Biology 1016 Final Exam Prep

Mammalian heart:

- 4 chambered, with 2 separate atria and 2 separate ventricles - The superior and inferior vena cava are large vessels that deliver deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium of the heart. - the deoxygenated blood is then delivered to the right ventricle, and the pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. - oxygen is taken up in the lungs and the now oxygenated blood is delivered to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins - the blood moves into the left ventricle and is forcefully pumped out into the body through the aorta

Shoot elongation:

- Also impacted by the amount of Pfr. - Etiolation is a shoot elongation response in seedlings that begin growth in the dark. The shoots are long, slender, and pale because of the lack of red light. - Once they are exposed to light, the shoots assume a normal morphology. This is an energy conserving mechanism that helps the seedlings reach light before they die. - In crowded conditions, plants elongate more to out compete neighbors for sunlight.

Gamete Production:

- Angiosperms have an alternation of generations life cycle. - The flower is part of the sporophyte generation and the gametophytes are very small and contained within the sporophyte. - Microgametophytes - male gametophytes (pollen grains). - Megagametopytes - female gametophytes (embryo sac). - Through mitotic divisions, the megaspore develops into the embryo sac, with 8 nuclei and 7 cells. - Pollen grains develop a weather resistant wall that has surface features that specific for the species.

Pancreas:

- Arguably the most important accessory organ - Tucked between the stomach and duodenum - Secretes a combo of enzymes and chemicals through the pancreatic duct - This secretion is called pancreatic juice and is composed of trypsin and chymotrypsin - Pancreatic amylase digest carbs and lipase helps digest fats - The pancreas release bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acidic chime from the stomach and creates a more suitable pH.

Defensin:

- Binds to the membrane of gram negative bacteria in order to disrupt the membrane and promote phagocytosis of the pathogen.

Liver:

- Body's largest internal organ and most metabolically active - detoxification of harmful substances like alcohol and carcinogens - Also builds complex proteins from amino acid monomers and assembles and stores carbs as glycogen. - Assists the digestive system by producing a fluid mixture called bile

First line of plant defenses:

- Dermal tissue provides initial protection - Epidermal cells: waxy covering called the cuticle - protects against water. The suberin is a protective fatty material in cell walls of the epidermal cells. - Thorns

Aquaporins:

- Enhance osmosis - Membrane bound proteins; they are channel proteins. - They cannot change the direction of water movement, but they can speed up the process.

Folds of small intestine:

- Folded lining of the small intestine has enormous surface area - Well adapted for absorption - Folds in the mucosal lining = villi - Villi are covered with extensions of the plasma membrane called microvilli. - Small intestine is often referred to as a brush border - Within membranes of the microvilli, additional digestion enzymes are housed, called brush border enzymes. They aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fatty acids before they are absorbed into the cells.

Mycorrhizae (common):

- Found in about 90% of vascular plants - expand surface area available for nutrient uptake. - Enhance uptake of phosphorus and micronutrients. - Protect plants from disease. - Plants provide fungi with photosynthesized carbohydrates.

Trends in floral specialization/symmetry:

- Fusion of flower parts that were once separate and reduction in numbers of flower parts are trends in floral specialization. - Bilateral symmetry is considered more advanced than radial symmetry.

Soil:

- Highly weathered outer layer of the Earth's crust. - Mixture of sand, rocks, clay, silt, humus, minerals, and organic matter. - Contains minerals - the Earth's crust includes an estimated 92 naturally occurring elements (organic compounds). - Nutrients = minerals used by plants for growth/metabolism - Nutrients and water are absorbed by roots - Minerals are released by weathering of rocks

Asexual reproduction:

- In harsh environments this is advantageous - Runners and rhizomes are examples of horizontal stem tissue that can give rise to new individuals at nodes. - Suckers are root sprouts that give rise to new plants.

Tissues in embryonic development:

- In vertebrates, during embryonic development, 3 fundamental embryonic tissues develop. These embryonic tissues are called germ layers. - The inner most layer is the endoderm. - The middle layer is the mesoderm. - The outermost layer is the ectoderm. - As development continues, these germ layers develop into the many different types of cells and the 4 types of tissues characteristic to adults.

Major evolutionary changes in the respiratory anatomy have optimized the rate of diffusion by all of the following EXCEPT:

- Increasing the chemical diffusion constant (the constant does not change). Evolutionary changes in respiratory systems optimize the rate of diffusion by increasing surface area, decreasing the diffusion distance, and increasing concentration differences.

Auxin:

- Makes cell walls soft and plastic and allows cells to enlarge. - Auxin is involved in stem elongation and is produced in a shoot apical meristem.

Esophagus:

- Muscular tube approximately 10 on long - Connects the pharynx to the stomach - The upper portion contains the voluntary skeletal muscle, but the majority contains smooth muscle under involuntary control. - The longitudinal and circular layers work in conjunction to move the bolus through the esophagus in one direction - The coordinated muscle movement is called peristalsis and will always direct the food toward the stomach, regardless of gravity.

