear-cutting

Fates of duplicated genes

1- generates a new function 2- divides the original function 3- two working copies of the gene 4- one copy works, one does nothing

Macroevolution

1- large scale evolutionary change (major morphological change) 2- evolutionary process operating about the species level (linked to punctuated equilibrium)

Escape from Adaptive Conflict (EAC)

1- old gene is bifunctional and subject to selection before gene duplication 2- conflict between functions forces improvement of one function before duplicaiton 3- adaptive changes and function improvements occur in daughter genes after duplication

Mating Preferences in Pundamilia

1. A higher frequency of red-shifted opsin alleles and predominantly red colored males will be found in the species inhabiting deeper water. 2. Female preference for male color will be associated with opsin alleles, such that females with red-shifted alleles will prefer red colored males as mates. 3. The strongest associations between water depth, opsin allele frequency, male color and female preference will occur at sites with greater water clarity.

Mechanisms for gene duplication

1. Activity of mobile genetic elements 2. Segmental duplication 3. Whole-genome duplication

Environmental Factors and Mating Preferences Can Act Together

1. Adaptation to different habitats can result in divergence between populations in sensory phenotypes, such as visual perception of different colors of light. 2. The different sensory abilities of populations then influence the way that individuals choose mates.

Escape from adaptive conflict has three predictions:

1. Ancestor gene is bi-functional and subject to selection before gene duplication 2. Adaptive conflict between the ancestral and new function constrains improvement of the selected function(s) before duplication 3. Adaptive changes and functional improvement occur in the daughter genes after duplication; each gene becomes specialized

Geographic isolation can come about by two mechanisms:

1. Dispersal across a physical barrier followed by colonization of new habitat. 2. Vicariance, in which an existing species range is split by the appearance of a new physical barrier to gene flow (migration)

Dispersalacross

1. Dispersalacross a physical barrier followed by colonization of new habitat.

How is an organism modified?

1. Foreign DNA is spliced into a plasmid 2. Plasmid is inserted into Agrobacterium 3. Agrobacterium transfers plasmid plant cell 4. Foreign gene is inserted into plant's chromosome 5. Plant cells divide in tissue culture; each cell then contains the foreign gene 6. Through tissue culture techniques, cells are regenerated into plants. 7. GM plants are then produced from cultured plant cells.

Two phenomena that create "C-Value Paradox"

1. Large proportions non-coding DNA - Doesn't code for proteins (but can have other functions, so not necessarily 'functionless') • Introns: large proportions non-coding DNA within genes (intragenic) • Mobile genetic elements: make up most intergenic regions of eukaryotic genomes 2. Whole-genome duplications - Angiosperms - Vertebrates

Species Concepts

1. Species consist of groups of interbreedingindividuals that share a common ancestry .2.Species are a fundamental unit of evolution. 3.Species are evolutionarily independent units.- Different species follow different evolutionary trajectories through time.

Vertebrate retina example

1. Vertebrate species tree - Tree of Life 2. Photoreceptor cell type tree - gene expression (compiled by Arendt 2003) & opsin a.a. sequence 3. PDE6 gene tree - a.a. sequence (Nordström et al. 2004)

escape from adaptive conflict 3 predicitons

1. ancestor gene is bi-functional and subject to selection before gene duplication 2. adaptive conflict between the ancestral and new function constrains improvement of the selected functions before duplication 3. adaptive changes and functional improvement occur in the daughter genes after duplication (each gene becomes specialized)

evo-devo attempts to explain biological diversity in terms of development:

1. how developmental changes create evolutionary novelties? 2.how development might constrain or bias certain phenotypes from arising? 3. how developmental mechanisms themselves evolve? 4. what role does the environment play in regulating developmental processes and how organisms have evolved to incorporate environmental signalling?

speciation's three step process

1. isolation of populations 2. genetic and ecological divergence 3. reproductive isolation

the two kinds of genomes

1. small, compact with short intergenic regions, no introns 2. large, expanded with vast intergenetic regions and multiple introns per gene

Two kinds of genomes:

1. small, compact with short intergenic regions, no introns 2. large, expanded with vast intergenic regions and multiple introns per gene

mechanisms of specification species concepts (3 of them)

1. species consist of groups of interbreeding individuals that share a common ancestry 2.species are a fundamental unit of evolution 3. species are evolutionarily independent units (different species follow different evolutionary trajectories through time)

mechanisms for gene duplication

1. the formation of gene families 2. activity of mobile genetic elements 3. segmental duplication (unequal crossing over) 4. whole-genome duplication (polyploidizaiton and angiosperms)

Suppose that you are interested in the recent introduction of a non-native avian predator, a falcon, and how it has influenced the evolution of flight in one of its prey species, the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Just prior to introduction of the falcon, mean wing length of sparrows was 9.8 cm. Following one season of predation by falcons, mean wing length in the surviving sparrows was 9.1 cm. -If the total phenotypic variance in wing length for the unselected parental population is VP = 3.2, then what is the additive genetic variance (VA) for this trait?

1.3700 VA = h2 VP = 0.429 × 3.2 = 1.37.

environmental factors for pundamilia (cichild fish from lake vitoria)

1.A higher frequency of red-shifted opsin alleles and predominantly red colored males will be found in the species inhabiting deeper water. 2.Female preference for male color will be associated with opsin alleles, such that females with red-shifted alleles will prefer red colored males as mates. 3.The strongest associations between water depth, opsin allele frequency, male color and female preferencewill occur at sites with greater water clarity.

sensory drive

1.Adaptation to different habitats can result in divergence between populations in sensory phenotypes, such as visual perception of different colors of light. 2.The different sensory abilities of populations then influence the way that individuals choose mates.

Mechanisms of Isolation

1.The isolation of populations via a barrier to gene flow between populations. • The barrier may be geographical, ecological, biological, or a combination. 2. Genetic and ecological divergence. • May arise as a function of natural selection as well as genetic drift and mutation. 3. Reproductive isolation. • Populations fail to hybridize in nature, or fail to produce fertile offspring when they do hybridize.

the two phenomenons that create the C-value paradox

1.large proportion non-coding DNA (introns and mobile genetic elements) 2.whole-genome duplications (angiosperms and vertebrates)

The extinction of Polynesian Avifauna

11,000 bird species present on earth 2,000 years ago and ~2,000 have become extinct *loss of 20% of species* -Hawaiian, New Zealand, and Polynesian bird examples

15.7872 We can rearrange R = O* - O to obtain O* = R + O, and since O = P, O* = 0.624 + 15.24 = 15.864 grams.

Barbara McClintock - Discovery of mobile genetic elements

16 June 1902 - 2 September 1992 1944 discovered transposable elements in maize 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The only woman to receive an unshared Nobel Prize in that category

The minimum age of the LUCA is the age of the oldest fossils that can be identified with certainty as close relatives of present-day prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Such fossils are about _____.

2 billion years old

Conduct a standard chi-square test of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at the ADH locus. What is the chi-square test value for the ADH data?

20 Numerically we get chi-square = (19 - 10)2/10 + (111 - 90)2/90 + (384 - 360)2/360 + (54 - 60)2/60 + (108 - 120)2/120 + (324 - 360)2/360 = 20.0.

How many different ADH alleles are observed among the 1000 fruit flies assayed? To help you in your work give these alleles labels (e.g., "F" for fast, etc.).

What are the degrees of freedom for the chi-square test of the ADH data?

3 df = number of genotypic categories - 1 (for calculating N) - (number of alleles - 1) = 6 - 1 - 2 = 3.

The human genome contains about _______ billion nucleotide pairs.

3.2

How much of the earths land is covered with forest?

30-35% of the earths land

The universal tree of life with the most support is based on genetic info from?

31 ribosomal proteins

On which chromosome is the gene for Huntington disease found?

Although attempts to date the divergence between humans and chimpanzees using molecular sequence data do not perfectly agree, a rough consensus from multiple analyses would place the divergence date at _______.

5-7 million years ago

Lynette's mother had blood type AB and her father had blood type O. Lynette has blood type A. Lynette has a child with Jack who is blood type O. What is the probability that the child of Jack and Lynette will be blood type O?

50%

Enviropig being modified is able to digest more phosphorous from feed plants because?

50-75% of phosphorous within corn is undigestible and this also reduces nutrient pollution.

What is the critical value of chi-square test of the ADH data?

7.82 Given 3 alleles and 6 genotypes we have 3 degrees of freedom for the ADH data, and so the critical value of the chi-square test is 7.82.

A herpetologist has quantified the relationship between mid-parent and mid-offspring lengths of an iguanid lizard, as shown below. -Suppose that mean body length is 30 cm and that you conducted an experiment for increased body length by allowing only large parents to reproduce. Given the heritability you calculated for this species, and a response to selection of R = 2.0 cm, what was the selection differential (S) exerted on the parents?

8.000 h2 = R ⁄ S

sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510 For Sample 2, conduct a chi-square test of the hypothesis that the pathogen population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. What is the chi-square test value for this sample?

9.07

Hunt (2007) analyzed over 250 fossil sequences to test three evolutionary models: directional change, a random walk, and stasis and:

95% of sequences showed evidence of random walks and stasis in roughly equal proportions

Mobile genetic elements, such as retrotranspons, can alter the host's phenotype by _______________. A. Disrupting a gene sequence of the host, which prevents the expression of the protein. B. Creating a new protein-coding gene with its transposon sequence. C. Duplicating a gene in a new position in the genome, allowing for the gene to be expressed at a new time and place. D. A and B are correct. E. A and C are correct.

A and C are correct.

As we have seen in class, in certain cases speciation can occur in a single generation, a process sometimes called quantum speciation. Which one of the following is not an example of a quantum speciation process? A. A change in base chromosome number from n=8 to n=9 in the flowering plant Clarkia. B. Whole genome doubling in the flowering plant Tragopogon. C. A change in shell coiling direction in the snail Euhadra. D. A change in male breeding coloration in the cichlid fish Pundamilia. E. All of the above are good examples of quantum speciation.

A change in male breeding coloration in the cichlid fish Pundamilia.

By reference to the tree above, which of the following is an accurate statement of relationships?

A crocodile is more closely related to a bird than to a lizard

Local mate competition favors the evolution of A. A male biased sex ratio. B. Altruistic behavior. C. Secondary sexual characteristics. D. A female biased sex ratio. E. A 1:1 sex ratio.

A female biased sex ratio.

How does a gene tree differ from a species tree?

A gene tree is a phylogeny of individual genes, and can include multiple genes from a single species and/or samples of the same gene from multiple species; in a species tree, each species is represented by only a single branch

By reference to the tree above, which of the following is an accurate statement of relationships?

A green alga is more closely related to a moss than to a red alga

What distinguishes mass extinction from background extinction?

A mass extinction is global in extent, invokes a broad range of organisms, and is rapid relative to the life span of taxa that are wiped out.

Isolating mechanisms leading to speciation have been documented by ________.

A mutation in a single gene, geographic isolation, temporal isolation, and polyploidy

What is meant by adaptation from standing genetic variation in natural populations?

A population adapts to an environmental change by the rise to high frequency of an existing genetic variant that was already present in the population at low frequency before the environmental change

As an explanation for the diversity of life and its many features, virtually all biologists now consider evolution as: A. Increasingly unlikely, in view of its many problems and criticisms. B. One of several possible explanations for the variety of life. C. A real process, involved in certain biological phenomena. D. Areal process, involved in all biological phenomena. E. None of the above.

A real process, involved in all biological phenomena.

By reference to the tree above, which of the following is an accurate statement of relationships?

A seal is equally related to a horse and a whale

What is the "genetic toolkit" in the context of evo-devo? A. When the phenotype is determined by the genotype and also the environment that it experiences. B. Genes encoding for proteins of the ribosome and are transcribed as mRNA, but not rRNA. C. A small subset of genes whose products affect development and are widely conserved among different phyla. D. Regions of non-coding DNA, which regulate the transcription of near-by genes. E. A regulated process during gene expression that results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins.

A small subset of genes whose products affect development and are widely conserved among different phyla.

From which of the following can the polarity (the temporal order) of evolutionary change be inferred?

A tree's root (provided by outgroup comparisons).

Why is HAART (Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy) successful?

A virus needs multiple mutations at once to develop resistance.

Figure _____ most likely represents the simulations performed on the largest populations; Figure _____ most likely represents the simulations performed on intermediate-sized populations; Figure _____ most likely represents the simulations performed on the smallest populations.

A; C; B a= very little variation in graph b= huge differences and dies after 20 generations c=large variation but doesn't die until 80 generations

Anisakiasis

Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrheam blood in mucus and stool, mild fever. Infected larvae are ingested from fish or squid that humans consume raw or undercooked.

Which of the following statement is false about adult stem cells?

Adult stem cells are pluripotent.

Both fossil and DNA sequence data indicate that the human species originated in

Africa

Human populations from _____ have the highest degree of genetic diversity.

Africa

Which piece of evidence BEST supports the "out of Africa" model of the evolution of modern humans?

African populations show the greatest diversity in numbers at a short tandem repeat (STR) locus on chromosome 12

The escape from adaptive conflict (EAC) hypothesis can explain the preservation of duplicate genes through subfunctionalization. Which of the following is not part of EAC? A. The ancestral gene performs two functions, but there is an adaptive constraint that prevents both functions from being fully optimized at the same time by one gene. B. After duplication, the duplicate copies evolve to each perform one of the two ancestral functions. C. After duplication, the new gene copy is able to specialize on a new function. D. The duplicate copies are able to perform either function better than the ancestral gene.

After duplication, the new gene copy is able to specialize on a new function.

Major sources of air and water pollution and their effects on humans and wildlife

Air Pollution (gases, luquids and solids): -carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons. -Released as-is in lower atmosphere Secondary pollutants: ozone, sulfur trioxide, and acids. They are caused by chemical reactions in the atmosphere. TRANSPORTATION is the largest source of air pollution it produces nitrogen oxides which creates ozone.

Which of the following is not an assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg Principle

All alleles are at equal frequency.

Since the mid-1990s, the discovery of theropod fossil deposits in Liaoning Province, China, with remarkable soft- tissue preservation have focused interest on birds and the origins of flight. With respect to the figure shown on the right, which one of the following statements is true? A. Archaeopteryx (top) had monofiliment feathers (type (a)). B. Sinornithosaurus (second from the top) did not have any feathers. C. All four of the theropods shown in the figure had feathers. D. Since Tyranosaurus (third from the top) had feathers it was capable of flight. E. Feathers originated in the outgroup of the theropod dinosaurs shown in the figure.

All four of the theropods shown in the figure had feathers.

Below you are given the frequencies of genotypes AA, Aa, and aa. In which one of the following cases is the population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? A. AA: 0.01 Aa: 0.18 aa: 0.81 B. AA: 0.25 Aa: 0.50 aa: 0.25 C. AA: 0.36 Aa: 0.48 aa 0.16 D. All of the above E. None of the above

All of the above

The RNA World Hypothesis proposes that the primordial life form was an RNA-based living system that later evolved into life-forms like we see today, in which DNA stores biological information and proteins put this information into action. Which one of the following statements provides evidence that RNA is the original source of life? A. RNA has the capacity for both information storage and transmission. B. RNA has the the ability to perform biological enzymatic work. C. RNA is essential to the most conserved and universal components of the genetic information processing machinery: the ribosome and tRNAs. D. RNA forms the basic currency for biological energy: adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP). E. All of the above sources of evidence are true.

All of the above sources of evidence are true.

Morphologically distinct populations of monkey flower (Mimulus guttatus) grow in western California and Oregon. Coastal populations are perennial whereas inland populations are annual. The figure to the right show the relative fitness of coastal and inland plants when grown in common gardens at coastal and inland sites. These results are indicative of which one of the following: A. A fitness trade-off. B. Phenotypic plasticity. C. Divergence of coastal and inland populations is the result of natural selection. D. All of the above.

All of the above.

Hybridization between populations upon secondary contact may result in ________. A. The creation of one or more new species as hybrids between the two parental species B. The creation of a hybrid lineage that has higher fitness than either of the parental species C. Reinforcement of the two original species by way of pre- or post-zygotic isolating mechanism D. All of these

All of these

Which of the following are potential uses of embryonic stem cells?

All of these are potential uses for embryonic stem cells.

How can there be so many more proteins in our cells compared to the amount of genes that we have?

All of these processes are at work to make the number of proteins much more than the number of genes.

The gene that encodes small-subunit ribosomal RNA is useful for reconstructing the phylogeny of all organisms, because ________. A. All organisms have the gene and its function has stayed unchanged in all organisms B. The gene is not under any selective pressures C. The gene is found in eukaryotes but not bacteria or archaea D. The gene codes for a ribozyme

All organisms have the gene and its function has stayed unchanged in all organisms

Alleles are:

Alternate forms of a gene

Why have gene families evolved?

Although in some cases researchers have inferred that gene families are adaptive, gene families may also evolve due to genetic drift

What Was the First Living Thing?

Altman & Cech (1989) received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of ribozymes - enzymes made of RNA.

what did Amato find out when testing all the speciation concepts?

Amato et al. found agreement among species concepts. Under the three separate species concepts, the two historical morphospecies turn out to contain eight different species in total! That is, regardless of the concept used, the result was the same. Such studies often reveal that species diversity is greater than previously thought.

Lone star tick

Amblyomma americanum Ehlichiosis through Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii Tularemia STARI Found in NC

Gulf Coast tick

Amblyomma maculatum Rickettsiosis through Rickettsia parkeri Found on the east coast

What is the principal behind vaccinations?

An inactive or weakened disease-causing agent is injected to stimulate the body to produce antibodies and memory cells.

Suppose you are a conservation biologist and believe that a small population of a rare and endangered species you are responsible for preserving is declining because it has become subject to a mutational meltdown (extinction vortex). To test this hypothesis, you introduce into this population a number of individuals collected from other populations. if the mutational meltdown hypothesis is correct then, as a result of your experiment you would expect to see: A. Increase in the mutation rate in the population in subsequent generations B. A measurable increase in the rate of Muller's Ratchet C. Decrease in the populations allelic diversity D. An increase in survival and reproductive success in the population in subsequent generations E. An increase in the incidence of disease in the population in subsequent generations

An increase in survival and reproductive success in the population in subsequent generations

pinworm

An itchy anal region. Secondary bacterial infection can occur, disturbed sleep, abdominal pain.Ingestion of eggs either directly or indirectly.Children under 18, people who care for them, and those who are institutionalized, prevalence can reach 50%.

Structural similarities between species that are based upon function and not upon common evolutionary descent are called

Analogies

Dogs

Animal most effected by hookworms in NC (3.08/0.64)

Cats

Animal most effected by roundworms in NC (3.7/1.24)

Dogs

Animal most effected by whipworms in NC (1.08/0)

Why does Lack's simple model of ideal clutch size tend to over-predict the actual clutch size observed in nature? A. Lack's model has a fundamental mathematical error that causes it to overestimate the average actual clutch size. B. Lack's model does not take into consideration a female's future reproductive success causing the model to over-predict the ideal clutch size found in nature. C. Lack's model does not distinguish between survival of the offspring and the quality of the offspring. D. Answers A and B are correct. E. Answers B and C are correct.