Legume symbiosis with nitrogen fixing bacteria (rare):

- Nitrogen is a requirement to build proteins and nucleic acids but it must be in a usable form - plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen (N2 makes up 80% of the atmosphere) - Ammonia and nitrate are common forms used by plants - a few species of prokaryotes are able to absorb N2 and convert it into a usable form (nitrogen fixation). - EX. plants in the legume family have evolved symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobium - the bacteria receive oxygen and carbohydrates from the plant while providing the plant with nitrogen.

Phytochrome:

- Pigment containing a protein involved in Photomorphogenesis. -Uses light for information. - Exists in two forms: phytochrome red (Pr) and phytochrome far red (Pfr). - Direct sunlight has more red light than far red light, therefore exposure to sunlight promotes the conversion of Pr to Pfr. Pr = absorbs red light. Biologicaly inactive and converts to Pfr when red photons of light are available. Pfr = absorbs far red light. Biologically active from/ can promote a plant response by facilitating expression of light response genes.

Plant sensory systems:

- Pigments allow plants to sense the quality and quantity of light in the environment. - Chlorophyll uses light for energy and converts it into chemical energy.

Responses to H2O and Temp:

- Plants may need to cease growth in extreme conditions and become dormant in order to survive. - Dormancy in seeds is of significant benefit to land plants. - Other types of dormancy allow plants to survive cold temps and low water availability in seasonal climates. - Seed dormancy is triggered by increases in the hormones ABA (abscisic acid).

Pollination:

- Pollen transfer to the stigma is defined as pollination. - if the pollen comes from the same plant then self-pollination has occurred. - This is an advantage in environments where pollinator are not readily available. - Cross-pollination or outcrossing is the transfer of pollen between different individuals and promotes genetic variation.

Water Potential:

- Predicts where water will go - Measured in megapascals - Water will ALWAYS move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration. - Pressure potential: physical forces such gravity. -Solute potential: concentration of solute. -Water potential = Pressure potential + Solute potential - Roots have the highest water potential and leaves have the lowest.

Allelopathic plants:

- Secrete chemicals to block seed germination or inhibit growth of nearby plants. - Minimizes competition for resources. - EX, found on campus = black walnut trees.

Large intestine or colon:

- Shorter than the small intestine, but larger in diameter. - Absorbs a small amount of remaining water, some electrolytes, and the products of symbiotic bacterial metabolism (including vitamin K which is important to the production of bile clotting proteins) - Helps compact feces for expulsion form the body.

Extracting nutrients from soil:

- Soils rich in silica and clay have an overall negative charge. - Anions like nitrate will be repelled by the soil's charge and stay dissolved in the surrounding water - because of this they can be washed out, a phenomenon called leeching. - Cations are attracted to the soil particles - in order to release cations from soils the roots implement a strategy called cation exchange. - The negative charge of the anions in solution creates a charge gradient that drives hydrogen ions out of the roots. - The positively charged hydrogen ions facilitate the release of cations from soil particles - these cations then become available for uptake by the plant roots.

Small intestine:

- The body's major digestive organ. - It is very long, but small in diameter. -As the food moves through this tube, digestion of proteins, fats, and carbs is completed ad nearly all nutrition absorption occurs here. Has 3 regions: 1) Duodenum: enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder enter this region and contribute to the breakdown of proteins and fats. 2) Jejunum: Digestion continues here, but much of the jejunum is adapted to absorb nutrients. 3) Ileum

Stem cells and the production of formed elements:

- The lifespan of the formed elements is limited and thus they must continually be replaced. - The creation of new formed elements begins in the bone marrow, where they develop form pluripotent stem cells. - The production of blood cells from bone marrow is called hematopoiesis - When oxygen availability in the blood drops, the kidneys convert a plasma protein into a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which then stimulates the production of erythrocytes.

In males, 3 glands add secretions to the sperm along its passageway. The sperm + these secretions make up semen.

- The seminal vesicles are paired glands which contribute a fructose-rich fluid, making up about 60% of sperm. - Prostate gland secretions make up about 30%. - The remaining 10% is secreted by the Cowper's (or Bulbourethral) gland.

Abscission: the first process in dormancy.

- Usually involves cellular changes that take place in an abscission zone in the base of the leaf petiole. These changes are stimulated by hormones. - Protective layers of cells on the stem side of the abscission zone become impregnated by suberin. - A separation layer develops on the leaf side of the abscission zone. The leaf will detach at this location.

Cavitation:

- Water has tensil strength that arises from cohesion. - The smaller the diameter, the higher the strength, - Cavitation interrupts these forces - occurs when a branch is broken and an air bubble is introduced into a vessel. - This is very dangerous for a plant but can be minimized by small pits that connect tracheids and vessels and create alternate pathways up the plant.

Food reserves and embryogenesis:

- While the embryo is developing there are 3 critical events that occur: - food supply develops - Outer coverings of the ovule form a seed coat - the ovary that surrounds the ovule develops into a fruit - these are adapted for dispersal.

Excretion of feces:

- compacted feces enters the rectum where 2 sphincter muscles control the expulsion of feces - the first sphincter muscle is composed of smooth muscle and opens involuntarily in response to pressure build up - The other sphincter is voluntarily controlled - Feces is composed of materials not digested or absorbed, and contains water, electrolytes, mucus, and bacteria. - The color is due to bile pigments altered by bacteria and the pungent odor is produced by bacterial compounds including phenol, hydrogen sulfide, endol, scatal and ammonium.