Answers B and C are correct.

Suppose that in examining genotype frequencies at a diploid locus with two alleles, you find a significant excess of homozygotes relative to Hardy-Weinberg predictions. Identify the evolutionary mechanism(s) that best explains this kind of deviation from the expected genotypic frequencies: A. Heterozygote disadvantage B. Inbreeding C. Mutation D. Answers a and b. E. Answers b and c.

Answers a and b.

Extinction in Species Rich Tropical Forests

Approximately 9.4 million hectares of tropical forest are destroyed annually due to logging or conversion to agriculture or pasturage. This is an area roughly equivalent to the country of Greece. • Forested areas adjacent to clearings undergo dramatic changes in environmental conditions (e.g., light levels, temperature, humidity, livestock encroachment, hunting pressure by humans) that severely impact species diversity.

The organisms formerly classified in the Kingdom Protista _________.

Are scattered throughout all branches of the eukaryote family tree

The earliest fossil records of bacteria-like organisms, dated at over 3 billion years, ________.

Are too spotty to allow us to trace lines of descent to present-day organisms

In allopatric speciation, there's generally no reinforcement by natural selection.

As a result, both prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive isolation evolve solely due to genetic drift and are expected to increase linearly with the time since divergence.

In allopatric speciation, there's generally no reinforcement by natural selection.

As a result, both prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive isolation evolve solely due to genetic driftand are expected to increase linearly with the time since divergence.

In one population of salamanders, females show a preference for mating with males that have red cheeks whereas females from second population prefer mating with gray-cheeked males. What mechanism of divergence do these populations show?

Assortative mating

Whipworm

Asymptomatic in most cases, heavy infection can result in frequent painful stool passage which contains mucus, water, and blood, Ingestion of eggs from hands or fingers or from consumption of contaminated fruits/vegetables,Areas where human feces is used as fertilizer or where defecation onto soil happens

Diane Campbell and colleagues examined fitness in the mountain wildflowers Ipomopsis aggregata and Ipomopsis tenuituba, sister species that co-occur at a few locations in Colorado.

At the I. aggregata site, backcross hybrids, which are most common hybrid type in nature, had lower fitness than pure I. aggregata individuals. • At the hybrid site, hybrids did equally well or better.

Which of the following organisms is NOT considered a great ape?

Baboon

In the water snake (Nerodia sipedon), the frequency of banded snakes decreases and unbanded snakes increases as one moves from the mainland out to islands in Lake Erie. Based on research by King and colleagues, what best explains this spatial pattern?

Banded snakes are continually migrating out from the mainland while unbanded snakes are favored by directional selection on the islands.

Another example of an ecosystem service is ironwood trees (prunus Africana)

Bark may have pharmaceutical value. Its used to teat enlarged prostates. It is not endangered from harvesting. Yet its important to the ecosystem. It also provides food for animals like gorillas and mutualism with ants

Which one of the following does NOT meet the conditions necessary for the formation of The Initial Darwinian Ancestor?

Be composed of a molecular structure that can be made from simple inorganic molecules in a high energy environment.

Your textbook authors make the claim that "sympatric species with matching chromosome numbers are rare." Why is this?

Because coexisting populations need a boundary to gene flow before divergence can occur, and differences in chromosome numbers provide this

Prediction of the reinforcement hypothesis:

Because reinforcement is the result of selection against hybrids in regions of sympatry, populations of D. yakubaand D. santomeafrom sympatric areas will show greater prezygotic isolation than than those that occur in allopatry.

In the Origin of Species, Darwin proposed a blending model of inheritance. Why was blending inheritance problematic to the initial acceptance of his theory of evolution via natural selection? A. Because blending inheritance only applies to discrete traits (e.g., flower color) and not to continuous traits (e.g., size or length), which are more common. B. Because with this model heritable variation is blended away and lost, thus limiting the ability of natural selection to affect evolutionary change. C. Because the blending inheritance of genetic material is an example of entropy, which is not an end result of natural selection.

Because with this model heritable variation is blended away and lost, thus limiting the ability of natural selection to affect evolutionary change.

Suppose you are involved in a project studying a population of Echinacea pallida (prairie coneflower), a diploid, bee pollinated plant growing at Cayler Prairie in NW Iowa. You collect a sample from 100 individuals and assay DNA sequence variation at the apetala locus, which controls floral morphology. You find two distinct sequences: L and S. Individuals that are LL have very large petals, LS plants have medium sized petals, and SS plants have small petals. Your sample of plants yields the following observed and Hardy-Weinberg expected (HWE) genotypic counts:.

Bees preferentially cross-pollinate flowers of the same size (like size mating with like) resulting in inbreeding with respect to genotypes at the apetala locus.

Male fireflies attract mates by flashing a signal with their luminescent abdomen as they fly through the air. Each species has its own pattern of flashes which can be easily distinguished from that of other species. You can often observe males of several different species trying to attract females at the same time and in the same area. The different species do not hybridize, however, because females respond only to males of their own species. This is an example of which kind of reproductive isolating mechanism? A. Temporal (phenological) isolation B. Habitat isolation. C. Hybrid inviability (postzygotic isolation). D. Mechanical (morphological) isolation. E. Behavioral (ethological) isolation.

Behavioral (ethological) isolation.

What other benefits do humans get out of GMO's?

Biomedical: pharmaceuticals (insulin), grow replacement organs for humans. biofuels, & commercially valuable products.

What kinds of certifications are used for coffee plantations?

Bird Firendly: high input outproduce shade plantations. Lots of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, 94-97 fewer species of birds. Because these species of migatory songbirds are in decline it is Americans habits thatr in decline. This certification is about traditional shade being better and it not requiring cutting rain forest.It also provides a variety of forest products which are often organic and hand picked. It also certifies shade-grown organic coffee. Sun grown plantations have pesticides

Embryonic stem cells are harvested at which stage for potential therapeutic use?

Blastocyst stage

Which piece of evidence BEST supports the "multiregional evolution" model of the evolution of modern humans?

Both Asian fossil Homo erectus and modern human Asian populations show a high frequency of shovel shaped incisors

What processes have been hypothesized to influence the evolution of mutation rates?

Both natural selection and genetic drift, acting in opposing directions: one process favors increasing mutation rates and the other favors decreasing mutation rates

Flower color in the morning glory is determined by variation at the C-locus, which affects individual fitness via attraction of pollinators. In an area of southern Georgia, genotypes at the C-locus were found to have the following relative fitnesses: Genotype: C1C1 C1C2 C2C2 Fitness: 90 90 100 Based on this variation in fitness, which one of the following statements is most likely to be true?

C1 is dominate to C2

What are the four major non-renewable energy sources? Which is most abundant and which is most commonly used?

COAL: most ABUNDANT fossil fuel providing 27% of all energy consumption & it is used to generate electricity and produce steel. it is mined by strip mining, subsurface mining and mountaintop removal. OIL: is most COMMONLY USED, 60% of worlds energy production, historically high EROI, now more expensive to acquire. NATURAL GAS: 20-25% of global energy production. It includes methane, propane, butane. It burns cleaner (33% less CO2) yet expensive to transport. NUCLEAR ENERGY: breaks apart unarnium atoms to generate energy, steam power turbines.

What is the advantage that heterozygotes (carriers) of the sickle cell gene have over people who are not carriers?

Carriers of the sickle cell gene are resistant to malaria.

Ribozymes

Catalytic RNA has the ability to store or transmit information to replicate and perform biological work. Proteins cant store information. DNA cant do work. ORGIN OF LIFE

Taenia solium

Cause of cystericerosis, NOT FROM UNDERCOOKED PORK

Causes of global climate change

Causes: human activuty warms the climate much more rapidly. Example: We cut down forests and release carbon dioxide that is stored in trees that is released in the atmosphere. Climate change affects the large scale air currents and ocean currents.

segmented body regions, a hard exoskeleton, jointed legs, many paired limbs

Characteristics of arthropods (4)

What are the AquaAdvantage salmon?

Chinacook salmon genes are inserted into Atlantic salmon which led to rapid growth and cold tolerance. There was fear over them escaping into the wild. Good thing: fish are female and are raised in land-based facilities

Yellow monkey flowers habitat example

Coastal flower grows more and flowers later. inland flower is smaller and produces flowers earlier because of the lack of rain compared to coastal.

In the largest study to date, Hopkins and Ligard (2012) analyzed 635 traits in 153 lineages:

Consistent with earlier work, they found that within most lineages, different traits show different modes of evolution: stasis or gradualism.

The Murchison meteorite was a significant discovery for the study of the origin of life, because it ______.

Contained significant amounts of amino acids

Genes in the NK4 class are involved in heart development in both vertebrates and fruit flies. They are also involved in the development of pumping organs in organisms that lack a heart, such as roundworms and cnidarians. Available information suggests that in early animals, the ancestral NK4 gene and its associated regulatory network ________. A. evolved by duplication of the Hox cluster B. Did not have any function C. Controlled the development of some fluid-filled pumping structure in an early animal ancestor D. Were important in the development of the heart and blood vessels for all animals E. Evolved convergently in vertebrate and arthropod lineages

Controlled the development of some fluid-filled pumping structure in an early animal ancestor

What crops are grown to produce biomass energy, and are they "carbon neutral"? Why or why not?

Corn is grown and absorbs CO2 from photosynthesis and it becomes biofuel and no more carbon is emitted. Sugar cane for ethanol. soybeans, rabaseed for biodiesel and a newer tehnology: algae, switchgrass for biofuels.

The mass extinction event that led to the decline of the dinosaurs occurred at which one of the following geological time periods?

Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, or the K-T event

What organisms are modified?

Crop plants-Plants are totipotent: grown from a single cell lab animals- 98% are mice Livestock-cows,pigs,goats &chickens Aquacultured organisms-fishes like salmon & tilapia

Matute also ran an experiment in which D. yakuba females first mated with a heterospecific D. santomea male, then several days later with a conspecific D. yakuba male.

D. yakuba females show evidence of reinforcement because they preferentially produce zygotes sired by conspecific males, even when first mated with heterospecific males

How is DNA thought to influence behavior?

DNA encodes proteins, which influence brain chemicals.

Why transition to DNA-based genomes?

DNA is better suited than RNA for storing information because it is chemically more stable - especially in double stranded form.

What is the relationship between mobile genetic elements and DNA methylation? A. DNA methylation prevents RNA interference and therefore allows mobile genetic elements to spread. B. DNA methylation is reduced in regions of the genome associated with mobile genetic elements because methylation only targets protein-coding genes. C. DNA methylation is a form of post-transcriptional silencing of mobile genetic elements. D. DNA methylation is considered to be a defense against the spread of mobile genetic elements because it prevents transcription.

DNA methylation is considered to be a defense against the spread of mobile genetic elements because it prevents transcription.

How did the FBI originally create their DNA database?

DNA samples were obtained from convicted felons.

Survival rates from birth to reproductive age for genotypes at a hypothetical locus with two alleles, A and a. Results are presented for five data sets, A through E: Genotype Data set AA Aa aa A 75% 75% 20% B 40% 40% 40% C 100% 30% 30% D 12% 8% 24% E 60% 75% 65% Refering to the table above, in which one of the data sets do the two alleles exhibit heterozygote advantage for survival rate?

Data Set E

Survival rates survival rates from birth to reproductive age for genotypes at a hypothetical locus with two alleles, A and a. Results are presented for five data sets, A through E: A: AA 75%, Aa 75% aa 20% B: AA 40% Aa 40% aa 40% C: AA 100% Aa 30% aa 30% D: AA 12% Aa 18% aa 24% E: AA 60% Aa 75% aa 65% Refering to the table above, in which one of the data sets do the two alleles exhibit heterozygote advantage for survival rate?

Data Set E

Refering to the table above, in which one of the data sets do the two alleles exhibit heterozygote advantage for survival rate?

Data Set E (highest advantage in all 3)

By studying medium ground finch populations over the course of several decades, the Grants and their colleagues have demonstrated that, during drought years, natural selection favors birds with _______ beaks, and during wet years, natural selection favors birds with ________ beaks.

Deep/shallow

Rocky mountain wood tick

Dermacentor andersoni Rocky mountain spotted fever Tularemia Found in NW United States

American Dog Tick

Dermacentor variabilis Rocky mountain spotted fever Tularemia found in nc

monkeyflowers

Differences in flower morphology and color can promote reproductive isolation. -reproductively isolated by pollinator specialization (bees and hummingbirds)

Problem with Morphospecies Concept

Differences used to classify species can be arbitrary and may vary among scientists. • As in extant organisms, morphology can be affected by the environment as well as genetics (recall that VP = VG + VE).

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 The fitnesses at the L-locus are indicative of of the following form of selection:

Directional selection favoring the l allele.

If, for many generations, individuals who are taller than average in a population survive and reproduce better than individuals at or below average, and height is heritable, we would have:

Directional selection for height

The pattern of survival shown to the right is indicative of which one of the following forms of natural selection? A. Heterozygote advantage. B. Directional selection. C. Stabilizing selection. D. Negative frequency-dependent selection. E. Disruptive selection.

Disruptive selection.

The numbers of individuals before selection are indicated by the light colored bars and the numbers of individuals after selection are indicated by the dark colored bars. Based on this pattern of survival, what form of natural selection is acting on the phenotypic trait?

Distruptive Selection

Accurate knowledge about evolution is important because it: A. Helps to understand why medical research is done the way it is. B. Helps to understand and relate all biological phenomena. C. Provides the most workable unifying theme for biology. D. Helps citizens to make informed voting decisions concerning science funding and the separation of church and state in public education. E. Does all of the above

Does all the above.

Which of the five dots in the tree above corresponds to the most recent common ancestor of a mushroom and a sponge?

Dot d

Random genetic drift affects processes occurring both within and among populations. Which one of the following statements about the expected affects of genetic drift is false?

Drift decreases differentiation among populations.

A formerly panmictic (random mating) population of tiger salamanders is divided into two smaller populations (each N = 50) by the construction of an interstate highway. Which of the outcomes listed below is likely to happen most quickly?

Drift decreases the heterozygosity within each population.

what are the most frequent divergent mechanisms in nature

Ecological factors, primarily those that result in differences in the direction and intensity of natural selection between closely related populations

Consequences of climate change

Effects: temp. increases leading to Earlier breeding and flowering (average of 5 days where Larvae go dormant to survive the winter) this effects how earlier in N. Lattitude, later in South lattitude is when they migrate. -stress & disease: corals have narrow temp. tolerance and when temp is high they spit out symbiotic algae. -Tropical diseases: spread of the north and to higher elevations -loss of ice: glaciers melting faster

The graph to the right shows the fitness of female parasitoid wasps (Trichogramma embryophagum) as a function of clutch size. Each curve represents a female wasp's fitness as the number of offspring produced per number of eggs laid in a different species of host insect. Which host species is the "best" host in terms of maximizing female fitness per egg laid?

Ellopia

Fitness of female parasitoid wasps (Trichogramma embryophagum) is a function of clutch size. Each curve represents a female wasp's fitness as the number of offspring produced per number of eggs laid in a different species of host insect. Which host species is the "best" host in terms of maximizing female fitness per egg laid?

Ellopia.

As an undergraduate honors project you decide to investigate the hypothesis that global warming is causing an increase in pollinator body size, which in turn is selcting for larger flowers in sky pilot, a bee-pollinated alpine wildflower. Which one of the five statements below is not related to the ability for natural selection to result in flower size evolution in sky pilot populations. A. Environmental affects on flower size must be absent. B. There must be variation in flower size. C. In every generation, some individuals are more successful at surviving and reproducing than others. D. The survival and reproduction of individuals is a function of the variation ain flower size mong individuals: the individuals with the most favorably sized flowers are better at attracting pollinators and reproducing, and are naturally selected. E. Some variation in flower size must have a heritable genetic basis.

Environmental affects on flower size must be absent.

Which one of the following was not an important challenge to the initial acceptance of Darwinian evolution following publication of the Origin of Species in 1859?

Evidence of extinction: the finding of extinct fossil species suggested that organisms are not well adapted to their environments.

Which one of the following was not an important challenge to the initial acceptance of Darwinian evolution following publication of the Origin of Species in 1859?

Evidence of extinction: the finding of extinct fossil species suggested that organsisms are not well adapted to their environments.

The figure below shows relationships between the crystallin proteins, which are a major component of animal eye lenses. Which one of the following statements about the evolution of these proteins is true? A. The lensed eye of animals is too perfect to have evolved gradually by natural selection because half an eye is as good as no eye and no intermediate forms have been found. B. The lensed eye of animals is so well engineered that it could not have evolved by the random process of evolution. C. Crystallin proteins are irreducibly complex and could not have evolved by natural selection because the individual component proteins would have been useless until the entire lens was assembled in its final form. D. Crystallin proteins are lens specific and co-evolved gradually together as a result of natural selection. E. Evolution by natural selection cobbled together the crystallin lens proteins from preexisting proteins with other functions.

Evolution by natural selection cobbled together the crystallin lens proteins from preexisting proteins with other functions.

Habitat Tracking Hypothesis

Example: Shell morphology in bivalves • Character change plotted through evolutionary time (last 15 million yrs) • Little change within species over time interval • Yet within species, many had undergone large fluctuations: "zigzag evolution" in response to environmental change -Because these changes fluctuate about a mean, we perceive stasis as a result

Møller experimentally manipulated the tail lengths of male barn swallows. When comparing males with short tail feathers to those with long tail feathers, he found that males with longer tails: A. Less often produced a second clutch of offspring. B. Experienced more extra-pair copulations. C. Experienced increased reproduction the following year. D. Took more time to attract mates. E. Produced fewer fledglings.

Experienced more extra-pair copulations

Which one of the following observations is not evidence for the hypothesis, proposed by Alvarez et al. (1980), that the mass extinction event at the K-T boundary is due to a large asteroid hitting the earth? A. Extensive volcanic activity. B. A large impact crater, located off the coast of Mexico's Yucatan peninsula, dated to the K-T boundary. C. Microtektites discovered at K-T boundary sites. D. Shocked quartz particles present in strata at K-T boundary. E. Iridium anomolies in strata laid down at the K-T boundary.

Extensive volcanic activity

How are GMOS regulated?

FDA: Food & Drug Administration USDA: Agiriculture (meat, poultry, egg (weeds) EPA- Environmental Protection Agency -pesticides, non pesticidal toxic -US no labeling required for plants, animals not yet

What are some of the regulations in GMO with biotechnology?

FDA: Food-humans & animals. Drugs: humans and animals. USDA: meat, poultry, and egg safety, pest plants EPA: pesticides (use & allowable levels) non pesticidal toxic substances: microorganisms.