Secondary lymphoid organs:

- lymph nodes: where APC's accumulate after finding an infection in the body tissue - spleen: where antigen presenting cells go after finding an infection in the blood - mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): in the tonsils, appendix, and clumps of cells under mucosal surfaces, such as those found on epithelium. The clumps of cells are called follicles and are filled with immune cells and invaders that get though the mucosa encounter these immediately.

Chemical defenses in plants:

- most plants contain cyanogenic glycosides that break down into cyanide when tissues are damaged. - Defensins - small peptides with antimicrobial activity. - Many chemicals in plants are classified as secondary metabolites - meaning the compound is not directly involved in growth, development, or reproduction.

Interferons:

- type of cytokine - defend against cancer and induce fever

Platelets:

- type of formed element in blood - play a crucial role in blood clotting - When blood vessels are damaged, for example from a cut, the vessel walls will constrict. - platelets then congregate around the wound by sticking to one another, and thus sealing off the wounded area - at this point, there is a cascade of enzymatic reactions that the platelets initiate - this cascade of events ultimately produces threads of fibrin that, along with the platelets, form a patch or clot around the wound. - Once the damaged tissue is repaired, the clot will slowly dissolve - if the clot dislodges quickly, it may travel through the circulatory system and become lodged in a vessel, completely or partially blocking a blood vessel. - A clot in the brain could cause a stroke, a clot in the heart could cause a heart attack

There are 3 hormones responsible for regulating blood osmolarity, blood pressure, and blood volume:

1) ADH - regulates osmolarity, and as a result also affects blood volume and blood pressure by influencing how much water is reabsorbed in the nephron. The stimulus in the case above is a high osmolarity of the blood plasma (not enough water in the blood). Osmolarity of the blood is monitored in the hypothalamus. If it detects high osmolarity, it does 2 things: creates the sensation of thirst and signals the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH. The presence of ADH in the blood causes the kidneys to allow more reabsorption of water from the filtrate into the blood. The distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts in the kidneys become more permeable to water by placing aquaporins into the cell membranes.

What is the correct order of events during muscle contraction?

1) Action potential arrives from neuron 2) Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions 3) Calcium ion binds to troponin 4) Myosin binds to actin

Transport routes:

1) Apoplasts route: through cell walls and between cell space. 2) Symplast route: utilizes plasmodesmata, once inside a cell, molecules can move between cells without crossing the cell membrane. 3) Transmembrane route: Involves membrane transport between cells and across the membranes of vacuoles within cells; this method permits the greatest control over which substances enter or leave the cell.

Two types of gated ion channels:

1) Chemically gated ion channels 2) Voltage gated ion channels

The major classes of connective tissue:

1) Connective tissue proper: includes loose and dense 2) Special Connective tissue: found in blood, cartilage, and bone.

3 regions of the brain found in different proportions in all vertebrates:

1) Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) 2) Midbrain (mesencephalon) 3) Forebrain (prosencephalon)

How does Pfr activate light response genes? Two mechanisms are possible:

1) It can enter the nucleus and regulate gene expression directly. 2) Pfr can work through a protein kinase signaling pathway. - Typically phytochrome activates master regulatory genes through these pathways. - The plant response is due to the interaction of gene expression and hormones.

3 strategies of internal fertilization:

1) Oviparity: fertilized eggs are deposited outside of the mother's body to complete development. 2) Ovoviviparity: fertilized eggs are retained inside the mother's body to complete development. The young obtain all nourishment from the egg and are fully developed when they hatch and are released from the mother. 3) Viviparity: Young develop within the mother and obtain nourishment from the mother's blood.

3 types of cells are characteristic of ground tissue:

1) Parenchyma - the most common. Thin, primary cell walls, large vacuoles, and are living at maturity. Store water and nutrients. Cell walls are soft (tomato). Function in storage, photosynthesis, and secretion. 2) Collenchyma - cells are also living at maturity. Have irregularly thickened primary cell walls. Provide flexible support for plant organs (celery). 3)Sclerenchyma - also have thick walls. They have secondary cell walls impregnated with lignin. Lignin makes cell walls rigid. These cells are dead at maturity. Provide support and strength. Very hard and crunchy,.

Two types of growth in response to light:

1) Phototropism: directional growth responses to light. 2) Photomorphogenesis: non-directional, light-triggered development.

The organs of the immune system are called lymphoid organs, and there are two classes of them:

1) Primary lymphoid organs: The sites of lymphocyte production and maturation. There are two types of lymphocytes (B-Cells and T-Cells)...Both are produced in bone marrow, but B-cells mature in bone marrow and T cells mature in the thymus. In their respective organs, B and T cells undergo selection so that they can properly identify self vs. non self. Lymphocytes that would attack self cells are destroyed before they can leave the primary lymphoid organs and cause damage. 2) secondary lymphoid organs: where mature lymphocytes go to search for their targets. Some of the cells of the innate immune system are important here because once they find a pathogen in the body, they go to the secondary lymphoid organs and present part of the pathogen to the lymphocytes. They are called antigen-presenting cells (APC's).