People who are carriers for the gene responsible for sickle-cell anemia are more sensitive to malaria than wild-type individuals.

False

shistosoma mansoni

Females are longer and more slender. Males have a gynopermorfic canal, or cleft, which can hold the female. Males are light in color and have a dark central line. Females are darker in color because of her higher hemotin content.

Seehausen et al. investigated speciation in cichlid fishes (genus Pundamilia) from Lake Victoria in Africa. In particular, they tested the hypothesis that speciation was related to a process called sensory drive, which predicts a connection between opsin alleles suited for different colors of light, differences in male coloration, and water clarity. Based on the figure to the right, which one of the following is an example of the type of combination of these three things that Seehausen et al. found in Pundamilia? A. Fish with red-light suited opsin alleles and red-colored males in clear, deep water. B. Fish with red-light suited opsin alleles and red-colored males in dirty, shallow water. C. Fish with blue-light suited opsin alleles and blue-colored males in clear, deep water. D. Fish with red-light suited opsin alleles and blue-colored males in dirty, shallow water. E. None of the above combinations were observed together.

Fish with red-light suited opsin alleles and red-colored males in clear, deep water

in relation to nuclear energy what is fission vs. fusion?

Fission: breaking apart of atoms that releases alot of energy. However we need radioactive isotopes for this to operate which means we release radioactive wastes too. Fusion: fusing atoms together with the sun, cleaner energy.

Describe the major characteristics of rainfall and soil for rainforest habitats.

Found in narrow belt. high temp and Precipitation every day 80-180 rainfall (San Diego only 12 in per year) lush, species-rich forest that occurs where the climate is warm and moist year-round. soils have poor nutrients rapid recycling on nutrients high species richness and diversity four layers of vegetation

What countries have tidal power plants?

France, Russia, China, Canada have tidal power plants.

What are the expected frequencies of the three genotypes in Sample 1 if the pathogen populations are in Hardy-Weinberg (HW) equilibrium? Sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

Frequencies: FF = p2 = 0.09; FS = 2pq = 0.42; SS = q2 = 0.49.

What are the expected frequencies of the three genotypes in Sample 2 if the pathogen populations are in Hardy-Weinberg (HW) equilibrium? Sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

Frequencies: FF = p2 = 0.09; FS = 2pq = 0.42; SS = q2 = 0.49.

Mechanism for preserving duplicated genes

Frequency of a newly arisen duplicated gene to fixation Fate determination phase of duplicated gene

Which one of the following ecosystems in the United States contains the greatest concentration of taxa at risk for extinction? A. Pacific northwestern forest ecosystems. B. Southwestern desert ecosystems. C. Montane ecosystems. D. Freshwater ecosystems. E. Saltwater ecosystems.

Freshwater ecosystemes

Transgenic Organisms?

GMO with genes from another species; rarely occurs in nature

Retia mirabilia (sing. rete mirabile) are vascular bundles that allow fish to secrete O2. In the above figure, red branches indicate lineages with choroid retia, blue branches indicate those with swimbladder retia, and white branches indicate absence of retia. Assuming the phylogeny and character evolution have been accurately inferred, we can see that:

Gains of swimbladder retia primarily took place in lineages that already had choroid retia

Which of the following statements regarding gene flow is true?

Gene flow homogenizes (evens out) genetic differentiation among populations.

Which one of the following statements is most accurate concerning the evolutionary origins of the major animal lineages on earth? A. The fossil record demonstrates conclusively that the earliest members of the major animal lineages diversified suddenly from a common ancestor during the Cambrian period, 543 to approximately 500 million years ago (mya). B. The record of large fossils demonstrates conclusively that the earliest members of the major animal lineages diversified suddenly from a common ancestor beginning prior to the Cambrian period, more than 550 mya. C. Gene sequence data demonstrates that the earliest members of the major animal lineages diversified suddenly from a common ancestor during the Cambrian period, 543 to approximately 500 mya. D. Gene sequence data demonstrates that the earliest members of the major animal lineages diversified from a common ancestor during the Ediacaran (636-544 mya) and the late Cryogenian (850 to 637 mya) periods.

Gene sequence data demonstrates that the earliest members of the major animal lineages diversified from a common ancestor during the Ediacaran (636-544 mya) and the late Cryogenian (850 to 637 mya) periods.

According to Westemeier et al., the mutational meltdown (extinction vortex) in endangered Illinois greater prairie chickens was due, in effect, to a positive feedback loop between:

Genetic drift and the expression and fixation of deleterious alleles.

Studying genetic marker diversity in a bird, the silvereye, Sonya Clegg and colleagues found a reduction in genetic marker (microsatellite) diversity in recently colonized island populations relative to ancestral mainland populations. The authors interpreted this pattern as evidence of which one of the following processes? A. A shift from sexuality to asexuality in island populations. B. High gene flow among island populations. C. Genetic drift resulting from founder effects. D. A reduction in mutation rates in island populations. E. Natural selection against heterozygotes in island populations.

Genetic drift resulting from founder effects.

Genome

Genetic material of an organism in the ordered series of individual bases (nucleotides) encoded in the nucleus of each cell

Experiments by Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey (1948)

Genetically identical cuttings of the same individual Achillea plant grown at different altitudes. Clearly, environmental variation can significantly affect phenotypic variation.

Trichinellosis

Gestational (1-2 days after consumption): Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain 2-8 weeks: Muscle pain Fever, weakness or fatigue, headache, chills, cough, constipation.Consumtion of raw or undercooked meat from animals that are infected with the parasite ________. 10,000 cases a year

Which one of the following hypotheses best explains why HIV hasn't evolved to have a more benign impact on its host:

Given the frequent transmission of HIV to new hosts, natural selection favors increased virulence.

Problem with Phylogenetic Species Concept

Good, well detailed phylogenies are not well established for most organismal groups. • Species-specific, diagnostic traits can be interpreted differently by different scientists

In separate marshes, small populations of three species occur: grass fish, which disperse only in extreme rains and have an average dispersal of 1 individual every 45 generations, swamp rats, which occasionally disperse over land, averaging 2 individuals dispersing per generation, and marsh birds, which regularly fly from marsh to marsh, so that dispersal is extremely high. Assuming that the three species are equally common, the most genetic differentiation between populations would be expected in: A. Swamp rats, since they will have the best balance between genetic drift and gene flow, resulting in high genetic variation among populations. B. It is not possible to compare relative amounts of genetic variation among such different kinds of animals. C. Grass fish, since they have the least gene flow, and gene flow acts to decrease genetic variation among populations. D. Marsh birds, since they have the highest level of gene flow, and gene flow increases genetic variation among populations. E. Grass fish, since they are the best adapted to their aquatic environment, and adaptation increases genetic variation among populations.

Grass fish, since they have the least gene flow, and gene flow acts to decrease genetic variation among populations.

Which virus has been linked to cervical cancer?

HPV

How does the loss of habitat differ from the fragmentation of habitat?

Habitat loss happens when bits of pieces of habitat fragmentation is constantly removed. With fragmentation, there are still pieces of the landscape that are still there. We see more negative impact from habitat loss

adaptive radiation

Hawaiian flies have 1000 species -differentiation of a single species into many descendant species

Pediculus humanus capitis

Head,chimp ancestral host,Not known to transmit any disease. Humans are only host,Spread commonly by close person to person contact.

Given the mid-parent/offspring regression plots above, which of the statements about heritability below is true? A. Heritability is higher in the plot to the left because the slope of best-fit line is greater than the slope in the plot to the right. B.Heritability is higher in the plot to the left because the data points vary more around the line of best fit than they do in the plot to the right. C.Heritability is higher in the plot to the right because the slope of the best-fit line is lower than the slope in the plot to the right. D.Heritability is higher in the plot to the right because the data points fit more closely around the line of best fit than they do in the plot to the left.

Heritability is higher in the plot to the left because the slope of best-fit line is greater than the slope in the plot to the right.

In examining a small population for deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium you find that the inbreeding coefficient (F) calculated for a single locus has a significant negative value. Which one of the following processes would you hypothesize as being consistent with this result?

Heterozygote advantage

Heterozygote advantage.

In a large population of swamp rats, you discover that 11% of the offspring are born each generation with a genetic condition that causes them to have very weak leg muscles so that they cannot swim well and tend to drown at a young age. Over many generations, the proportion of rats with this condition remains constant. The plausible explanation for this situation is:

Heterozygote advantage; it is most likely that the weak leg muscles are coded as a homozygote and this trait is maintained in the population at relatively high frequency because heterozygotes have a fitness advantage and maintain both alleles in the population.

High-crowned teeth that are well suited for grazing are found in five groups of mammals: rodents, rabbits, most cloven-hooved animals (e.g., hippos and pigs), horses (Perissodactyls), and elephants. Based on the figure below showing the relationships of these and other mammalian orders, which one of the following statements is most likely to be correct? A. High-crowned teeth evolved early in mammalian evolution and then was lost many times in the groups of mammals that do not chew grass. B. High-crowned teeth are a homologous trait of grass chewing mammals. C. High-crowned teeth are a synapomorphy of the five groups of mammals that chew grass. D. High-crowned teeth are a product of convergent evolution, having evolved independently in the groups of mammals that chew grass. E. Mammals are paraphyletic.

High-crowned teeth are a product of convergent evolution, having evolved independently in the groups of mammals that chew

Which genus or genera of hominim is/are most consistently associated with stone tools?

Homo

The out-of-Africa hypothesis of human origins proposes that proposes that Homo sapiens originated from

Homo erectus before H. erectus migrated from Africa.

The first early human species thought to have produced and used tools was

Homo habilis

Fossil evidence indicates that ____ originated about 200,000 years ago in Africa.

Homo sapiens

Structural similarities shared by two or more species that are based upon descent from a common ancestor are:

Homologies

The giant South American anteaters (Myrnecophaga tridactyla) has no teeth and a long sticky tongue; they rip open anthills and termite mounds and capture insects with their tongues. An Australian marsupial known as the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) is not closely related to anteaters, but it too has highly reduced teeth and a long sticky tongue, and it feeds by ripping open termite burrows and lapping the insects up. Such similarities between species that are not inherited from a common ancestor are known as ________. A. Mobile genetic elements B. Homoplasies C. Homologies D. Horizontal transfers E. Toolkit genes

Homoplasies

Why do some lineages remain unchanged morphologically for millions of years? Which one of the following statements is true concerning morphological stasis in horseshoe crabs (Limulus)? A. Horseshoe crab morphology has remained virtually unchanged because horseshoe crabs occur in an unchanging environment. B. Horseshoe crab morphology has remained virtually unchanged because horseshoe crabs possess no heritable genetic variation. C. Horseshoe crab morphology has remained virtually unchanged because, as living fossils, they are incapable of evolutionary change. D. Horseshoe crab morphology has actually changed at an evolutionary rate similar to that of other crab lineages, such as king and hermit crabs. E. Horseshoe crab morphology has remained virtually unchanged despite horseshoe crabs possessing as much DNA-level genetic divergence as the more morphologically variable king and hermit crab lineages.

Horseshoe crab morphology has remained virtually unchanged despite horseshoe crabs possessing as much DNA-level genetic divergence as the more morphologically variable king and hermit crab lineages.

Lack of Genetic Variation Hypothesis

Horseshoe crabs are "living fossils" • They exhibit little morphological divergence from fossils that existed 150 mya • King and hermit crabs, in contrast, exhibit much morphological diversity Genetic research by Avise et al.: ⇒ Shows that morphological stasis in horseshoe crabs is not due to lack of genetic variability

Mechanisms of Isolation

How new species come to exist 1- creation of a barrier 2- genetic divergence 3- reproductive isolation

"Deep homology" of genes

Hox genes - Pax6/eyeless genes - NK4/tinman

"Robust australopithecines," now classified in the genus Paranthropus, are distinctive as compared to other hominims because of their _____________.

Huge teeth, faces, jaws, and jaw muscles

Why are animal models used to study human behavior?

Human behavior is often similar to animal behavior and humans and animals models share many similar genes.

Prezygotic isolation

Hybrid offspring (zygotes) are never formed, usually because mating between species does not take place

Prezygotic isolation

Hybrid offspring (zygotes) are never formed, usually because matingbetween species does not take place.

Postzygotic isolation

Hybrid offspring suffer from inviability, sterility, and reduced fitness

Postzygotic isolation

Hybrid offspring suffer from inviability, sterility, and reduced fitness.

Which one of the following reproductive isolating mechanisms is not expected to evolve as a result of natural selection for reproductive reinforcement? A. Hybrid sterility. B. Differences in mating season. C. Differences in habitat use. D. Differences in the fit of male and female genitalia. E. Differences in mating behavior.

Hybrid sterility

Formation of New Species through Hybridization

If hybrids occupy habitats that are different from habitats occupied by either parental population, the hybrids could have higher fitness in the novel habitat than either of the parental species

Are the divergent coastal and inland genotypes the result of natural selection in Mimulus guttus?

If natural selection favors particular life history strategies in each habitat, Lowry and Willis predicted that fitness would differ based on lifehistory strategy. • Dark lines match the prediction. • Light symbols are genetic mosaics.

When would hybrid offspring show relatively low fitness?

If natural selection produced adaptations to distinct habitats, if sexual selection produced changes in the mating system, or if genetic drift let to the fixation of alleles that do not work well together when heterozygous

Reinforcement Hypothesis

If reinforcement is important in speciation, then prezygotic reproductive isolation should evolve faster for closely related sympatric (co-occuring) species than for allopatric species

Reinforcement Hypothesis

If reinforcement is important in speciation, then prezygotic reproductive isolation should evolve faster for closely related sympatric (co-occuring) species than for allopatric species.

Speciation may fail...

If the two populations come back into contact (into sympatry) beforethey have diverged sufficiently in allopatrythey may notbe completely reproductively isolated. •In this case they might recognize each other as conspecifics, interbreed, and their offspring develop well enough to foster gene flow between the populations. •The two populations would then merge back into a single continuous population and speciation would have failed to occur.

Punctuated Equilibrium

In 1972, Niles Eldredge and Stephan Jay Gould broke from convention by claiming that stasis is a real pattern in the fossil record and that most morphological change occurs DURING speciation events.

Black coat color is relatively rare (approx. 10%) in Arabian horses and governed by a recessive homozygous genotype at a coat color locus. Horses with dominant homozygote and heterozygote genotypes at this locus are non-black colors, such as brown or grey. Which one of the following statements best describes this situation?

In Arabian horses, the recessive allele is less common than the dominant allele at the coat color locus.

Extinction of New Zealand Avifauna

In New Zealand, 44 bird species became extinct after human colonization, but before historical (i.e., colonial) times. These losses included 8 species of gigantic flightless birds called moas.

In lecture we have considered three mechanisms by which gene duplication leads to the evolution of gene families. Which of the following is NOT one of these mechanisms? A. In many cases, two or ten copies of a gene are often no worse or better, and so gene families typically evolve due to genetic drift. B. Having multiple copies of a gene can increase transcription and translation of the gene, so when increased transcription is adaptive, then natural selection favors genes duplicating into gene families. C. Gene families are adaptive because each gene can produce a slightly different protein, which allows for diverse functions that are favored by natural selection. D. Gene families evolve because of the activity of mobile genetic elements, which cause repeated gene duplication events.

In many cases, two or ten copies of a gene are often no worse or better, and so gene families typically evolve due to genetic drift.

Lab experiement about bacterial mutation rates have demonstrated which of the following?

In short-term lab experiments, bacterial mutation rates often evolve to be higher because higher mutation rates result in higher fitness

hygiene hypothesis

In the case of allergies and autoimmune diseases your immune system is over reacting to non-toxic compounds from the environment or to the body's own cells that it does not correctly recognize

Natural selection acting at the level of mobile genetic elements _________ the fitness of mobile genetic elements and may ______ fitness at the level of individual organisms.

Increases, decreases

Some of the major sources of air pollution effects on humans and wildlife?

Industry smog causes when sulfur oxides cause respiratory illnesses and cause acid rain. During temp. inversion, pollutants get trapped in a layer of cold air close to the ground, where we live and breathe. Ozone from nitrogen oxides is an irritant worstens respiratory ailments, deterorates paints and metals.

Fasciloa hepatica

Infection of the bile ducts and liver, but other infection can occur. Gastrointestinal problems, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain/tendereness. Fever, rash, difficulty breathing.Consumption of raw watercress or other water plants that are contaminated with immature parasite larvae.Snail/ water plants

Onchocerciasis

Intense itching, disfiguring skin lesions, and eye disease that results in blindness. It is the world's 4th leading cause of preventable blindness.Transmitted from person to person by the vector blackflies.37 million infected 99% of infected in Africa

According to Patrick Forterre's hypothesis, viruses are ultimately responsible for ________.

Introducing DNA into the ancestors of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya

Main reasons humans are causing extinction

Introducing non-native species and habitat deconstruction

Dispersal and Colonization

Isolation because part of the group moved and are now separated from the ancestral population.

Which of the following is true about the Y chromosome?

It can be used to trace paternal ancestry.

What does a rooted tree of life constructed from rRNA sequence data do?

It indicates that Eukarya and Archaea share a more recent common ancestor and are more closely related to each other than either is to the Bacteria.

What is the pattern of inheritance of mitochondrial DNA?

It is always passed from a mother to her children.

Negative impacts of golden rice being modified?

It is deficient in Vitamin A and that is a vitamin that has led to childhood blindness. (1/3 of children under age 5)

What do precambrian embryos show?

It is evidence that the earliest animal lineages diverged before the Cambrian --> morphological traits that characterize arose in the Cambrian

Change in Chromosome Number Can Reduce Gene Flow

It is possible for gene flow between populations to be reduced in the absence of geographic isolation. For example, mutations resulting in polyploidization or chromosome number can produce instant reproductive isolation between parental and daughter populations.

In the 1975 study by King and Wilson, it was shown that there was a 99% similarity in coding regions of the chimpanzee and human genome. This was important because __________. A. It was evidence for the existence of HOX genes. B. It suggested that morphological differences were not due to differences in the type of proteins, but the way proteins are regulated during development. C. The researchers demonstrated that transposable genetic elements determined morphological differences between species. D. It was the birth of the evo-devo field. E. Both A and D are correct.

It suggested that morphological differences were not due to differences in the type of proteins, but the way proteins are regulated during development.

The fossil Sahelanthropus tchandesis from the Djrub Desert of Chad, dated at 6-7 million years ago, may be a hominim because of _____.

It's relatively flat face

Blacklegged tick

Ixodes scapularis Anaplosmosis Babesiosis Lyme disease found in NC

Western blacklegged tick

Ixoides pacificus Anaplasmosis Lyme disease Found in West coast of United States

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 What are the selection coefficients (s) of genotypes at the L-locus?

LL: 0.238, Ll: 0.238, ll: 0.