Two major challenges to terrestrial life that relate to the availability of water:

1) Protection from desiccation 2) Transport of water

What are the functions of skin?

1) Protection from trauma, pathogens, UV radiation, and water loss. 2) Homeostasis of body temp and sensing external environment. 3) Synthesis of vitamin D for calcium metabolism.

(Primary - length - Apical meristems) 3 primary meristems give rise to the 3 primary tissue systems:

1) Protoderm --> dermal tissue 2) Procambium --> vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) 3) Ground meristem --> ground tissue Some plants (such as corn) also have intercalary meristems. They allow for the lengthening of the internode, which is the space between leaf attachments. The leaf primordia shelter the shoot apical meristem. The root cap protects the root apical meristem.

What are the 4 regions of the growing root tip?

1) Root cap: protects the apical meristem. Cells of the root cap are continuously replaced by the apical meristem. Secret a slimy substance that lubricates the root cap. 2) Zone of cell division: Where the apical meristem is located. 3) Zone of elongation: The root elongates dye to the cells becoming several times longer than wide. The cell vacuoles enlarge to take up 90%+ of the cell volume. Once cells have reached their maximum size, they do not enlarge any further. 4) Zone of maturation: Grown cells become specialized.

The vertebrate nervous system consists of 3 different types of neurons and supporting cells:

1) Sensory neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. 2) Interneurons, also called association neurons, within the CNS make connections between neurons and integrate signals. Interneurons may pass signals to motor neurons. 3) Motor neurons carry impulses from the CNS to the effectors, which consist of muscles or glands. **the sensory and motor neurons make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS). All neurons and other parts of the nervous system that are outside of the CNS are considered part of the PNS. Also notice that's sensory neurons carry info towards the CNS, and motor neurons carry commands away from the CNS, to the effectors.

Motor pathways are divided into the ___ and ____:

1) Somatic Nervous System: voluntary movements 2) Autonomic Nervous System: involuntary processes, such as heart rate and digestion.

Endodermis (type of epidermal tissue):

1) Surround vascular tissue 2) Controls solutes into vascular core 3) Prevents leakage out

3 purposes of the circulatory system:

1) The transportation of all materials essential for metabolism, such as oxygen and nutrients, as well as the removal of metabolic wastes. 2) Regulates body systems by carrying regulatory hormones throughout the body and also regulates temp. 3) Involved in protection, both from mechanical wounds and invading pathogens.

Layers of Soil:

1) Topsoil: most roots/organically rich. Worms love this for food and home. 2) Subsoil: nutrients that have washed off collect here; less organic matter. 3) Bedrock: water moves laterally to a stream, river, or lake.

Three categories of molecules can serve as hormones:

1) amino acid derivatives, also known as amine hormones. They are produced by the modification of certain amino acids. 2) Peptide or protein hormones, which are composed of amino acids. 3) Steroids. These are lipids and are produced by modification on cholesterol.

Composition of blood:

1) blood plasma: mostly water. responsible for circulating the formed elements below. 2) erythrocytes: red blood cells. In invertebrates, include hemoglobin, a pigment that binds and transports oxygen. erythrocytes make up 45% of the total blood volume. 3) leukocytes: defend the body against pathogens. less than one percent of total volume. 4) Platelets: cell fragments that play a role in blood clotting.

Pressure-Flow Hypothesis:

1) dissolved organic solutes like sucrose and hormones are translocated through out the plant in the phloem. 2) translocation is accomplished along concentration gradients 3) the plant sets up gradients through a source and sink (source is where it is made/stored; sink is where it is used/needed).

Two types of nephrons:

1) juxtamedullary nephrons: have long loops that extend far down into the renal medulla 2) cortical nephrons: shorter loops that only go a short distance into the medulla.

There are 4 mechanisms of heat transfer between an organism and the environment:

1) radiation - heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation from warm bodies to cold bodies (sunlight). 2) Conduction - heat transfer by direct contact, also from warm bodies to cold bodies. 3) Convection - water or air (wind) moving over the surface of the animal can result in heat loss. 4) evaporation - from body surfaces is always a mechanism of heat loss from the animal body.

What is the direction of blood flow in the heart?

1) right atrium 2) right ventricle 3) pulmonary artery (away from heart) 4) lungs 6) pulmonary vein (toward heart) 7) left atrium 8) left ventricle

At rest, what percentage of oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen to tissue?

22%.

Naïve B-Cell:

A B-cell that has not been activated yet and has antibodies on its surface. - After being activated it divides into: plasma B cells, which pump out antibodies, and memory B cells, which survive after the infection and carry the antibodies so that the response can be activated quickly if the pathogen returns.

Emphysema:

A chronic condition characterized by shortness of breathe. The underlying condition is the breakdown of alveoli walls and fusion of alveoli using fibrous tissue. Fewer alveoli means less surface area for gas exchange, and as tissue builds the lungs become less elastic and it becomes difficult to breathe. Emphysema is linked to the inhalation of toxins including cigarette smoke.

Chime:

A creamy substance of partially digested proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. This is formed by the 3 muscular layers of the stomach churning food and mixing it with gastric juice.

If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum disintegrates, resulting in:

A decline in estrogen and progesterone. Declining levels of these two hormones results in menstruation. The decline in progesterone and estrogen will also increase secretion of GnRh, causing the cycle to repeat.

Vitamin D:

A fat soluble coenzyme/lipophilic/ non polar. Vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and bone formation. It is naturally produced by epithelium. Skin is stimulated by UV sunlight to produce vitamin D. To avoid toxicity, melanin darkens skin to both protect skin from UV light and regulate vitamin D. In humans, darker skins are indicative of this protection. The conditions where bones bend or bow is called rickets...in the elderly, insufficient calcium metabolism can lead to brittle bones called osteoporosis (spongy holes in the bones).

Epiglottis:

A flap of connective tissue that covers the opening of the larynx when food is swallowed.

All land plants have a haplodiplontic life cycle:

A haplodiplontic life cycle is one in which haploid and diploid stages are multicellular. The haploid multicellular gametophyte generation alternates with the diploid multicellular sporophyte generation. Haploid --> gamete; diploid = sporophyte.

Hormones and sensory systems:

A hormone is a chemical signal. In plants, hormones are produced in tissue that carry out other functions. Plant hormones are involved in many functions and development.

Melatonin:

A modified amino acid produced by the pineal gland. Protein hormone/hydrophilic. The pineal gland is the light sensitive "third eye." In mammals, the pineal is imbedded in the midbrain and is connected to the eyes via the optic nerves. Melatonin is secreted at night, peaking at about 2 AM in young adults and 3 am in the elderly. Melatonin is involved with lifecycle regulation. Circadian rhythms (sleep cycle), mood, sex drive, etc. Behaves as an antioxidant reducing brain cell deterioration.

Antigen:

A molecule that incites an immune response - the targets of lymphocytes. An antigen may have a number of sites, called epitopes, that can incite an immune response.

Pollen tube:

A passageway for the sperm to reach the egg.

When the brain receives a signal from a sensory neuron, it creates...

A perception of the stimulus.

Which of the following populations would grow exponentially?

A population of insects that is "r" selected and has been transported to a stress free environment.

Thigmomorphogenesis:

A process where plants permanently change form in response to a mechanical stimulus such as wind.

Reflexes:

A reflex is a rapid motor response to a stimulus and occurs quickly because the sensory neuron passes information to a motor neuron in the spinal cord without higher processing, in other words, it bypasses the brain. Most reflexes involve an interneuron. The advantage of a reflex is that the body is able to respond to a potentially harmful stimulus before the brain even becomes aware of any pain.

Gravitropism:

A response of plants to a gravitational field. It orients roots downward (positively gravitropic) in the soil and shoots upward (negatively gravitropic). Gravity is detected by amyoplasts - starch containing plastids.

Lymph:

A significant amount of blood plasma materials, such as water and solutes, filtered out of the capillaries. This normally occurs near the arterials. Larger molecules, such as plasma proteins, remain in the capillaries. This is important bc the retention of plasma proteins creates a greater concentration gradient of protein in the plasma in the capillaries, relative to that of the interstitial fluid. This creates an osmotic pressure difference, which now allows most of the water that has just left the capillaries to re-enter via osmosis in the capillaries closer to the venuals. The excess lymph drains into the blind ended lymphatic capillary, which then merges to larger vessels. These converge at lymph nodes that are spread throughout the body, largely concentrated around the groin and neck. Larger lymphatic vessels make their way back toward the heart and converge through ducts into the main venous pathway before it returns to the heart.

Temporal summation:

A single presynaptic dendrite produces repeated excitatory postsynaptic potentials that are close enough in time to polarize the postsynaptic cell to threshold.

Luteinizing hormone (LH):

A tropic hormone that causes the gonads to produce their own hormones. Estrogen and progesterone in females, and testosterone in males. These hormones are needed for ovulation in females and sperm production in males.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):

A tropic hormone. It stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxin, a hormone that regulates development and metabolism.

Neurohormones:

A type of hormone released into the bloodstream by neurons, allowing the nervous system to control cells that are not directly linked to it.

Schwann Cells:

A type of neuroglia cell that form a myelin sheath around the axon. The myelin sheath acts as insolation, similar to insolation on an electrical wire. Schwann cells produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Type 1 Diabetes:

AKA insulin-dependent diabetes. Caused when the pancreas lack insulin secreting cells. People with this condition will rapidly loose weight if not treated. Treatment today is relatively easy, consisting of injections of insulin. However, type 1 diabetes is only about 10% of diabetes in north America.

Type 2 diabetes:

AKA non-insulin dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes. Most common type. In these cases, insulin levels may be normal, high, or low, but the body cells are less sensitive to insulin than they should be. This disease appears to be primarily due to lifestyle factors and genetics. Possible lifestyle factors include obesity, lack of exercise, stress, and poor diet (particularly high sugar and/or high saturated fat diets). Age is another risk factor, however, cases of diabetes in younger average weight people, particularly women, are rising. This is because fat can be stored around the internal organs, rather than under the skin. The person may have a normal or slim appearance, while storing excessive fat inside. Managing diet alone, rather than combining diet and exercise, are diabetes risk factors for people who are slim or normal weight. Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition, but can often be regulated by diet and exercise for an extended period of time, before medication can be used.