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 What are genotype frequencies at the L-locus after selection?

LL: 0.343, Ll: 0.457, ll: 0.200.

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 What are the survivorships (λ) of Clarkia tembloriensis plants given their genotypes at the L-locus?

LL: 0.667, Ll: 0.667, ll: 0.875.

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 What are the relative fitnesses (w) of genotypes at the L-locus?

LL: 0.762, Ll: 0.762, ll: 1.0.

Why Does Stasis Occur?

Lack of genetic variation

Why does Lack's simple model of ideal clutch size tend to over-predict the actual clutch size observed in nature?

Lack's model does not take into consideration a female's future reproductive success causing the model to over-predict the ideal clutch size found in nature AND Lack's model does not distinguish between survival of the offspring and the quality of the offspring.

Shistosoma defense mechanism

Large numbers of membranous secretion granules are produced inside the host and then emitted into the host, distracting the host's immune system and synthesizes the host.They also disguise themselves with proteins derived from the hosts own red blood cells. These function to block antibodies from attacking the larvae.

LUCA

Last Universal Common Ancestor

In the above tree, assume that the ancestor was an herb (not a tree) without leaves or seeds. Based on the tree and assuming that all evolutionary changes in these traits are shown, which of the tips has a tree habit and lacks true leaves?

Lepidodendron

Divergence of snapping shrimp by the formation of the Isthmus of Panama

Looked at shrimp sister populations on each side . Found that males and females with greater genetic differences were less likely to mate. Confirms that Pacific and Caribbean pops separated.

Case Study on a disease that was caused because forest habitat was heavily fragmented by suburban developments and agriculture?

Lyme Disease: caused flu-like symptoms if untreated, can result in arthritis, neurological problems, cardiac arrhythmia and cognitive defects. White-footed mice populations increase in smaller forest patches because of predation like weasels, foxes, and coyotes declining which is the white-footed mice's predators. In turn, fragmentation leads to biodiversity loss and an overall risk of Lyme disease.

genetic and ecological

May arise as a function of natural selection as well as genetic drift and mutation.

Which of these is NOT and evolutionary advantage of the first cell membranes?

Membranes allow cells to move independently

Human microbiome project

Microbes contribute more genes responsible for human survival than humans' own genes. It is estimated that bacterial protein-coding genes are 360 times more abundant than human genes. • Five year study, $115 million • HMP characterize microbial communities found in the human body • Determine relationship between disease and changes in the microbe community - Antibiotic treatments - Changes in human diet

______________ are repeated sequences of 10-100 base pairs that are used for DNA fingerprinting.

Minisatellites

Which statement BEST describes the role and importance of mobile genetic elements in genomes? A. Mobile genetic elements can have deleterious, neutral, OR beneficial consequences for the host organism, and all three kinds of outcomes are common. B. Mobile genetic elements are especially important for plant genomes such as the tomato, but they are not present in most animal genomes. C. Mobile genetic elements almost always have either neutral or deleterious consequences for their host. D. Mobile genetic elements are largely beneficial to hosts because they introduce new phenotypic variation into a population via transposition and/or duplication of important genes.

Mobile genetic elements almost always have either neutral or deleterious consequences for their host.

"Roundup Ready" Crops

Monsanto Corp produces Roundup herbicide and they engineer corn, cotton to withstand Roundup. Gene is found in bacteria near Roundup Factory.

Opisthorchis spp.

Most asymptomatic, Abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, enlarged liver or malnutrition, inflammation of the gall bladder and ducts and cancer may develop.Consumption of infected fish that is not heated or cooled adequately. snail and fish.

Immediately following a gene duplication event, what is the most likely evolutionary outcome for a duplicated gene? A. Most gene duplication events are selectively neutral and are therefore lost due to drift. B. Duplicated genes usually evolve to perform new functions that differ from their original function (called neofunctionalization), or both duplicate copies evolve via subfunctionalization. C. Most gene duplication events are selectively neutral and therefore the duplicated gene usually spreads through the population. It can later evolve a new function or keep its original function. D.Most gene duplication events are deleterious to an organism and therefore are lost due to natural selection.

Most gene duplication events are selectively neutral and are therefore lost due to drift

Scientists have found high levels of DNA-level genetic variation in many natural populations. Which one of the following statements concerning the nature of this variation is true?

Most of the variation is neutral with respect to natural selection.

What is a key difference between prokaryote genomes and the genomes of multicellular eukaryotes? A. There are more mobile genetic elements in prokaryote genomes than in multicellular eukaryote genomes. B. Multicellular eukaryote genomes always have a greater number of protein-coding genes than prokaryote genomes. C. Multicellular eukaryote genomes have larger intergenic regions than prokaryote genomes. D. Prokaryote genomes have more introns than multicellular eukaryote genomes.

Multicellular eukaryote genomes have larger intergenic regions than prokaryote genomes

Which statement accurately describes a relationship between mutation rate and genome size?

Mutation rate increases with genome size in multicellular organisms

Which one of the following statements about mutation-selection balance involving deleterious alleles is true:

Mutation-selection balance results when the rate at which a population gains an allele by mutation and the rate the rate at which the allele is removed by selection are equal to each other.

Why does AZT stop working?

Mutations inside the active site of the HIV virus' reverse transcriptase gene.

is the heart single ancient origin or parallel evolution?

NK4 class genes developed rhythmically ctontracting structures like the pharynx then co-opted for the devleopment of hearts

Is patchiness beneficial? What are some general trends?

NO. Patchiness causes predation from patch edges where predators gain access to patches at edges. Small

All of the following are potential problems faced when trying to transplant pig organs into humans EXCEPT

NOT -- All of these are reasons for potential problems.

All of the following support a heredity component to homosexuality, except _____.

NOT -- Genes in other animals suggest a heredity component.

In the U.S., the ____________ movement began by applying Darwin's theories to humans.

NOT -- natural selection

All of the following are potential problems faced when trying to transplant pig organs into humans EXCEPT

NOT -- the pig HLA complexes are very different from human HLA complexes.

The species group Paranthropus

NOT -- was an ancestor of early humans.

What are the two major laws governing forest use?

National Forest Management Act (1976): require national forest to create sustainable resources The Roadless Rule (2000): 31% of forests off-limits to roads, lime harvested areas/fragmentation

Consider two populations of snakes that were separated in the north and south of Iowa 10,000 years ago. They have recently expanded their ranges so that they now overlap at the edges of their ranges in central Iowa, where they now form hybrids. What is likely to be the fate of the two populations if the hybrids are substantially less fit than their parents? A. High rates of hybridization and gene flow will cause the two populations to merge into one. B. There will be extensive hybridization in the area of contact, allowing divergence in areas where the two populations do not overlap. C. Natural selection will ultimately favor divergence into three species, one in the north, one in the south, and a hybrid species in central Iowa. D.Natural selection will favor hybrid sterility which will spread into the parental populations and cause their extinction. E. Natural selection will favor assortative mating within the parental populations, potentially leading to reinforcement of reproductive isolation.

Natural selection will favor assortative mating within the parental populations, potentially leading to reinforcement of reproductive isolation.

In the scale-eating fish studied by Hori, which one of the following statements is expected to be true when fishes with mouths twisted to the left are most common?

Natural selection will increase the frequency of scale-eating fish with the right-hand mouth twist.

All non-African humans today show evidence of a limited amount of past interbreeding with _______.

Neandertals

Suppose you are studying an iris species in which flowers come in two colors: red and white. You observe that wild populations almost always include both colors, usually in roughly equal proportions, and decide to figure out what evolutionary force(s) may be acting to maintain variation for flower color within populations. First, you identify seven populations exhibiting a large range of variation in the proportions of red and white morphs. Next, you measure for each population the relative reproductive success (seed production) of red flowered plants. Your results for the seven populations are shown in the figure to the right. Based on the results above, which one of the following evolutionary forces best explains why variation for flower color is maintained within iris populations? A. Positive frequency dependent selection B. Inbreeding C. Negative frequency dependent selection D. Heterozygote disadvantage E. Directional selection against red flowered plants

Negative frequency dependent selection

Suppose, as an outcome of sequencing the dog genome, a locus is identified that confers resistance to a widespread viral pathogen. In studying genetic variation at this codominant locus in a number of wild wolf populations you obtain two interesting results: (1) every population is segregating for exactly 13 alleles, and (2) within each population allele frequencies are constant (i.e., p1=p2=...p13). What kind of selection do you think would be most likely to explain) this observed pattern of genetic variation? A. Selective neutrality. B. Heterozygote advantage. C. Negative frequency dependent selection. D. Disruptive selection. E. Directional selection.

Negative frequency dependent selection.

Can a woman with type A blood donate blood to a type O person?

No, since type O individuals will produce antibodies against the A and B markers, the type A blood will be rejected.

Galapagos Island

Not really populated until 1800 -> lost only 3 taxa in the 4000-8000 years before humans were there -> lost over 20 taxa in the past 200 years with humans

The way that nutrients flow through ecosystems?

Nutrients cycle through an ecosystem. A carbon is going to move through animals, ocean as carbonic acid. When we get energy from the sun the carbon is fixed through photosynthesis. The energy of 10% goes to the herbivore from the plants and the rest is lost. Nutrients on the other hand cycle through. Forests have a huge amount of caron stored in the leaves, in the soil, forests are a huge carbon sink. Carbon is in the ocean in some of the shells of the marine invertabraes, ocean is carbon sink. Atmosphere is a carbon sink, fossil fuels are carbon sink, sedimentaary rocks: limestones are also carbon sink. Through decompositation process. Through metabolic processes it is released again. Ocean acidification: the most CO2 released in the atmosphere then it goes into the water and then it becomes carbonic acid.

Eldridge and Gould's theory of punctuated equilibrium argued that: A. Observed stasis in the fossil record is real and that when phenotypic evolution does occur, it does so at a uniform rate by normal speciation processes. B. Stasis in the fossil record is a consequence of habitat tracking. C. Observed stasis in the fossil record is real and that when phenotypic evolution does occur, it happens so rapidly that it is difficult to explain by normal speciation process. D. Apparent evidence of rapid phenotypic evolution in the fossil record document migration events, not speciation events. E. Stasis in the fossil record occurs when lineages lack genetic variation.

Observed stasis in the fossil record is real and that when phenotypic evolution does occur, it happens so rapidly that it is difficult to explain by normal speciation process.

Hybrid Speciation

Occurs when hybrid species have high fitness and can reproduce

Tomato example of transposons

Oval Tomatos - SUN on, DEFL1 off Round Tomatos - SUN off, DEF1 on

What are the pros and cons of nuclear energy?

PROS: less disturbance to environment (far less mining required), no emissions (600,000 tons of carbon emissions not emitted), fewer health and safety problems for residents, less solid waste generated, and less depensence on foreign oil. CONS: Possible catastrophic accident, radioactive wastes such as spent fuel, coolant fluids and gases. security and weapons (where to store waste?) and public perception?

According to a database kept by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee, there are currently six genes in the human genome for different variants of the protein collagen IV. Assuming that all these genes are derived from duplications of an ancestral gene, the most precise term for these genes would be ________. A. Paralogous B. Orthologous C. Structurald D. Homeotice E. Transcription factors

Paralogous

DNA - PCR

Parasite presence can be determined through _______ testing my comparing the fragments of DNA that are produced against the known markers from certain species of parasites.

example of nest parasitism and fragmentation?

Parasitism by cowbirds is increasing and has been reported as high as 70% The main reason for this increase is habitat fragmentation. Many cowbird hosts are considered to be "forest interior" birds (meaning they nest deep in the interior of a forest). Habitat fragmentation has reduced the amount of large contiguous forest tracts. Thus, reducing the distance that a female cowbird must travel to find nests of the forest interior species, making it easier to parasitize these nests.

An example of economic ecosystem services is the peperwood trees

Pepper-bark trees are found in South Africa its used for firewood, flavoring, animal feed, bark helps treat infections, malaria and colds.

What do Plants get out of GMO's?

Plants: resist heribicides & herbivores, increase nutritional content and drought resistance, reduce spoilage

Evidence of Geographic Isolation Through Dispersal and Colonization

Populations can become geographically isolated and may ultimately speciate when individuals disperse to colonize a new habitat.

The Biological Species Concept

Populations of species that do not hybridize, or fail to produce fertile offspring when they do, are then reproductively isolated and considered to be good species. -This species concept stresses the importance of reproductive isolation between populations.

The Biological Species Concept

Populations that do not hybridize/ fail to reproduce offspring are considered to be good species. Stresses importance of reproductive isolation. *Limitations- can't be tested on fossil species, doesn't apply to asexual species, difficult to test

Factors such as behavioral, temporal, or ecological isolation mechanisms that prevent two closely related sympatric populations from interbreeding can be grouped together and classified as _______.

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

What keeps the two species separate when contact occurs?

Prezygotic isolation and Postzygotic isolation

what did coyne and Orr find out in flies?

Prezygotic isolation evolved faster in sympatric than allopatric species.⇒Evidence of reinforcement in the divergence of sympatric Drosophila

Pros and Cons of Tidal energy?

Pros: a dam across a bay can harness the energy of large tides to generate electrcity. Problems: -few places in the world have tides large enough to support this mode of energy, - high economic costs, -potential environmental costs on estaturaries

List the pros and cons of natural gas as an energy source.

Pros: relatively clean, no sulfur, releases less CO2 & hydrocarbons and no particulates compared to oil and coal. Cons: there is risk associated with transport, leaks and spills. ex) Exxon Valdez oil spill, Deepewater Horizon, and Persian Gulf Water.

Eucarya

Protista, animals, plants, fungi All but protists scattered on all of the different monophyletic groups

Pthirus pubis

Pubic region, gorilla ancestral host, Not known to carry and transmit any disease but may cause excessive itching (pruritus).Only host is human.Spread through sexual contact.

root of the tree of life?

RNA

Methylation and RNA interference are both involved in regulating mobile genetic elements. Which of the following statements is true?

RNA interference is a form of post-transcriptional silencing, whereas methylation is a form of pre-transcriptional silencing

The flow of genetic information in HIV follows which one of the following patterns?

RNA to DNA to mRNA to Protein.

Beyond ribozyme activity, what evidence is there that RNA is the original source of life?

RNAis essential to the most conserved and universal components of the genetic information processing machinery: the ribosome and tRNAs. •RNA forms the basic currency for biological energy: adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP).

V. Sarich and A. Wilson estimated that humans diverged from their closest living primate relatives ~5 million years ago. What line of evidence did they use initially?

Reactions between primate serum proteins and antibodies to human serum

Cichlid fish from Lake Victoria

Red opsin fish are deeper in the water and blue opsin fish are closer to the surface. They both prefer to mate with individuals of the same color. When water clarity is low (and they cant see) there are more intermediate fish color

Coyne and Orr's study of the relationship between pre-zygotic reproductive isolation and genetic distance in sister species of Drosophila supports which of the following hypotheses? A. Reinforcement evolves through post-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms. B. Allopatric speciation is the predominant mode of speciation. C. Reinforcement of reproductive isolation may often play an important role in speciation. D. Reinforcement of reproductive isolation does not play a role in speciation. E. Reproductive isolation evolves only via the process of random genetic drift.

Reinforcement of reproductive isolation may often play an important role in speciation.

The Hybrid Origin of Audubon's Warbler

Results from nuclear markers and mitochondrial sequences support the hypothesis of a hybrid origin of Audubon's warbler. • D. auduboni does not form a distinct genetic cluster, but is a combination of markers and sequences from D. coronata and D. nigrifrons. • Rather than becoming reproductively isolated from a single ancestral species, it was formed by the combination of genetic material from neighboring species to the north and south.

Brown dog tick

Rhipicephalus sanguineus Rocky mountain spotted fever Found in NC

The genetic material of cells is duplicated during which stage of the cell cycle?

What are the expected genotypic frequencies assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

SS: 0.01, MM: 0.09, FF: 0.36, SM: 0.06, SF: 0.12, MF: 0.36.

What are the observed frequencies of the ADH genotype in the population? ou assay 1000 diploid fruit flies for allelic and genotypic variation at the enzyme locus alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). The assay consists of extracting protein from each fly and running it on an electrophoretic gel. Some allozymes (protein products of alleles) run faster on the gel while others run slower, with each band indicating a single, specific allele at the DNA level. The bands (show where the ADH allozyme alleles migrate to in the gel. You observe a total of six different banding patterns, labeled '1' through '6', in the figure below. The vertical arrow on the left shows the direction of migration in the gel and "# Observed" refers to the observed number of flies showing a specific banding pattern. (See Lecture Notes on Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and F&H Box 6.2 on p.189 for help with this type of Hardy-Weinberg problem).

SS: 0.019, MM: 0.111, FF: 0.384, SM: 0.054, SF: 0.108, MF: 0.324.

Seehausen et al. Experiment on Pundamilia

Seehausen et al. collected males at islands that differed in water clarity. • They measured male color and opsin allele frequency at different depths at each island. • They measured female preference for male color in females from different depths at two of the islands.

who tested environmental factors and mating preferences together?

Seehausen et al. collected males at islands that differed in water clarity. •They measured male color and opsin allele frequency at different depths at each island. •They measured female preference for male color in females from different depths at two of the islands.

Which one of the following examples is not a case of negative frequency dependent selection?

Selection on the size of Eurosta-induced galls in the stems of goldenrod plants.

Consider a locus in which the relative fitnesses of genotypes AA, Aa, and aa are 1, 0.999, and 0.998, respectively. Which one of the following statements is true concerning the effects of natural selection on allele frequencies at this locus?

Selection will be more effective at increasing the frequency of the A allele in a population of size 10,000 than in a population of size 100.

These findings support the hypothesis that

Senescence is the result of cell degeneration with age

Testing hypothesis of Endosymbiosis Theory

Sequence genes, such as the small subunit rRNA, that are present in all life - including mitochondria and chloroplasts - and determine their position in the universal phylogeny. If the organelles arose via endosymbiosis, then their rRNA genes should branch from within the Bacteria. If, instead, the organelles arose independently from within the Eucarya, then their rRNA genes should branch from within the Eucarya.

Strongyloides round worm

Severe persistent diarrhea, most infected are asymptomatic,Contact with soil that has been infected with______ larvae, Immunosuppressed individuals. Have both a free living and parasitic life cycles.

Based on research conducted in the Galápagos Islands, which one of the following statements best explains the evolution of larger body size in male than in female iguanas:

Sexual selection driven by intrasexual combat

Based on research conducted in the Galápagos Islands, which one of the following statements best explains the evolution of larger body size in male than in female iguanas:

Sexual selection driven by intrasexual combat.

On which of the following should phylogenetic inference be based?

Shared derived homologies.

In Møller's study of sexual selection in barn swallows, he found that the highest rate of extra-pair copulations in females was for individuals whose nest mates had

Shorter tails

The figure to the right shows the phylogeny of snapping shrimps that live in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean adjacent to the Isthmus of Panama, which formed around 3 million years ago. Lineages A-D occur in shallower water and lineages E-H in deeper water. Which one of the following statements about diversification in these shrimps is most likely to be false? A. The uplift of the Isthmus of Panama is a vicariance event that has created a barrier to gene flow between Caribbean and Pacific shrimp populations. B. In almost all cases, sister lineages of shrimp occur on opposite sides of the Isthmus of Panama in the Caribbean and Pacific. C. Shrimp species in the Caribbean reached the Pacific (and vice versa) by rare, long distance dispersal events. D. Deep water shrimp species generally diverged earlier than shallow water shrimp species.

Shrimp species in the Caribbean reached the Pacific (and vice versa) by rare, long distance dispersal events.

What fraction of genes control development?

Signaling pathways, transcription factors, cell adhesion proteins, and cell surface receptors

A small fraction of genes whose products control development

Signaling pathways, transcription factors, cell adhesion proteins, cell surface receptors

Land snails isolation example

Single gene determines coiling direction of the shell. Right coil and left coil cannot reproduce because the reproductive organs do not line up

Extinction of Hawaiian Avifauna

Sixty bird species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands became extinct after the arrival of settlers there about 1,500 years ago.

Dracunculiasis

Slight fever, itchy rash, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, boils.Drinking of stagnant water sources that have copepods that allow for the larvae to mature inside them before they can infect humans. 148 cases in 2013.

The RNA world hypothesis is an appealing solution to this problem, because it states that ________.

Some RNA molecules both store information and catalyze chemical reactions

Complete reproductive isolation is evidence for: A. Gene flow. B. Hybridization. C. Speciation. D. Extinction. E. Polyploidy.

Speciation

Phylogenetic Trees and Species Delimitations

Species are defined as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group.

The Phylogenetic Species Concept

Species are defined as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group. - In the phylogenetic tree to the right, taxa A, C, D and F represent distinct species. - Groups B, E, and G represent populations within species. This species concept stresses the importance of common ancestry between populations

The Phylogenetic Species Concept

Species are defined as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group. -This species concept stresses the importance of common ancestry between populations.

The Morphospecies Concept

Species defined on the basis of measurable morphological differences. This species concept stresses the importance of morphological differentiation between species. - It has been especially popular among paleontologists since species determination is made by measurement of fossil remains.

The Morphospecies Concept

Sympatric Speciation

Species that have always overlapped geographically, and for them interbreeding and gene flow are always a possibility.

What form of natural selection operates on birthweight in humans?

Stabilizing Selection

Based on the data in the figure to the right, what form of natural selection operates on birthweight in humans?

Stabilizing selection. (normal bell curve)

Researchers studied a gene that regulates blood vessel growth by

Stimulating the gene with a chemical

In Europe on the other hand, GMO's has strict or lenient regulations?

Strict. approval needed by EU member of state & European commission and they have strict labeling requirements

Judging by the nature of modern humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos, which of these traits did the last common ancestor of all three probably NOT show?

Strictly heterosexual mating patterns

Which one of the following is not an example of a homologous character: A. The presence of DNA as the hereditary material in bacteria and humans. B. Structural similarities in the early embryonic stages of fishes and mammals. C. Structural similarities in the wing surface of birds and insects. D. Skeletal similarities in the hand of a man and the forelimb of a horse. E. None of the above.

Structural similarities in the wing surface of birds and insects.

Lymphatic filiariasis

Swollen limbs and breasts, damage to genitals, or swollen limbs and thickening and hardening of skin (elephantiasis).Transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. 120 million.

What is/are the specific blood cell(s) involved in the immune response?

T cells and B cells

Detection of the antigen activates cells called _________ that are required to activate the B cells.

T4 helper cells

HIV infects and kills ____________ cells.

T4 helper cells

For most traits, concordance values are higher in identical twins than in fraternal twins.

TRUE

WAA is the relative fitness of individuals with genotype AA. Now, if WAA = 0.5, WAA' = 0.5, and WA'A' = 1, which one of the following statements is true? A. The A allele is dominant and beneficial compared to the A' allele. B. The A allele is recessive and beneficial compared to the A' allele. C. The A allele is dominant and harmful compared to the A' allele. D. The A allele is recessive and harmful compared to the A' allele. E. None of the above.

The A allele is dominant and harmful compared to the A' allele.

Dover (1970) used the general selection model (GSM) to predict the change in allele frequency at a genetic locus affecting fitness in experimental populations of flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum. Which one of the following statements about Dover's findings is false? A. As predicted by the GSM, the rate at which selection was able to remove a lethal recessive allele from experimental populations slowed over successive generations. B. As predicted by the GSM, the rate at which selection was able to increase the frequency of a viable dominant allele in experimental populations slowed over successive generations. C. The GSM accurately predicted the decrease in frequency of a lethal recessive allele over successive generations in experimental populations. D. The GSM accurately predicted the increase in frequency of a viable dominant allele over successive generations in experimental populations. E. The GSM accurately predicted that a lethal recessive allele would completely eliminated from experimental populations in a single generation.

The GSM accurately predicted that a lethal recessive allele would completely eliminated from experimental populations in a single generation.

The Galapagos Islands and Human mediated extinction

The Galápagos lacked a significant human population before 1800. • An extensive fossil record documents the loss of only three taxa in the 4,000 to 8,000 years preceding the arrival of humans. • Over 20 taxa, however, have been extirpated in the ~200 years since humans arrived

Which of the following is false about the Human Genome Project (HGP)?

The HGP aimed to find out how couples could selectively have male babies.

How do we use the Hardy-Weinberg equation?

The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to calculate how common alleles are in populations.

The genetic analysis of molecular markers on the Y chromosome supports which of the following statements?

The Lemba do have a history of migration from the Middle East.

The unification of Mendelism and Darwinism occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and is called:

The Modern Sythesis

How can DNA profiles trace our paternal ancestry?

The Y chromosome is always passed on from fathers to sons.

Which of the following most accurately describes the preservation of duplicate genes via the subfunctionalization model? A. All that matters for the subfunctionalization model is that together the duplicated genes perform the original gene's function(s) the same or better; even if one gene copy becomes nonfunctional, this still counts as subfunctionalization so long as the other copy performs the original function. B. In order to be favored by natural selection and therefore to increase in frequency, the duplicated copies must evolve so that together they perform the original gene's functions better than the original gene, giving organisms with subfunctionalized genes a fitness advantage. C. Subfunctionalization is most commonly a defense against mobile genetic elements. Because subfunctionalized genes separate two functions from an ancestral gene into two separate genes, a mobile genetic element insertion can damage only one of the two functions, not both; therefore, subfunctionalization is favored by natural selection in genomes with a high load of mobile genetic elements. D. The ancestral gene performs two different functions, and eventually the two duplicate copies evolve so that one copy performs one function, and the other copy performs the other function; both copies are therefore required for the organism.

The ancestral gene performs two different functions, and eventually the two duplicate copies evolve so that one copy performs one function, and the other copy performs the other function; both copies are therefore required for the organism.

The species concept defined as a group of organisms that are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring is ________.

The biological species concept

The dendrogram A on the left clusters plant species by chemical similarity; each of the four main chemical groups is indicated with a different color. This tree does not depict descent relationships, just degree of chemical similarity. On the right in B, the evolution of these chemical types is reconstructed on a phylogeny of the plants (this does depict inferred evolutionary relationships). The colors correspond to the chemical groups on the left, and the gray branches indicate uncertainty in character reconstruction. What does a comparison of these two figures tell us about the evolution of plant secondary chemistry?

The chemical groups have each been gained and/or lost multiple times in evolution

According to the good genes/handicap male model of sexual selection, females prefer to mate with handicapped males. Why does this handicap have to be costly for survival?

The cost of the handicap guarantees to females that it is a reliable indicator of a male's overall genetic quality

According to the good genes/handicap male model of sexual selection, females prefer to mate with handicapped males. Why does this handicap have to be costly for survival?

The cost of the handicap guarantees to females that it is a reliable indicator of a male's overall genetic quality.

In Buck v. Bell, what did the U.S. Supreme court decide?

The court upheld the state law of Virginia allowing the sterilization of women who were regarded as promiscuous.

Is a Mass Extinction Event Underway?

The current human population is about 7.5 billion and expanding at the rate of 1.6% per year - at this rate the human population will double in about 40 years. ⇒ Extinctions resulting from habitat loss will increase in intensity unless human population growth declines rapidly.

Hox genes are found in the genomes of nearly all bilaterian phyla. Despite a great deal of variation in gene number and DNA sequence across the animal kingdom, their function and position in along chromosomes is highly conserved. Specifically, Hox genes are expressed along the anteroposterior axis of the developing embryo and tend to appear along a chromosome or chromosomes in the same order that they are expressed in. Hox genes are an important example of _________. A. Homoplasy B. Heterochrony conflict (EAC) hypothesis C. The escape from adaptive conflict (EAC) hypothesis D. Mobile genetic elements E. The deep homology of genetic toolkit genes

The deep homology of genetic toolkit genes

According to recent research, eusociality in the hymenoptera appears to have evolved as a consequence of:

The evolution of complex nesting behavior

Extinction of Polynesian Rails

The fossil record for the small, forest-dwelling, flightless birds called rails indicates that one to four endemic species have gone extinct on each Polynesian island studied. • Extrapolating from this well studied data set implies that there may have been 2,000 species of rails in the Pacific alone. • Only four of these species currently remain.

Given the phylogeny above, which of the following traits evolved longest ago?

The four limbs of the tetrapods (Tetrapoda).

Which of the following is false?

The gene for Huntington disease has not yet been mapped.

The human genome has helped us learn which of the following?

The human genome has many regions that scientist are unclear of what their purposes are.

Which of the following is false about multifactorial traits?

The inheritance of multifactorial traits exhibits simple dominance and recessiveness.

In organisms such as the rough-skinned newts studied by Adam Jones and colleagues, males invest less in each offspring than do females, and access to females is a limiting resource for males. Given sexual selection theory, which one of the following statements is false? A. Males should compete for access to females. B. Females should be choosier in selecting mates than males. C. The variance in reproductive success should be greater for males than for females. D. The intensity of sexual selection should be greater for females than for males E. All of the above statements are true.

The intensity of sexual selection should be greater for females than for males

Behavioral (ethological) isolation. A. Males should compete for access to females. B. Females should be choosier in selecting mates than males. C. The variance in reproductive success should be greater for males than for females. D. The intensity of sexual selection should be greater for females than for males. E. All of the above statements are true.

The intensity of sexual selection should be greater for females than for males.

Sustainability and what this means for each of the systems we have studied

The interaction between human population growth and environmental concerns The way that energy and nutrients flow through ecosystems Major sources of air and water pollution and their effects on humans and wildlife Causes and consequences of global climate change Trends in the world's fisheries and how they are managed Effects of introduced species on native communities

Mass extinction

The intervals in which over 60% of the species that were alive went extinct in the span of 1 million years

Which one of the following statements about the effects of random genetic drift is false? A. Random genetic drift increases genetic differentiation among populations. B. In infinitely large populations there is no random genetic drift. C. The larger the population size, the slower the rate of loss of rare alleles. D. The larger the population size, the faster the rate of allele fixation. E. Genetic drift is random and so may increase or decrease the frequency of an allele over time.

The larger the population size, the faster the rate of allele fixation.

Cotesia glomerata

The larva feed on their host blood until mature. When they are fully mature they develop tiny saw-like teeth that enable them to cut their way out of their host's body. During this process they also release chemicals that paralyze the host.

Which one of the following is not a Big Five mass extinction event? A. End-Ordovician (ca. 440 Ma) B. End-Devonian (ca. 365 Ma) C. End-Permian (250 Ma) D. End-Triassic (ca. 215 Ma) E. Cretaceous-Tertiary, or K-T boundary (65 Ma) F. The last 10,000 years (the Holocene)

The last 10,000 years (the Holocene)

The species concept that relies most heavily on the criterion that species are evolutionarily independent units that are isolated by gene flow is _______.

The morphospecies, biological species, and phylogenetic species concepts

The Most Recent Common Ancestor of All Life

The most recent common ancestor of all living things is the organism whose immediate descendants diverged into the lineages that led to all extant ('living today') organisms.

Gene flow is best defined as:

The movement of alleles between populations

Recall Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey's experiments showing that plants from a single population of yarrow (Achillea) exhibit very different phenotypic variance (e.g., for height) when grown at different geographic locations. These experiments demonstrate that: A. The techniques used to measure heritability must be modified to suit the conditions of different environments. B. The narrow sense heritability (h2) of a trait is environmentally dependent. C. The phenotypic expression of the underlying genotype is independent of the environment in which it is expressed D. The phenotypic variance (VP) is not an important component of the narrow sense heritability. E. The narrow sense heritability (h2) of natural populations is constant, regardless of the environment in which it is grown

The narrow sense heritability (h2) of a trait is environmentally dependent

The C-value is the amount of DNA contained in a haploid nucleus (in picograms). It was once expected the amount of DNA would be correlated with the organism's morphological complexity; however this is not true, leading to the C-value paradox. Which of the following does not contribute to this paradox? A. The number of large intergenic, non-coding sequences. B. The number of protein-coding genes. C. The number of mobile genetic elements. D. The number and size of introns within genes.

The number of protein-coding genes.

The species concept based on analysis of character states that indicate the smallest monophyletic group is ____________.

The phylogenetic species concept

Why did the population studied by Nancy Wexler have such a high frequency of Huntington disease?

The population was isolated.

Extinction in theTropics

The problem of habitat destruction and species loss in tropical forests is particularly acute: Tropical rain forests are extraordinarily rich in plant an animal species.

Shelterwood cutting?

The removal of all mature trees in an area over an extended amount of time. During the first year of harvest, less desirable and dead trees are harvested and removed. As younger trees mature, they produce seedlings, which continue to grow as the now-mature trees are harvested. Little soil erosion but more trees cut down than selective cutting.

Sequence data from the aminoacyl-tRNA synthase gene family.

The top portion of the tree is from the isoleucine aminoacyl-tRNA synthase (IleRS) gene, and reveals the relationship of Archaea and Eucarya. • Valine and leucine aminoacyl-tRNA synthase genes serve as outgroups.

If two genes show a low crossing-over probability, this means that

The two genes are close together.

From an evolutionary perspective, the most significant distinction between asexual and sexual populations lies with differences in:

Their rates of genetic recombination

trends in world fisheries ?

There are examples of better managed fisheries: The halibut in Alaska in terms of yield and most recently economically. Economic vs. Yield overfishing, Maximum sustainable yield and how that affects pop. growth. When pop. are small and they have access the resources they are experiencing exponential growth. When approaching the capacity At low pop. numbers its exponential growth and when it reaches a higher population. MSY: is in the middle of the graph when you are able to harvest the most fish and still allow them to replenish themselves.

A friend of yours is a poultry farmer who is trying to increase the size of her chickens to maximize profits. She measures the midparent and midoffspring height of some of these chickens and presents these data to you in the scatterplot to the right, which includes the best fit regression line. Based on these data, what is the best advice that you can give to her?

There is plenty of variation, but none of it is heritable. To maximize profits, she should consider looking for environmental factors that influence height.

In a genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele, scientists cannot directly count those who carry the allele in a population. Why is this the case?

There is usually no discernible difference between carriers and non-carriers.

Example: In monkeyflowers, Mimulus lewisii is adapted for bee pollination while M. cardinalis is adapted for hummingbird pollination.

These two species are reproductively isolated by pollinator specialization

What is meant by the term "allopatric speciation?"

They are speciated in different locations

Which of the following is not true about STRs?

They consist of differences in DNA sequences that are only one base-pair long.

Different Genes Give Different Phylogenies

This discordance among universal phylogenies is explained by the horizontal transfer of genes among taxa, a process known as horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer.

Matute (2010) tested the reinforcement hypothesis by conducting reciprocal matings between the two fly species.

Those from sympatric areas laid fewer eggs after mating with a D. santomea male than did females from allopatric areas

Estimates of the universal phylogeny based on small-subunit rRNA and other gene sequences supports A. Two domains of life: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. B. Three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaebacteria, and Protists. C. Three domains of life: Bactaria, Archaea, and Eucarya. D. Four domains of life: Bactaria, Archaea, Protists, and Eucaryae. E. Five domains of life: Bacteria, Protists, Plants, Fungi, and Animals.

Three domains of life: Bactaria, Archaea, and Eucarya.

Tidal energy: what is it?

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. A dam across a bay can harness the energy of large tides to generate electricity. Basically: water at high tide gets trapped on land side, as tide receedes, the power of the water falls through the dams spillway and turns a turbine

Timber plantations?

Timber harvested is used for fuel, construction materials, and paper products. most harvest occurs here but its done with a monoculture of trees: one species all planted at the same time, do not support high biodiversity and are more susceptible to insect pests and disease-causing organisms.

In a hyperacute rejection

Transplanted cells with very different antigens from the host's antigens trigger a massive immune response.

In which one of the evolutionary trees below is the circled group of taxa a paraphyletic group?

Tree B

The figure below shows the Hawaiian Island Archipelago with older islands to the west and younger islands ot the east. Which of the three trees, A, B, or C, is most consistent with the process of speciation by dispersal discussed in class for Hawaiian Drosophila flies? A. Tree A B. Tree B C. Tree C D. The three trees are equally consistent with the process of speciation by dispersal discussed in class.

Tree C

These trees for six different groups of organisms for (A) tree frogs, (B) caecilians, (C) uropeltid snakes, (D) freshwater fishes, (E) freshwater shrimps, and (F) freshwater crabs are all colored based on whether the species come from mainland India or Sri Lanka. Assuming these trees and the reconstruction of ancestral geographic distributions are accurate, which of the trees includes a single well-supported migration from Sri Lanka back to southern India?

Trees A and F

T/F: One important implication in the area of multifactorial traits is the question of whether a woman can be forced to take medication that is beneficial to her fetus.

True

The development of new technology such as sequencers and computer programs have helped the HGP progress more rapidly.

True

The teaching of evolution in some states was illegal in the USA.

True

What is the normal function of a tumor suppressor gene?

Turns off cellular division.

Yellow monkeyflowers (Mimulus guttatus) from western North America example of adaptation to different habitats

Two distinct ecotypes representing divergence partway along the process towards speciation: • The coastal ecotype is perennial, occurs in a wetter, more benign habitat, and flowers in late summer. • The inland ecotype is an annual and flowers early and sets seed before the mid-summer drought.

Yellow monkeyflowers (Mimulus guttatus) from western North America.

Two distinct ecotypesrepresenting divergence partway along the process towards speciation: •The coastal ecotype is perennial, occurs in a wetter, more benign habitat, and flowers in late summer. •The inland ecotype is an annual and flowers earlyand sets seed before the mid-summer drought.