Atrioventricular node:

AV node. Connected to the top of the Purkinje fibers. These conduct the cardiac signal through the ventricular septum, the wall between the two ventricles. The signal then spreads to the ventricles, causing them to beat.

Growth hormone (GH):

Abused by athletes. This protein hormone is important, not only for growth, but also for proper metabolic regulation. So it continues to be produced even after we have completed growth, just in smaller quantities.

The rapid inward diffusion of Na followed by the outward diffusion of K produces a rapid change in the membrane potential called an:

Action Potential.

The rapid inward diffusion of sodium followed by the outward diffusion of potassium produces a rapid change in the membrane potential called an:

Action potential.

Innate Immune system:

Acts in a nonspecific way to prevent pathogen invasion or destroy pathogens that have entered the body. Parts of the body exposed to the external environment have defenses that can prevent pathogens from entering. If a pathogen gets pat those barriers, receptors of the innate immune system recognize them. When the pathogen is recognized, several types of defenses are activated. Molecules called cytokines signal immune cells to move to the infect site. Antimicrobial peptides, called complement, are produced that form a membrane attack complex (MAC) to kill pathogenic cells. Complement molecules also work as markers to alert immune cells to pathogens that need to be killed, or debris that needs to be cleared away. The inflammatory response is induced, which gets immune cells to the site of the infection quickly and causes changes such as increased temperature, that help kill pathogens. The innate immune system signals for the adaptive immune system to be activated.

Water molecules can stick to other surfaces by:

Adhesion.

The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, which constitute the alarm response of the body to stress, are secreted by the:

Adrenal medulla.

Lung cancer:

Affects the epithelial lining of the respiratory system. It is a malignant cancer that spreads so rapidly that is has usually invaded other organs by the time it is diagnosed. Lung cancer is closely linked to cigarette smoking and the chance of recovery from metastasized lung cancer is poor.

Diverse responses to pathogens:

After a receptor detects a pathogen, a signal transduction pathway is activated... This leads to a coordinated response to the pathogen through several routes. Signaling molecules called cytokines are released and then recruit immune cells to the site of the infection. Interferons are one type of cytokine that have diverse function, including defending against cancer and inducing fever. Another response is the release of antimicrobial peptides, such as defensins. Defensins bind to the membrane of gram negative bacteria in order to disrupt the membrane promote phagocytosis of the pathogen. Another response to receptor binding to a pathogen is the activation of complement. Complement helps (or complements) other immune activities to clear pathogens. Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive form, but are activated when a receptor binds a pathogen. One example of complement's action is the membrane attack complex (MAC) which forms a pore in the membrane of the pathogen to kill it.

Retina:

After passing through the lens, light is focused on the retina, which is the surface of the back of the eye. The photoreceptive cells of the retina are called rods and cones. Rods detect light and dark shades, while cones detect color and allow for a sharp imagine in bright light. Rods and cones are at the back of the retina, with two cell layers on top of them. This means light has to pass through two cell layers to find the photoreceptors. Sensory information detected in the photoreceptive rods and cones is sent to the bipolar cells and then the ganglion cells. These are the cell layers that the light has already passed through. The ganglion cells then send the signal to the brain. The axons from the ganglion cells must be bundled together and sent through the retina towards the brain - this creates a blind spot.

Human respiratory system:

Air enters through the nose or mouth. Passage through the nasal cavity allows for filtering of the air by cilia on the surface of the nasal epithelia. Air the passes through the pharynx, a region where the air and food passageways cross. The epiglottis covers the opening of the larynx when food is swallowed. Next, air passes into the trachea. The trachea is supported by c shaped rings of cartilage, so it always remains open. The trachea splits into 2 bronchi, which enter each lung and continue to branch into bronchioles. Bronchioles terminate into small air sacs called alveoli. The surface area provided by millions of alveoli in mammalian lungs increases the rate of oxygen diffusion.

When you drink too much alcohol, you urinate excessively because:

Alcohol inhibits ADH.

Depressants:

Alcohol is an example. They deplete serotonin, GABA, and dopamine. Therefore, people often experience overall loss of body control. Mood swings are common along with loss of motor control.

The homeostatic functions of the kidneys are regulated by two hormones. One of these is antidiuretic hormone, and the other is: a. glucagon b. FSH c. LH d. aldosterone e. ADH

Aldosterone.

If sodium levels in the blood become low, then the osmolarity is low. This regulatory system involves 2 competing hormones:

Aldosterone: causes reabsorption of salt, which is followed by water from the nephron in the blood. Atrial Natriuretic hormone (ANH): has the opposite effect, causing less salt and less water to be reabsorbed back into the blood.