Carol Woese has controversially proposed that all three domains of life evolved from a(n) _______. A. Universal gene exchange pool B. An archaean-like LUCA C. Fusion of an archaean and a bacterium D. Extremophilic archaean

Universal gene-exchange pool

Amato et all (2007) Redefining species in Pseudo-nitana

Used MC, PSC, and BSC to discover that what they thought to be 2 microspecies is actually 8

Morphospecies concept applied to cryptic marine plankton

Used light and transmission microscopy

Which of the following is a false statement about bioinformatics?

Uses information obtained from chromosomal telomeres to design new proteins.

Extinction of Polynesian Avifauna

Using archeological data, Steadman et al. (1995) has amassed compelling evidence that an important extinction event has just occurred among birds. Steadman estimates that of the 11,000 bird species present on earth 2,000 years ago, approximately 2,000 species have been extinguished in the Pacific region alone. This means that the class Aves has already lost 20% of its species as a direct result of human impacts.

The root to the tree of life was obtained A. Using mitochondria as an outgroup. B. Using small sub-unit ribosomal RNA gene sequence data. C. Using chloroplasts as an outgroup. D. Using viruses as an outgroup. E. Using one member of a gene family (e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthase gene family) as an outgroup relative to another.

Using one member of a gene family (e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthase gene family) as an outgroup relative to another.

Diversification of Hawaiian Drosophila

Very diverse (egg laying location, courtship ritual), but most are only found on one island. Flies that are most closely related are closer together on islands

Which one of the following best describes vestigial structures? A. Vestigial structures are functionless or rudimentary homologs of characters that are functional in close relatives. B. Vestigial structures are well-developed structures that have a different function in close relatives. C. Vestigial structures are similar structurally and functionally to comparable structures in other organisms. D. Vestigial structures have not yet been identified in humans. E. Vestigial structures are small structures that are not present in close relatives.

Vestigial structures are functionless or rudimentary homologs of characters that are functional in close relatives.

There are two closely related populations of squirrels living in the Grand Canyon area - one lives on the north rim, the other lives on the south rim. Speciation in these squirrels BEST fits which model?

Vicariant allopatric speciation

How do we know differences between similar fossil "species" aren't simply due to growing in different habitats or under different environmental conditions?

We can't readily test for environmental effects in extinct organisms as we can in extant ones

In peas, flower color is controlled by a single Mendelian locus with two alleles, R and r. RR plants have red flowers, rr have white flowers, and Rr have pink flowers. Let p equal frequency of R alleles and q equal frequency of r alleles. In the pea population under study, p = 0.50 and q = 0.50. You count the plants for their flower colors and find the following numbers: Red: 40 Pink: 20 White: 40 Total = 100 Which one of the following statements is true:

We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the frequencies of the genotypes are not in agreement with the proportions RR: p2 Rr: 2pq rr: q2

This question deals with common misconceptions about what Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) is. In peas, flower color is controlled by a single Mendelian locus with two alleles, R and r. RR plants have red flowers, rr have white flowers, and Rr have pink flowers. Let p equal frequency of R alleles and q equal frequency of r alleles. In the pea population under study, p = 0.50 and q = 0.50. You count the plants for their flower colors and find the following numbers: Red: 40 Pink: 20 White: 40 Total = 100 Which one of the following statements is true: A. We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the number of heterozygotes is less than the number of rhomozygotes. B. We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the number of heterozygotes is less than the number of RRhomozygotes. C. We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the frequencies of the genotypes are not in agreement with the proportions RR: p2 Rr: 2pq rr: q2 D. We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the R and r alleles are codominant. E. None of the above.

We know that the pea population is not in HWE at this locus because the frequencies of the genotypes are not in agreement with the proportions RR: p2 Rr: 2pq rr: q2

Why does this extinction rate matter?

We rely on biological diversity for our very existence: Pollination of crop plants Carbon storage by forests Bacterial communities for our health

The figure to the right shows results from Schluter and Gustafsson's (1993) work experimentally modifying clutch size in collared flycatchers. Which one of the following statements concerning this figure is true? A. When eggs were added to a nest the clutch size produced by surviving daughters increased. B. Insect parasitoids have a negative impact on brood size. C. When cuckoos, which are nest parasites, add eggs to a nest the number of daughters in the nest increased. D. When eggs were added to a nest the clutch size produced by surviving daughters decreased. E. The removal of eggs by predators decreased the number of daughters within a nest.

When eggs were added to a nest the clutch size produced by surviving daughters decreased

Schluter and Gustafsson's (1993) worked experimentally to modify clutch size in collared flycatchers. Which one of the following statements concerning their work is true?

When eggs were added to a nest the clutch size produced by surviving daughters decreased.

secondary contact

When gene flow occurs between two populations that speciate in geographic isolation (allopatry)

Researchers had previously found out that

When this gene is silenced mice don't grow new blood vessels as when the gene is normally active

Lateral gene transfer means that phylogenetic analyses of different individual genes from the same set of organisms often yield results that are inconsistent with each other. What technique seems to avoid this problem and give us the clearest, most consistent view of the "tree of life"?

Whole-genome phylogenetic analysis

How is hemolytic disease of newborns prevented

Women are given an antibody preparation against Rh+ antigens during their first pregnancy.

female genothype

male genotype

Jacobs syndrome is another name for

XYY syndrome

In the US is most plant genetically modified?

YES. no labeling required, no animal foot yet on the market,

Suppose that in the past, there was genetic variation in a population of herbivores such that some were more resistant to gut parasites than others; those that were more resistant obtained more nutrients and survived better and reproduced more. Over time, parasite resistance became more and more common and now all individuals of this species are resistant. Because they produce many offspring, however, this results in overpopulation so that they are more likely to use up needed resources and die out. In this case is parasite resistance an adaptation? A.Yes, because it increases the fitness of individuals, and natural selection acts on individuals. B. Yes, because it is a shared, derived trait of this species. C. No, because once fixed in a species a trait becomes vestigial. D. No, because even though it benefits individuals, it is not good for the population.

Yes, because it increases the fitness of individuals, and natural selection acts on individuals.

Could a varying, self-replicating population of RNA molecules be considered alive?

Yes, because such a population would show variation, inheritance, and selection

Can a woman with blood type A have a child with blood type O?

Yes, but the mother must be IAi.

What is the difference between yield overfishing and economic overfishing?

Yield overfishing: depletion of stock to where the reproduction is stopped because fish has been overfished and they are no longer reproducing at a sustainable yield. Economic overfishing; market may be flooded by too many fish.

Direct

_______ smears are looking for adult individuals in blood smears.

Fecal

________ smears are used to detect motile parasitic stages like protozoans, trophozoites, and helminth larva

Who is the last common ancestor of all extant organisms

a community!

Exaptation

a functional shift of a trait during evolution

Gene Sharing

a gene gets recruited for a second function *Adaptive conflict- the gene cannot get better at new function without getting worse at the old one

Vicariance

a geographic barrier is formed that splits the species

The founder effect refers to

a group whose genetic origins can be traced to a small number of people

In humans, obesity is

a multifactorial trait.

indirect Elisa

a primary antibody and secondary enzyme linked antibody are used in order to indicate the prescience and variety of antigen in a sample. The primary antibody is incubated with the antigen followed by an incubation with the secondary antibody and enzyme. When the secondary antibody is added and if it binds correctly it will not be removed by the wash

Permineralization

a process of fossilization in which mineral deposits form internal casts of organisms. Common mode of fossilization occurs when structures are buried in sediments and dissolved minerals fill spaces within organic tissues

Hybrid Zones

a region where diverged populations interbreed and hybrid offspring are common. Hybrid zones are usually produced when secondary contact occurs between species that have diverged in allopatry.

a hybrid zone

a region where diverged populations interbreed and hybrid offspring are common. -Hybrid zones are usually produced when secondary contact occurs between species that have diverged in allopatry. -For a hybrid zone to persist and be geographically stable, there must be some novel habitat where hybrids have fitness equal to or higher than do the parental species.

Hybrid zone

a region where diverged populations of interbreed and hybrid offspring are common. Usually produced when secondary contact occurs between species that have diverged in allopatry. *to be stable- there must be novel habitat where hybrids have fitness equal or higher than the parental species.

Gene family

a set of genes defined by presumed homology

Based on your knowledge of the immune system, which would you expect to be the most compatible source for a kidney for someone needing a kidney transplant?

a sister or brother

Positive eugenics refers to

a social philosophy that advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits

what did Lowry and Willis study?

adaptation to different habitats in mimulus guttaus -they predicted that fitness would differ based on life-history strategy

What are the major causes of deforestation for rainforests?

agriculture, logging industry, firewood, and cattle ranches.

Eugenics is a thinking that by eliminating (by sterilization, selective mating, and genocide) individuals with certain traits from a population that these traits will disappear from the population. From only a genetics view point eugenics would fail. Which of the following is a reason why it would fail.

all of the above

Stem cells can produce which of the following?

all of the above

What are the legal and ethical issues associated with DNA forensics?

all of the above

What are the different types of external signals that can activate a cell's signal transduction pathway?

all of thes

Neurotransmitters are

all of these

Smoking is related to cancers at which sites?

all of these

The development of cancer can be linked to

all of these

The different lines of evidence that scientists are using to understand factors associated with sexual orientation are

all of these

What are different ways that drugs can be used to prevent HIV infection or treat an individual infected with HIV?

all of these

What are the different types of repeats found in the human genome?

all of these

What are the environmental factors that have been implicated in cancer?

all of these

Where can DNA samples come from?

all of these

Which of the following animals have been cloned?

all of these

Which of the following are genetic technologies that can potentially have a large impact on society?

all of these

Which of the following is true about a complete chromosome map?

all of these

Clear-cutting?

all trees are removed from a particular site. Clear-cut areas may be reseeded or allowed to regenerate naturally. Clear cutting is the most destructive of them all. Timber is harvested preferably this way because it is the most cost effective. It destroys biological habitats and increases soil erosion, particularly on sloping land, degrading land so much that reforestation doesnt take place.

This results when the immune system overreacts to antigens that do not cause an immune response in most people.

allergies

__________ result when the immune system overreacts to antigens that normally do not cause an immune response.

allergies

thin smear preparation

allowed to air dry for ten minutes and is fixed with methanol. This is then used to examine each parasite more closely and identify which species of plasmodia is causing the malaria infection

ocular micrometer

allows an observer to more accurately measure the size of the organism that they are looking at. From this measurement they can more easily determine what the organism is and what effects that it may have on the infected animal

How is PCR used in DNA forensics?

allows the creation of DNA profiles from very small amounts of DNA

Bacteria

almost all of well known prokaryotes (gram positive bacteria, purple bacteria, and cyanobacteria)

What is the relationship between the geographic distribution of malaria and sickle cell anemia?

almost complete overlap

diversity among genomes hypothesis

amount of DNA in an organisms genome is positively correlated with the organisms size and complexity

What is aaRS?

an enzyme that "charges" a tRNA with its specific amino acid. Once the tRNA is charged a ribosome can transfer the amino acid to a growing peptide ('a growing protein chain').

RR= 60 Rw= 280 ww= 160 Relative to Hardy-Weinberg expectations, this value of F indicates:

an excess of heterozygotes.

What was the Cambrian Explosion?

an explosion of morphological and ecological diversity in pre-existing animal lineages

Tungiasis

an infestation of the skin by a flea, Tunga penetrans, more commonly known as the jigger. It is transmitted when a flee burrows into the skin of and lays in order to continue its life cycle by laying eggs. Symptoms include extreme itching, pain, inflammation, cysts formation, ulceration, and discharge from the ulcer or bump.

homoplasious

anatomical structures often use the same regulatory genes -similar but independently evolved

hookworms

anemia, walking barefoot on contaminated soils,People at risk are those farmers that use human feces as soil fertilizer, or where defecation onto soil happens.

wild rodents like prairie dogs

animal that acts s a reserviour for bubonic plague

Freezing fossilization

animals preserved in permafrost- can be more than 40,000 years old

Demodex folliculorum

are a long thin mite species that make their home in a hair follicle on humans.

Microtektites

are spherical or teardrop shape particles of glass associated with meteorite impact sites.

Ascaris

asymptomatic, Direct contact and ingestion of fecal matter that has been infected, is common in individuals with poor personal hygiene, sanitation practices and where human feces are used as fertilizer,Non ingestion of human feces and washing of hands.

DNA methylation

attachment of a methyl group (CH3) to DNA nucleotides (prevents transcription of DNA to RNA)

Why are research animals subject to GMO's?

because any disease with a genetic component, protein based medicine or vaccines.

AK Halibut was an example of a economically well managed fishery in terms of yield. why?

because it was managed by setting a total allowable catch (TAC). So each fisherman can choose hour and when to fish. -IFQ's add up to MSY

D. yakubafemales show evidence of reinforcement

because they preferentially produce zygotes sired by conspecific males, even when first mated with heterospecific males

Within a population, what is the typical distribution of a polygenic trait?

bell-shbell-shaped curve aped curve

Signal transduction begins with _____.

binding of a signal to a receptor on the cell surface.

Pediculus humanus corporis

body,Intense itching "pruritus" and rash are caused by an allergic reaction to louse bites. chimp ancestral host. Vagabond's disease is a condition where heavily bitten areas of the skin become thickened and darken over time. Lice may also carry epidemic typhus, trench fever, and epidemic relapsing fever. Only host is humans.Spread by person to person contact mostly in conditions of crowding and poor hygiene.

RNA has the capacity for what?

both information storage and transmission, and the ability to perform biological enzymatic work, many researchers now believe it preceded both proteins and DNA in the origin of life.

do vampire bats use kin selection or reciprocal altruism?

both- sharing between mothers and pups but also between unrelated bats

How are DNA fragments separated using an agarose gel and an electric current?

by size, with the shortest DNA fragments traveling farthest

cryptospordium parvum

can be tested for by using DNA based testing. The most common method is RFLP analysis of PCR products by observation of SspI and VspI. These tests confirm prescence of __________ with three banding patterns at 100bp, 200bp, and 400bp.

fluke

can either reproduce sexually or asexually in order to increase its reproductive potential. If there are no suitable mates around it will asexually reproduce in order to proliferate and continue its life cycle. If suitable mates are found it will reproduce sexually in order to provide a genetic advantage for its offspring.

proteins

can perform all sorts of complicated biological tasks butcan't propagate themselves. They cannot store and transmit the information needed to replicate.

Certain populations have a much higher frequency of carriers of recessive traits than others. This is called the

carrier frequency

echinococcus granulosus

cause of cystic echinoccosis

homoplasy

characteristic shared by a set of species, but not common ancestor

isoenzyme analysis

checks for the presence of parasitic enzymes with the use of gel differentiation.

Pesticide?

chemical used to kill pest species (often insects) of plants (crops, ornamental, etc.)

Herbicide?

chemical used to kill plants

Cystic fibrosis affects all of the following EXCEPT

cholesterol levels

Artificial Selection?

choosing individuals of the same species with desirable traits and breeding (animals) or crossing (plants) them together; has been done for centuries

Plasmid?

circular, bacterial DNA; used to insert gene of interest into a bacterium which can then transfer the gene to a plant

theoropods

clade of bipedal, carnivorous dinosaurs that include birds as the living descendants

Is inheritance at the ADH locus dominant or codominant?

codominant

The IA and IB alleles that determine the ABO blood types of red blood cells are

codominant

The Cambrian (541-485 MYA)

complex bilaterally symmetrical animals - arthropods, mollusks, vertebrates, and echinoderms

The presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins is called ________.

concordance

Biological species concept applied to cryptic marine plankton

conducted breeding experiements

Phylogenetic species concept applied to cryptic marine plankton

constructed a phylogeny from DNA sequences

What are some solutions for isolation of habitats being problematic?

corridors may be used to link patches but may have high amounts of edge. Also through protection of discrete features

Paragonimus spp.

cough, abdominal pain, discomfort, low-grade fever, symptoms mimicking bronchitis or tuberculosis,By eating of an infected raw or undercooked crab or crayfish. snail/crustacean.

Microevolution

covers evolutionary process that operates on individuals within populations

Amber fossilization

created from fossilized plants that trap and preserve small animals (mostly bugs)

Which of the following is not one of the primary forces of evolutionary change?

crossing over

Which of the following is not one of the primary forces of evolutionary change?

crossing over.

Orthologous Genes

deep conservation of hox genes

morphospecies

defined on how their cells overlap, but the differences are subtle and there was some question as to whether they are really separate species.

The Morphospecies Concept

defines a species based on morphological differences *Limitations- morphology can be effected by environment, diff descriptions used by diff scientists

how does transposition affect the fitness of the host?

depends where the TE is inserted -if it is in the exon or introns it can result in deleterious knock-out mutations

What do ecological factors result in?

differences in the direction and intensity of natural selection between closely related populations, are the most frequent divergence mechanisms in nature.

homoplasy by convergence

different developmental underpinnings

Geographic isolation can come about by two mechanisms:

dispersal and vicariance

In the figure to the right, the numbers of individuals before selection are indicated by the light colored bars and the numbers of individuals after selection are indicated by the dark colored bars. Based on this pattern of survival, what form of natural selection is acting on the phenotypic trait?

disruptive selection (almot bell curve, trails off to the right)

If you were to add a trout to the phylogeny shown above, where would its lineage attach to the rest of the tree?

dot c

The amount of target DNA _____ with each PCR cycle.

doubles

Random genetic drift affects processes occurring both within and among populations. Which one of the following statements about the expected affects of genetic drift is false?

drift decreases differentiation among populations

The "Big Five" Mass extinctions

end- Ordovician (440 MYA) end- Devonian (365 MYA) end- Permian (250 MYA) end - Triassic (215 MYA) Cretaceous- Tertiary (65 MYA)

When a person is exercising, the release of _____ leads to a feeling of exhilaration.

endorphins

The way that energy flows through ecosystems?

energy flows through an ecological pyramid that graphically represents the relative energy values of each trophic level. The energy dissipates into the environment as it moves from one trophic level to the next. example) Fromproducer (plants) to primary producer (field mouse) Secondary consumer (bird of prey)

In the case of multifactorial traits,___

environmental factors play a role in determining the phenotype.