Variations in vertebrate digestive systems:

All animals lack the enzymes to digest cellulose, but the digestive tracts of some animals contain bacteria and protists that converts cellulose into substances the host can absorb. Herbivores, such as the rabbit, have longer digestive tracts (which allows them greater time for digestion of cellulose). Ruminants, such as cows, have a 4 chambered stomach housing many bacteria and protists that help them to digest cellulose more effectively than non-ruminant animals. Rodents, horses, deer, and rabbits digest cellulose in the cecum. Animals that don't eat cellulose, insectivores and carnivores, have a greatly reduced cecum or none at all. Some animals practice coprophagy, they must eat their feces to absorb nutrients on the second passage of food.

What is considered a similarity between all connective tissues?

All connective tissues contain abundant extracellular matrix.

Which of the following are NOT functions of the skin (integument)? A. protection from trauma, pathogens, UV radiation, and water loss. B. homeostasis of body temp and sensing the external environment C. synthesis of vitamin D for calcium metabolism D. all of the above

All of the above are functions of skin (the largest organ of the body).

An example of the innate immune structure or function is: A. A first line of defense such as skin B. Macrophages recognizing antigens without extra activation then phagocytizing those antigens C. Ig-E to parasites D. All of the above

All of the above.

What could be the result of taking an antibiotic, but not finishing the prescription? a. fewer memory B cells produced b. increased chances of some bacteria evolving resistance c. increased chances of reinfection d. all of the above

All of the above.

Which of the following processes does HIV interfere with? a. macrophages ability to become "informed" about a specific pathogen b. the specific humoral response c. the specific cell-mediated response d. all of the above

All of the above.

Smell:

Allows animals to sample the chemical environment. The chemoreceptors for smell are found in the nasal mucosa of the nasal passage. Cilia on the dendrites of these chemoreceptors project into the nasal passage, and the axons project directly into the cerebral cortex. To detect chemicals, airborne molecules must be dissolved in the extracellular matrix around the dendrites. The sense of smell is very sensitive in many terrestrial vertebrates, detecting as little as 1 molecule of a chemical. Thousands of different chemicals can be distinguished by the sense of smell. Odorants that are similar in chemical structure activate same areas in the brain. Olfaction and taste use the same nerve pathways.

Mechanical digestion:

Allows organisms to capture larger food items.

Lycophytes:

Also known as club mosses. The most ancient group of vascular plants and a sister group to all other vascular plants... Most are now extinct. Possess vascular tissue in roots and stems, but not the leaves. They do not produce seeds. The green, leafy sporophytes are the dominant stage of the lifecycle.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):

Also stimulates gonads, making both the last two hormones gonadotropins. FSH is needed follicle development in females and sperm development in males.

An animal that takes a risk to protect itself as well as other unrelated young or even others of a different species is displaying?

Altruism.

Amphibian gas exchange:

Amphibians allow the diffusion of gases across their skin in highly vascular areas. This method is supplemental to lungs.

Regulating body temp:

An animals body temperature is a critical internal condition due to effects of temp on enzymatic activity. For each 10 degree Celsius increase in temp, the rate of reaction doubles. There are limits for how far temp can be increased to increase enzyme activity because heat can also denature enzymes. Therefore, an organism's metabolism operates most efficiently within certain temperature limits.

Pheromones:

An example of exocrine, because they are secreted out of the body. Pheromones are chemicals that can alter the behavior and physiology of the receiver, but they don't participate in the normal regulation of the body. They are chemicals excreted by glands and have their effect on other individuals, reproductive/mate selection, territory (musk, urine, etc.).

Positive feedback:

An important control mechanism in animals that is not directly involved in maintaining homeostasis because the action of the effector drives the value further from the center point. Childbirth is an example of positive feedback: during childbirth, the release of the hormone oxytocin from the pituitary gland increases uterine contractions which causes increased force against the cervix...This causes more release of oxytocin and more contractions. The positive feedback cycle continues until the birth of the baby, which removes the stimulus.

Pollen:

An important innovation in seed plants. Seed plants produce two types of gametophytes: male and female. Pollen is either transported by wind or by pollinators. Pollen eliminates the need for water for fertilization of seed plants.

Long day plants require ____ to trigger a flowering response.

An uninterrupted dark period that is LESS than a critical length for that species.

Niphridia:

Analids and other vertebrates have tubules that open both to the inside and the outside. The opening inside of the body is located on the nephrostome, which is the structure that obtains and filters fluid from the body cavity. Large molecules can not enter due to the filtration process. As the fluid passes through the tubules of the nephridia, salt is removed by active transport and is reabsorbed into the body fluids, thus by the time urine is excreted it is hypotonic too or less concentrated than the body fluid.

Roots:

Anchor the plant and absorb nutrients from the soil.

Hormones are chemicals produced by cells:

And have their primary effect on remote target cells.

The semicircular canals detect ___.

Angular motion.

Fat, or adipose tissue:

Another loose connective tissue that has important functions in animals. Each adipose cell stores triglycerides in a vessel. The triglycerides are hydrolyzed to supply energy when needed. The number of fat cells in an adult remains relatively constant... the size of the cell can change when weight is lost or gained. In addition to energy storage, adipose tissue is also important for insolation and cushioning of internal organs.

Proprioceptors:

Another type of mechanoreceptor. Monitors the position and movement of the body. The proprioceptors found in muscles are called muscle spindles; the ones found in tendons are called Golgi tendon organs.