In the early part of the 20th century, the U.S. government started contests to pick families with the best genetics. What was the basis of this program?

eugenics

last common ancestor of all life forms

eukarya but a community of organisms that readily traded genes

Darwinian Evolution

evolution is gradual, sudden appearances of new taxa is only because of an incomplete fossil record

Background extinctions

extinction occurring at the normal rates (accounts for 96% of all extinction)

A person behaves in a certain way strictly based on his or her heredity.

false

All populations of a species are genetically identical.

false

As a result of selection, the frequency of the l-allele will decrease in the population.

false

Eugenics has never been used in the United States of America.

false

Height does not follow a bell-shaped curve population distribution.

false

Immunosuppressive drugs are given to people after an organ transplant to prevent bacterial infections.

false

Knockout mice have not been useful in modeling different kinds of cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

false

Modern humans have never existed with other species of Homo.

false

Phenotypic differences between humans and chimps are explained entirely by differences in coding sequences.

false

Pluripotent cells have the ability to become only one kind of cell in the body.

false

Presently, the analysis of fetal cells extracted from the mother's blood to test for Down syndrome is very accurate, with almost 0% false positive results.

false

Successful organ transplants require that the HLA haplotypes of the donor and recipient be a 100% match.

false

T/F: The functions of almost all of the human genes are currently known.

false

The A and B antigens are the only antigens found on the surface of red blood cells.

false

The ability of adults to digest lactose is shared among all mammals

false

The genotype frequencies in Sample 2 are in accord with the expectations of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

false

mechanisms for preserving duplicated genes

fixation, fate determining phase then maintenance

Erin and Anstey 1995

found evidence that suggests that speciation is sometimes gradual and sometimes punctuated

exaptation

functional shift of a trait during evolution

Homeotic genes

genes that regulate the development of anatomical structures by providing positional information are conserved across most eumetazoans

According to Westemeier et al., the mutational meltdown (extinction vortex) in endangered Illinois greater prairie chickens was due, in effect, to a positive feedback loop between:

genetic drift and the expression and fixation of deleterious alleles.

what is a genome?

genetic material of an organism -the ordered series of indivual bases encoded in the nucleus of each cell -DNA or RNA -coding and non-coding

experiments by Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey

genetically identical cuttings of the same individual plant and grew it at different altitudes -different altitudes caused different growth rates so if you were basing the growth off of the morphospecies concept, you would think that they were 3 different species

The ________ of an organism contains all of the organism's genetic information.

genome

Mechanisms of Divergence

geographic isolation, vicariance, polyploidy, and other chromosomal changes, divide and isolate populations, which is necessary for speciation to occur.

Consider a hypothetical situation in which natural selection favors an initially rare dominant allele. Which one of the graphs below indicates the way in which the frequency, q, of the dominant allele will change over time?

graph b (rapid increase than plateau) -When advantageous dominant alleles are rare they are mostly in heterozygotes and exposed to selection while disadvantageous recessive alleles are mostly in homozygotes and also exposed to selection. As a result, the frequency of the advantageous dominant allele initially increases very rapidly while the frequency of the disadvantageous recessive allele decreases very rapidly. As the advantageous dominant allele becomes increasingly common, the disadvantageous recessive allele is increasingly in heterozygotes where it is hidden from selection. As a result, the increase in frequency of the advantageous dominant allele slows. This initially rapid but slowing increase in frequency of the advantageous dominant allele is portrayed in graph (b).

Species

group of interbreeding individuals with a common ancestry fundamental unit of evolution evolutionary independent units

What do farm animals get out of GMO's?

grow faster and larger

indirect ELISA

has high sensitivity and is cost saving as fewer labeled antibodies are required

If a person is Rh+ then they

have an Rh+Rh+ or Rh+Rh- genotype

Fraternal twins

have similar but non-identical genetic sequences

A serious disease occurring during some pregnancies, where the Rh factor poses a problem is called ______________.

hemolytic disease of newborns

Peet bogs fossilization

highly acidic something that they have found buried humans preserved in for 8,000 years

Structural similarities shared by two or more species that are based upon descent from a common ancestor are

homologies

In discussing the "Bell-Curve Fallacy", your textbook explains that

human race-specific differences in IQ test scores are almost impossible to attribute to genetic causes.

Prezygotic isolation

hybrid offspring are never formed

postzygotic isolation

hybrid offspring suffer from inviability, sterility, and reduced fitness

How does a fuel cell work?

hydrogen gas is burned to generate electricity: H2 split to allow electrons to flow. Output: Electrivity, water, heat.

What is the problem with getting hydrogen for fuel cells?

hydrogen is locked in compounds like water. Solar generation would be efficient

Where is nuclear energy generated worldwide?

in 2012, 435 counties have nuclear power plants and 66 more under construction in 14 countries. Countries like: US, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Germany. Canada , Ukraine, China and Spain.

vicariance

in which an existing species range is split by the appearance of a new physical barrier to gene flow (migration).

Gene flow between demes (populations) tends to:

increase genetic variation within individual demes AND make different demes more genetically similar to each other.

Gene flow between demes (populations) tends to:

increase genetic variation within individual demes and make different demes more genetically similar to each other

A heterozygous person for cystic fibrosis may be more resistant to

infection by the bacterium Salmonelle typhi

what is IDA

initial darwinian ancestor

In 1990, a young girl was treated for severe combined immunodeficiency disorder. Her treatment involved_____.

insertion of the adenosine deaminase gene into white blood cells removed from her body.

Speciation by sensory drive

interactions between natural selection and sexual selection results in speciation

Seed tree cutting??

involves the removal of all but a few trees, which are allowed to remain to provide seeds for natural regeneration.

sandwich ELISA

is able to be used for more complex samples, since the antigen is more specific. This type of ELISA has more flexibility and overall sensitivity since both the direct and indirect methods can be used in order to detect and antigen.

centerfugation

is integral in separating the parasitic eggs from the fecal debris that contain them. As the centrifuge rotates centripetal force drives the denser fecal matter to the bottom separating it from the eggs which are lighter and rise to the top.

plant parasitic nematode

is modified so that it forms a hollow spear which is apple to penetrate and with drawl the contents of its host's cells

Challenge to using sequence data estimating the evolutionary tree for all living things

is to find a gene that was present in the common ancestor and that still shows recognizable homology between all extant organisms

Gene therapy typically involves all of the following EXCEPT_____.

isolation and injection of normal proteins into patients.

Lack's hypothesis often fails to accurately predict clutch size in nature because:

it doesn't integrate reproductive success over the lifetime of the individual

Lack's hypothesis often fails to accurately predict clutch size in nature because:

it doesn't integrate reproductive success over the lifetime of the individual.

Why is isolation a critical step?

it must be followed or paralleled by divergence for complete speciation to occur

was the cambrian explosion really and explosion?

it was an explosion of animal morphologies but not an explosion of lineages -The Cambrian Explosion was an explosion of morphological and ecological diversity in pre-existing animal lineages.

How do scientists know the gene of interest has been properly inserted which also won a nobel prize?

jellyfish green fluorescent protein.

what is LUCA

last universal common ancestor

Bot flies

lay their eggs on mosquito so that when the mosquito lands on a host to feed the eggs are safely transferred. Once the eggs are transferred to the host the larva burrow into the skin where they remain for six weeks until they leave and burrow into the ground.

problems with the morphospecies concept

leaves out environmental factors, could be the same species but they look different so they will be classified as a different species -moths different colors based on pollution, achillea plant grows at different altitudes

S. mansoni/ S. japonicum

live chiefly in the veins of the large intestine. This causes thickening and ulceration of the microvilli wall.

Stasis

long periods in which no morphological change occurs

How can habitat fragmentation affect biodiversity? Case study?

loss: consistent negative effects on biodiversity. Fragmentation: may have negative or positive effects on biodiversity. Effects of habitat loss outweigh those of habitat fragmentation.

inflammation due to eggs

main cause of symptoms of schistosomiasis?

Gene Duplicaiton

major way new genetic material is generated during molecular evolution 1- mobile genetic elements (move to another chromosomes) 2- segmented duplication (unequal crossing over) 3- whole genome duplication (polyploidization)

S. haeatobium

makes its home in the bladder of the infected individuals

what is the cost of hybridization?

male hybrids are sterile

Metastatic cancer is

malignant and invasive

What is an example of a patchy seagrass affecting an organisms negatively?

many scallops living in seagrass were lost due to predation from the very patchy, patchy and continuous seagrass treatments. (Irlandi study done during a four month period).

what did Dave Raup study?

mass extinctions

How can stem cell research potentially benefit society?

may allow new tissues and organs to be grown from the patient's own cells

When B cells are activated, _________ cells are produced.

memory

What is shocked quartz indicative of?

meteorite impact sites

In the new study researchers found that when the gene is stimulated by the drug for 2 months,

mice have greater endurance to exercise and have more blood vessels in their muscles

Mice are often used to study human behavior for all of the following reasons EXCEPT

mice have many genes not found in humans.

Hox Gene Family

might have contributed to the diversification of body plans in the Cambrian "explosion"

endosymbiosis theory hypothesis

mitchondria and cholorplasts originated as bacteria that lived as internal symbionts within early eukaryotic cells

Varroa destructor mite

mite invade the brood cells in the bottom where bee eggs incubate. When they hatch they feed on young bee larvae and quickly mature to adulthood in about a week. Once the females attach to a healthy bee they bore a hole in its exoskeleton and suck hemolymph from its body. It is extremely hard for the bee to remove the mite and it only drops off when it is ready to lay eggs into another comb to further transmit the infection.

The Endosymbiosis Theory

mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as bacteria that lived as internal symbionts within early eukaryotic cells - double membrane bound, have their own chromosomes (small circular DNA)

Two types of testing are usually offered to trace one's ancestry. What are they?

mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome testing

what did Barbra McClintock discover?

mobile genetic elements, transposable elements in corn

Cestodes

more structurally modified than trematodes. While both have suckers that allow them to attach to their hosts _________ possess a rostellum with hooks that allow it firmly establish themselves onto the internal structures of their hosts digestive tract. In trematodes this structure is absent.

How is malaria transmitted from person to person?

mosquitoes

Timber plantations?

most harvest occurs here.

DNA-based transposons

move around by cut and past; transposase enzyme

Horizontal gene transfer:

moving genes from one organisms to another, regardless of the species involved; all GMOs involved this process

Women are given an antibody preparation against Rh+ antigens during their first pregnancy.

multifactorial

Change in chromosome number

mutations resulting in polyploidization or chromosome number differences can produces instant reproductive isolation.

A mutation in the ______ gene results in increased muscle mass of dogs.

myostatin

possible fates of duplicated genes

new function, split jobs, double of the old job, or function lost

thick smear preparation

newspaper print would be barely visible. In this treatment the sample is dried for 30 minutes and not fixed with methanol in order to allow the red blood cells to be hemolyzed so that any malaria parasites present will be the only detectable elements. This is used to detect infection and estimate parasite concentration.

Why is there high biodiversity tropical rain forests?

no single species dominates, similar to the way coral reefs are in marine systems. Reasons for it: energy input, stable climate and coevolution

does genetic drift lead to speciation?

no, Genetic drift, in contrast does not appear to be a leading pathway to speciation, but can augment natural selection in promoting speciation

DNA sequence analysis indicates that Neanderthals were

not direct ancestors of humans.

is there a 6th mass extinction?

not officially, but related to humans coming in and destroying habitats

Archaea

not well know prokaryotes, live in harsh environments, difficult to grow in culture, and discovered recently - hyperthermophiles- live up to 110 C - anaerobic methane producers -extreme halophiles (highly salt dependent)

Adaptive radiation

occurs when a single ancestral species diversifies into a large number of descendant species that occupy a variety of niches

The CCR5-∆32 allele confers resistance to HIV because:

of a 32 base pair deletion in the CCR5 co-receptor.

Archaeopteryx

oldest definitive fossil bird - mix of avian (feathers, hallow bones) and reptilian (teeth, long tail, 3 claw-bearing fingers) features

The two major classes of genes that cause cells to become cancerous are _______and ___________.

oncogenes, tumor suppressor

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) consist of _______ base pair differences and can be specific to an individual.

one

Lingulata (purple plant in Cali)

one species has a chromosome number of 9 and the other 8 -> very closesly related but are reproductively isolated

Monkey flower isolation example

one species is pollinated by bees and the other hummingbirds so their genetic info doesnt cross

GMO?

organisms that have had their DNA altered by bioengineering

Natural Molds and Casts

originate when remains decay after being buried in sediment -molds- consist of unfilled space -casts- new material infiltrates the space and hardens into rock

RNA transposons or retrotransposons

origionate from viruses, insert into DNA of infected cell, duplicate and copy; reverse transcriptase

What are the frequencies of the F and S alleles in Sample 1? (Denote the frequencies of the F and S alleles as p and q, respectively.) Sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

p = 0.3 and q = 0.7

What are the frequencies of the F and S alleles in Sample 2? (Denote the frequencies of the F and S alleles as p and q, respectively.) Sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

p = 0.3 and q = 0.7

Genotype: LL Ll ll Number before selection: 36 48 16 Number after selection: 24 32 14 After selection, the frequencies of the L and l alleles are equal to:

pL' = 0.571, ql' = 0.429

Polyploidization in Tragapogon

parents have 2n = 12, descendants have 2n = 24 super important and common in plant speciation

why does biological diversity matter to humans?

pollination of crop plants, carbon storage by forests, bacterial communities for our health

What approach did Nancy Wexler take to identify a DNA marker associated with Huntington disease?

population-based pedigree and DNA analysis

Allopatric popultions

populations that are spatially isolated

Protective equipment and proper disposal of contaminated tools

precautions taken when dealing with blood smear samples

Parch edges and small patches are dangerous for organisms because?

predators gain access to patches at edges and small patches have a high proportion of edge habitat

Rejection of an organ transplant can occur because

presence of mismatched antigens on the transplanted cells' surface can trigger the host's immune response.

what does DNA methylation do?

prevents transcription of DNA to RNA in the pre-transciptional silencing

What keeps the two species separate when contact occurs?

prezygotic isolation and postzygotic isolation

Coyne and Orr (1997) tested if reinforcement happened quicker in sympatric or allopatric populations of flies

prezygotic isolation happened faster in sympatric species

RNA world hypothesis

primordial life form was an RNA-based living system •evolved intoDNA-based life-forms, in which DNA stores biological information and proteins put this information into action.

the RNA world hypothesis

primordial life from was an RNA-based living system, it evolved into DNA based life-forms, in which DNA stores biological information and proteins put this information into action

Permineralization and replacement

process of fossilization in which mineral deposits form internal casts of organisms. Occurs when structures are buried in sediments and dissolved minerals fill spaces within organic tissues (dino bones, petrified trees)

Antibodies are

proteins secreted by activated B cells that bind antigen

What types of genes are usually mutated in cancer?

proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

Cambrian Explosion

rapid period of diversification, including an astonishing variety of body plans, cell types, and developmental patterns all over the globe

In dogs, "bully" whippets have doubled the normal amount of muscle mass. The gene for mutant myostatin gene responsible exhibits _______ inheritance.

recessive

One way to study ancestry of all living things

reconstruct phylogeny

Trace fossils

record behavior instead of form - footprints, trackways, fossilized feces, burrows and dens

effects of introduced species on native populations?

reduced abundance and diversity of native organisms (they can be superior competitor for resource), alteration of habitat: change terrestial and marine habitat. and loss of revenue.

tube within tube structure

referes to the alimentary canal that extends from the mouth to the anus. Inside this tube are the digestive, nervous, excretory, and reproductive systems.

homeotic genes

regulate development of anatomical structures by providing positional information and are conserved across most eumetazoans

White blood cells can do all of the following EXCEPT

repair damaged skin cells

Rooting the Tree of Life

requires an analytical trick: Gene families that arose by ancient duplications provide a molecular outgroup: one member of the gene family can serve as outgroup for the other.

Modified Crops such as BT Crops?

resistant to insect herbivores. Designed to kill European corn borer and other pests. Now Found in corn, cotton, apples, cranberries. BT crop: protein from BT corn affected the monarch caterpillar so farmers reduces insectidice , however even after the protein still caused an unintentional spread of recombinant genes or exposure of non‑target organisms to new toxic compounds in the environment.

All of the following are required to perform PCR EXCEPT_____.

restriction enzymes

how are humans and chimps only 1% different?

results from genetic changes in a few regulatory systems, while amino acid substitutions in general would rarely be a key factor in major adaptive shifts

gene duplication leads to adaptation example:

rhagovelia has a fan on the second walking leg and a second copy creates a fan allowing them to walk across fast streams

homoplasy by parallel evolution

same developmental underpinnings

Which one of the following examples is not a case of negative frequency dependent selection?

selection on the size of Eurosta-induced galls in the stem of goldenrod plants

Reinforcement of prezygotic isolation

selection that favors individuals that choose mates only from their same population (assortive mating) so that it lowers the frequency of hybrid offspring

reinforcement

selection that reduces the frequency of hybrids

allopatric speciation

sepeciation as a result of spatial isolation

In the above tree, assume that the ancestor had a long tail, ear flaps, external testes, and fixed claws. Based on the tree and assuming that all evolutionary changes in these traits are shown, what traits does a sea lion have?

short tail, ear flaps, abdominal testes, and fixed claws

genes who control development

signaling pathways, transcription factors, cell adhesion proteins, cell surface receptors

Applying an electric current across an agarose gel sorts DNA molecules on the basis of their

size

Pentastomes

small conical worms that are arthropods. Unlike most arthropods they are internal parasites that live in the lungs and respiratory tract of reptiles. They have a mouth, and two pairs of hooks which allow them to attack to their host. They possess segmentation, a chitinous cuticle covering, and four clawed legs. It also has the same nervous system as many arthropods with a ventral nerve cord and ganglia in each body segment.

Paralogous Genes

some lineages have gene duplications

phylogenetic species concept

species are defined as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group -group together as a species because they have the most recent common ancestor

The Phylogenic Species Concept

species are defined as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group. Stresses the importance of common ancestry *limitations- well detailed phylogenies are not established for most organismal groups

sympatric

species have always overlapped geographically

Behavior can be defined as response to

stimuli

Physical Isolation as a barrier

stops gene flow from homogenizing gene frequencies. mountain rangers. river, or basin are examples.

yet the main cause of deforestation?

subsistence agriculture

coal strip mining?

takes vegetation, top soil and anything that isnt coal ends up being rubble falling in valleys.

Which of the following DNA sequences are not used to create a DNA profile?

telomeres

Victoria Climbie

that the child could have been suffering from delusions related to a scabies infection it is much more likely that, since there is already strong proof of abuse, that they were caused by her abusers instead.

what does the reinforcement hypothesis predict?

that when closely related species come into contact and hybridize, a prezygotic isolating mechanismthat reduces the occurrence of hybridization will evolve. -Any trait that prevents production of hybrids can contribute to reinforcement

C-value paradox

the C-value is the total amount of DNA/cell -despite the differences in DNA content, the number of genes is similar across vertebrates

When genes that are linked to behaviors are identified they are almost always connected to _______.

the brain

What are some concerns about GM foods?

the corporate patents on technology: domination of food supply by a few large corps, patents expire, and monsanto has only sued farmers who have knowingly used their seed without paying. ALERGIES are a big concern

Sixth Mass Extinction?

the current crisis is almost entirely caused by us — humans. In fact, 99 percent of currently threatened species are at risk from human activities, primarily those driving habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, and global climate change

Horizontal Gene transfer

the discordance amoung universal phylogenies is explained by the horizontal transfer of genes among taxas *Organisms swapped genes more than anyone expected

gene duplication fosters evolutary innovation example

the diversification of regulatory genes in seed and flower development

evidence of the human mass extinction

the extinction of polynesian avifauna birds -20% of species have been lost since humans came to the island -galapagos islands

the dinosaur-bird transition

the feathers were originally for theromoregulation then co-adapted for flight

Ediacaran Faunas

the first large multicellular eukaryotic fossils

Initial Darwinian Ancestor (IDA)

the first living organism probably had several lineages, some of which have died out

The mutated form of the monoamine oxidase type A gene has been linked to aggressive and violent behavior due to

the inability to break down serotonin

In 2007, the Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to three scientists for their development of

the knockout mice

The field of proteomics involves ___________.

the large-scale study of the structure and function of proteins

Why is the isolation of habitats problematic?

the more isolated a patch the fewer species it will contain because there is no connectiveness of landscape for them to migrate naturally. They may have high mortality when moving, home ranges may be large. Populations may become genetically isolated.

The interaction between human population growth and environmental concerns?

the more the population grows the more we exceed the natural resources that are no longer sustainable to support that population.

Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

the most recent common ancestor of all living things. The organism whose immediate descendants diverged into the lineages that led to all extant organisms today.

predaceous nematode

the mouth contains teeth or hook like projections that allow them to prey on small protists and bacteria

Gene flow is best defined as

the movement of alleles between populations

Gene flow is best defined as:

the movement of alleles between populations.

Selective cutting?

the olderand popular are out first, mature trees are selectively harvested from time to time, and the forest regenerates itself naturally. Selective is the least destructive of them all, although it is not profitable because it doesn't remove enough timber in great enough quantities.

what did Deng study

the origin of antifreeze proteins in eelpout -they use it to stop crystal growth -AFP3 is the result of gene duplication

In the late stages of active HIV (6-8 years), novel mutations in HIV's genome seem to become less prevalent because:

the patient's immune system collapses, and HIV is no longer pressured to evade antibodies and other immune responses.

Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldridge and Gould 1972)

the pattern in the fossil record of rapid speciation events followed by stasis is real

Allergenicity: Concern.

the potential for an item to cause an allergic reaction; this has never been seen from a GMO

Outcrossing:

the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a breeding line, increasing genetic diversity (not necessarily with GMOs); used to describe the unintentional cross-pollination of GM and non-GM crops; this is vertical gene transfer among plants

what did Matute test?

the prediction of the reinforcement hypothesis between two fly species -found for D. yakuba femail that the sympatric areas laid fewer eggs after mating with D. santomea male than did the females from allopatric areas

what did Coyne and Orr test?

the prediction that the degree of prezygoticreproductive isolation should evolve faster for sympatric than allopatric sister species pairs.A Test of the Reinforcement Hypothesis • Sister-species relationships were determined in Drosophila by phylogenetic analysis. • Prezygotic reproductive isolation was measured in lab experiments • Genetic distance (Nei's D) was calculated using presumably neutral genetic markers (allozymes), and so increases due to genetic drift and should be a linear function of the time since species divergence.

morphogenesis

the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy

Darwin's main contribution was

the proposal of and supporting evidence for the mechanism of adaptive evolution

Darwin's main contribution was:

the proposal of and supporting evidence for the mechanism of adaptive evolution.

Why do mass extinctions occur?

the reasoning behind the "Big Five" differs between all of them

developmental biology

the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop

Acarapis Woodi

the tracheal bee mite, makes its home in the bees tiny airways. An infestation obstructs breathing and shortens a bees overall lifespan. This plays little role in strong colonies but in those that are already stressed this can have a largely detrimental effect. The mites make their way out of the body through hair pores in the exoskeleton and go on the further transmit infection by contact with other bees.

Vertical Gene Transfer: Concern.

the transfer of genes from parent to offspring; if GMOs breed or are crossed with non-GM individuals, the new genes may be passed to the next generation

What is sustainable foresting?

the use of management of forests ecosystems in an environmentally balanced and enduring way. Maintains a mix of forest trees, by age and species rather than imposing monoculture. -sustains biological diversity with improved habitats for many species -protects watershed, resuces soil erosion by also improving soil conditions. -wildlife habitat corridors: its a protected zones that connects isolated unlogged or undeveloped areas and provides animals with escape routes , when needed which allows them to migrate so they can interbreed. -protect isolation zones -reduces wildlife extinction risk Forestry Stewardship Council: rates companies on how they harvesr trees.

From an evolutionary perspective, the most significant distinction between asexual and sexual populations lies with differences in:

their rates of genetic recombination.

Analysis of HIV sequence data indicates human populations acquired HIV-1 and HIV-2 from chimpanzees and sooty mangabees, respectively. This is evidence that:

there is a close evolutionary relationship between humans and primates.

Why are protists not a monophyletic group?

they are scattered across several fundamental limbs on the eukaryotic branch of the tree of life.

Luckenbill et al. (1984) selected for early and late reproduction on two populations each of wild caught fruit flies (D. melanogaster). The results of their selection experiments are shown to the right. These results are inconsistent with the rate of living theory of aging because:

they disagree with the prediction that organisms are already living as long as possible as a result of natural selection to maximize fitness.

Luckenbill et al. (1984) selected for early and late reproduction on two populations each of wild caught fruit flies (D. melanogaster). These results are inconsistent with the rate of living theory of aging because:

they disagree with the prediction that organisms are already living as long as possible as a result of natural selection to maximize fitness.

what are homeotic mutations?

they misplace appendages and organs in places they shouldn't be

How were cows, sheep and chicken modified?

to produce human growth hormone, clotting factors and cancer drugs. *previously obtained from dead animals, cadavers

Insulin produces bacteria or yeast and is also modified. What is it used for?

to treat type 1 Diabetes. Originally collected from slaughter pigs and cows. Issue: supply and allergy problems. However, the recombinant DNA tech allowed scientists to create bacterial & yeast cells that produce human insulin protein.

C- value

total amount of DNA per cell (genome size does not uniformly increase with morphological complexity)

heartworms

transmitted from dog to dog as larvae are ingested along with blood cells by mosquitos who then subsequently bite another dog and transmit the disease through contaminant blood cells

Which of the four trees above depicts a different pattern of relationships than the others?

tree c

Which one of the trees below is false given the larger phylogeny above?

tree d

Allergic reactions to peanuts and bee stings may produce a serious reaction called anaphylactic shock.

true

Based on the results of the chi-square test, we should reject the hypothesis that genotype frequencies at the ADH locus are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

true

Comparison of DNA profiles is very important to rule out suspects.

true

DNA evidence has now been approved for use in courts all over the country.

true

DNA profile analysis has led to the release of individuals who were wrongly convicted of crimes.

true

DNA profiles can be prepared from very small DNA samples.

true

DNA testing using mDNA or Y-chromosome analysis provides data that can be used to search databases to provide people with information about their ancestry.

true

Diets deficient in folic acid have been shown to be a risk factor for spina bifida.

true

HIV infects cells of the immune system and can lead to AIDS.

true

Human populations in Africa exhibit greater genetic diversity than all other populations outside of Africa.

true

Huntington disease is an example of a genetic condition that is inherited in a dominant fashion and is caused by an expanding triplet repeat within the HD gene .

true

Identical twins have identical genomes. As a result, researchers have studied twins reared apart to study the role of genetics and environment in controlling behavior.

true

It is possible for a population that is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to have the same allele frequencies as a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

true

It is possible for populations with different genotypic frequencies to have the same allele frequencies.

true

Knocking out the activity of a gene provides information about what that gene normally does.

true

Neurotransmitters in the brain are chemicals that cause us to act and react in certain ways.

true

One of the most serious food sensitivities is the allergy to peanuts.

true

Rheumatoid Arthritis is considered an autoimmune disease.

true

Scientists have developed a test for two breast cancer genes.

true

Studying behavior in animals can provide information about human behavior.

true

T/F: In the near future, genome sequencing may well be a routine part of medical care.

true

The Hardy-Weinberg formula allows geneticists to determine the number of individuals with particular genotypes in a population without performing DNA testing on the entire population.

true

The eugenics movement was a philosophy used to rationalize extermination of Jews by the Nazis during World War II

true

The genotype frequencies in Sample 1 are in accord with the expectations of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. sample 1 90 420 490 Sample 2 110 380 510

true

The number of proteins our cells make is much greater than the number of genes we carry in our DNA.

true

Tunga penetrans

tungaisis is caused by

isolation of populations

via a barrier to gene flow between populations.• The barriermay be geographical, ecological, biological, or a combination.

Thomas Becket

was infested with lice not only because of the time that he lived in but also his ascetic lifestyle. By not bathing or often washing and changing his clothes he provided the lice with a perfect habitat to grow and flourish

How is geothermal energy produced and used? What nations use geothermal energy?

water is naturally heated by the eart. iwth volcanic activity. Nations that use it are iceland, Northern California

Researchers were looking into the idea that as we grow old

we lose blood vessels

2.12%

what are the chances of your dog developing heart worms in NC

Which of the following persons is most likely to develop Huntington disease (HD)?

when a person has over 40 copies of the repeated sequence

Secondary contact

when gene flow occurs between two populations that speciated in geographical isolation

During a second pregnancy, when is the Rh factor problematic?

when the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+

areas that are disadvantaged or have higher levels of poverty like tribal lands/ Appalachia

where are helminth diseases located?

Transplants from animal to human are called

xenotransplants

can the same genes be used across different species?

yes! they just change expression patterns or acquire new functions

does the eelpout antifreeze fit the EAC (escape from adaptive conflict) model and its 3 predictions?

yes, ancestor gene is bi-functional, adaptive conflict between the new and old, adaptive changes and funcitonal improvement in the daughter genes

can the environment determine the sex of organisms?

yes, if it is cold than male, if it is hot than female (in GSD turtles)

can retrotransposons alter an organism's phenotype?

yes, in tomatoes either round or oval -DEFL1

is there an adaptive conflict betwen ice-binding and sialic acid production?

yes, it functions better than the old but it destroys the origional function

can gene duplication have a force on evolution?

yes, major: it is a new way to acquire genes, creating novelty in organisms, new genetic material for mutation, drift and selection to act on, also specialization for new functions

Based on morphology, Knowlton et al. identified eight closely related sister species pairs of snapping shrimp with one member of each pair on each side of the land bridge.

• A phylogeny reconstructed from mitochondrial DNA sequence data indicates that in seven of eight cases putative sister species are each others' closest relative. • Tests show sister species are reproductively isolated. • These results are consistent with the vicariance hypothesis

Gene duplication can result in the formation of gene families

• A set of genes, formed by duplication of a single original gene, and generally with similar functions • The expansion or contraction of gene families along a lineage can be due to chance, or can be the result of natural selection

Euhadra quaesita and E. aomoriensis cooccur and are coiled in opposite directions.

• A single gene controls coiling direction. • A change in coiling creates instant reproductive isolation because genital openings do not line up properly. • Could promote isolation and speciation.

Gene duplication as a major force in evolution

• A way to acquire new genes, creating genetic novelty in organisms • New genetic material for mutation, drift and selection to act on • Specialization or new functions

Hox genes control body plan of embryos along anterior-posterior axis

• After the embryonic segments have formed, the Hox proteins determine the type of segment structures (e.g. legs, antennae, and wings in fruit flies or the different types of vertebrae in humans) that will form on a given segment. • Hox proteins thus confer segmental identity, but do not form the actual segments themselves.

DNA Methylation

• Attachment of a methyl (-CH 3) group to DNA nucleotides • Prevents transcription of DNA into RNA - Pre-transcriptional silencing

Differences in DNA content: the C-value Paradox

• C-value is the total amount of DNA/cell • Some lineages (angiosperms, amphibians, insects) have a huge range in size • Genome size does not uniformly increase with morphological complexity • Despite differences in DNA content, the number of genes is similar across vertebrates

What we can learn from evo-devo

• Certain homologous regulatory genes are highly conserved - Deep homology of genetic toolkit • Structural or regulatory modification of tool kit genes allow them to acquire new functions - Co-option and exaptation • Gene duplication and divergence is extremely important mechanism for evolution

Why transition to DNA-based genomes?

• DNA is better suited than RNA for storing information because it is chemically more stable - especially in double stranded form

Two types of mobile genetic elements

• DNA-based transposons - Move around by cut-and-paste; transposase enzyme • RNA transposons or retrotransposons - Originate from viruses, insert into DNA of infected cell - Duplicate and copy; reverse transcriptase

Origin of antifreeze proteins in eelpout, Lycodichthys dearborni

• Deng et al. (2010) studied the evolutionary origin of antifreeze proteins in the eelpout • Antifreeze proteins (AFPIIIs) are secreted into the blood plasma and bind to ice crystals and stop crystal growth • AFPIII are similar to parts of the sialic acid synthase B gene (SAS-B) • SAS-B is an enzyme that creates sialic acid synthase B inside cells, affects water distribution and polarity of cell membranes

How does transposition affect the fitness of the host?

• Depends where the TE is inserted-Inserts into intergenic regions will have no effect on phenotype of the host -Iserts into coding-regions can result in deleterious knock-out mutations • Most often, carrying TEs is neutral (at best) or maladaptive (at worst) • TEs are considered genomic parasites because they may place an energetic burden on the host cell or can disrupt coding sequences of the host

Developmental Biology

• Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop • Genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy • Regulation of genes and their products

How are developmental biology and evolution related?

• Evolutionary changes in form and function which originate as alterations during development • Developmental biology answers "how" phenotypes are generated

Extinction in North America

• Extinction risk in different taxonomic groups. • At greatest risk are freshwater mussels, crayfish, stoneflies, amphibians, and fishes • 123 freshwater animals extinct since 1990 • Recent Nature Conservancy estimates: 70% of N.A. freshwater mussels nearing extinction

Speciation may fail if...

• If the two populations come back into contact (into sympatry) before they have diverged sufficiently in allopatry they may not be completely reproductively isolated. • In this case they might recognize each other as conspecifics, interbreed, and their offspring develop well enough to foster gene flow between the populations. • The two populations would then merge back into a single continuous population and speciation would have failed to occur.

Phylogenetic methods can estimate module history

• Modules are genetically coherent, dynamic, heritable entities - A central concept in EvoDevo • Modules undergo "descent with modification" - Often after a duplication event - i.e. speciation or gene duplication • Phylogenetic methods reconstruct history - "Module" tree

reproductive isolation

• Populations fail to hybridize in nature, or fail to produce fertile offspring when they do hybridize.

Why was the discover of ribozymes so important?

• Proteins can perform all sorts of complicated biological tasks but can't propagate themselves. They cannot store and transmit the information needed to replicate. • DNA is well suited to store and transmit genetic information but was not known to perform any biological work. • With respect to the origin of life, neither proteins nor DNA seems to be of any use without the other, and it seems implausible that they appeared simultaneously.

Beyond ribozyme activity, what evidence is there that RNA is the original source of life?

• RNA is essential to the most conserved and universal components of the genetic information processing machinery: the ribosome and tRNAs. • RNA forms the basic currency for biological energy: adenosine-5'- triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP).

Important aspects of speciation via change in chromosome number:

• Reproductive isolation can occur in a single generation, with the descendant being instantly reproductively isolated from its parental population. • Reproductive isolation can occur in sympatry, that is without geographical isolation. • Change in chromosome number - especially polyploidization (genome doubling) - has been an important mechanism of speciation in plants. • Polyploidization has been less frequent in animals, but has been important in salmon and trout, water frogs, and whiptail lizards.

Limitations of Biological Species Concept

• Reproductive isolation can't be tested on fossil species. • Doesn't apply to asexual species. • Difficulties with hybridizing species, e.g., many plants that exist as ecologically and morphologically distinct species throughout their ranges but may hybridize where they are sympatric (co-occur).

limitations with the biological species concept

• Reproductive isolation can't be tested on fossil species. • Doesn't apply to asexual species. • Difficulties with hybridizingspecies, e.g., many plants that exist as ecologically and morphologically distinct species throughout their ranges but may hybridize where they are sympatric (co-occur).

Gene duplication leads to adaptation

• Rhagovelia has a fan on second walking leg • Can walk across fast-flowing streams • Second copy of gene geisha creates fan

Important features of genome evolution

• SUN locus was modified by a mobile element • SUN was duplicated, creating a second copy in the genome in oval fruits - Gene duplication is a major mechanism of genome evolution - Creates gene families • Duplication of SUN resulted in gene expression change by new cis-regulation - An important source of morphological novelt

Origin of the Hawaiian Islands: Plate Tectonics and the Hawaiian Hot Spot

• The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of gigantic volcanic mountains formed by repeated eruptions of fluid lava over several million years. • The distinctive linear shape and age of the Hawaiian Island Chain reflects the progressive movement to the northwest of the Pacific Plate over a "deep" and "fixed" hot spot.

Evidence of Geographic Isolation through Vicariance (Central American Snapping Shrimp)

• The Isthmus of Panama created a land bridge between North and South America about 3 mya. • Populations of marine organisms became isolated on the Pacific and Caribbean sides of the isthmus. • The Isthmus of Panama is thus a likely source of geographic isolation through vicariance. • Predictions: - New sister species pairs (Pacific + Caribbean) - Each sister species pair should be equally divergent

Mechanisms of Speciation

• There are several competing species concepts. • Though they differ somewhat in their assumptions they generally agree on the following three main points: Mechanisms of Speciation 1. Species consist of groups of interbreeding individuals that share a common ancestry. 2. Species are a fundamental unit of evolution. 3. Species are evolutionarily independent units. - Different species follow different evolutionary trajectories through time.

The "Big Five" Mass Extinctions

• end-Ordovician (ca. 440 Ma) • end-Devonian (ca. 365 Ma) • end-Permian (250 Ma) • end-Triassic (ca. 215 Ma) • Cretaceous-Tertiary, or K-T boundary (65 Ma

The RNA World Hypothesis

• primordial life form was an RNA-based living system • evolved into DNA-based life-forms, in which DNA stores biological information and proteins put this information into action.

Reinforcement

•If populations have diverged in different habitats or environments, then any hybrid offspring that are produced should have markedly reduced fitness relative to individuals of each parental population

Change in Chromosome Number Can Reduce Gene Flow

•Reproductive isolation can occur in a single generation, with the descendant being instantlyreproductively isolatedfrom its parental population. •Reproductive isolation can occur in sympatry, that is without geographical isolation .•Change in chromosome number - especially polyploidization (genome doubling) - has been an important mechanism of speciation in plants. •Polyploidization has been less frequent in animals, but has been important in salmon and trout, water frogs, and whiptail lizards.

Amato tested morphospcies with marine plankton

•To apply the morphospecies concept they used light and transmission microscopy. •To apply the phylogenetic concept they constructed a phylogeny from DNA sequences. •To apply the biological concept they conducted breeding experiments.

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