Oligodendrocytes:

Another type of neuroglial cell. They produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD):

Any disorder that obstructs air flow on a long term basis. Asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis are the main COPDs.

Estrous cycle:

Are "in heat" or receptive to males only around the time of ovulation.

Blood vessels:

Arteries > arterials > capillaries > venuals > veins

Why does water potential decrease as you go up?

As water transpires from the leaves, water potential decreases. So there is a high water potential in the roots, and a low water potential in the leaves. Water moves upward from the roots (high potential) to the leaves (low potential).

Temporal lobe:

Auditory area... Responsible for interpreting auditory signals from our ears.

Nerve impulses travel along the long cellular extension of the neuron called the:

Axon.

B cells mature in the ____. T cells mature in the ____.

B cells and T cells are produced in bone marrow. However, B cells mature in bone marrow while T cells mature in the thymus.

Which of the following is NOT part of cell-mediated immunity? B cells Cytokines Cytotoxic T-cells Helper T-cells

B-cells are not part of cell-mediated immunity.

What does a vein have in common with the heart? A. both have cardiac muscle tissue B. Both have epithelial linings, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue C. neither has connective tissue d. neither is an organ

B. Both are organs so they contain all 4 types of tissue.

Mineral and organic soil particles tend to have ______ charges, so they attract ________ charged molecules and ions. The charge gradient produced in the soil solution causes _______ charges to tend to move out of the root hairs. A. positive, negative, positive B. negative, positive, positive C. positive, negative, negative D. negative, positive, negative

B. Negative, positive, positive.

Which of the following systems is NOT directly involved in regulation and maintenance of the body's chemical homeostasis? A. urinary system B. the skeletal system C. the endocrine system D. the digestive system

B. the skeletal system The urinary system, endocrine system, and digestive system are all directly involved in regulation and maintenance of the body's chemical homeostasis.

The hip is an example of what kind of joint?

Ball-and-socket.

Nerve impulse transmission:

Based on the ability to create electrical charge differences across the plasma membrane of the neuron. These charge differences are created by manipulating concentrations of ions across the membrane. The inside of the cell is more negative than the outside of the cell due to the actions of different types of membrane transport proteins.

Insulin and diabetes:

Because insulin has such an important role in proper functioning of the body, disease can result if there is a problem with insulin. Diabetes mellitus, or diabetes, is a wide spread disease in the US.

Why are epithelial tissues susceptible to mutation?

Because they replace so fast.

Esophageal Sphincter:

Before entering the stomach, the bolus must enter through a muscular entering called the esophageal sphincter. The sphincter is a circular muscle passageway that allows food into, but rarely out of, the stomach. If acidic contents are allowed through the sphincter, heartburn will occur.

Hemolymph:

Blood and plasma in interstitial spaces. Takes longer time to circulate back to the heart once they have been emptied into the body cavity.

Filtering unit of the kidney:

Blood enters from the afferent arteriole and passes through the glomerulus (which is a ball of capillaries) situated inside the Bowman's capsule (which is where filtration takes place). Fluid ions and small molecules pass from the blood in the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule due to blood pressure forcing them through the porous walls of the capillaries. Blood cells and large molecules cannot fit through the pores so they remain in the blood. The now filtered blood exits through the efferent arteriole, and the newly formed filtrate starts its journey through the nephron.

pH:

Blood pH is monitored with the peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies, and cerebrospinal fluid pH is monitored with the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata in the brain. An increase of carbon dioxide in the blood leads to lowering of the blood pH. These chemosensors can detect the lower pH and the brain will respond by causing an increase in breathing rate in order to increase the blood pH to normal.

The signals of the endocrine system are transmitted to the appropriate target organ via ___.

Blood.

The signals of the endocrine system are transmitted to the appropriate target organ via:

Blood.

Relationship between body mass and metabolic rate in mammals:

Body size plays an important role in animal physiology. Smaller mammals have a higher metabolic rate. They have a higher surface area to volume ratio, so they loose heat to the environment rapidly. In cold environments, small animals are well insolated to reduce heat loss to the environment and maintain body temp. Large mammals must have mechanisms for dissipating heat in hot environments, due to their lower surface area to volume ratio.

How does bone growth occur?

Bone tissue develops from fibrous membranes and cartilage. Calcified bone replaces the outer covering and then replaces the internal cartilage. Growth of endochondral bones occurs at the widened ends of the bone, called the epiphysis. Inside the epiphysis are growth plates made of cartilage. The thickening of the cell lengthens the bone. The cartilage is simultaneously calcified from the shaft side.

Even the carnivorous pitcher plant needs nutrient chemicals. Elements needed in large quantities are called macro elements which include all of the following EXCEPT:

Boron is not a macro element.

Wernicke's and Broca's area:

Both are involved in language Broca's area is responsible for conveying language in written or verbal form. Wernicke's area is involved in understanding language.

Two main kinds of lymphocytes:

Both are produced in bone marrow... B-Cells: Mature in bone marrow. Involved in humoral immunity. Responsible for producing antibodies (immunoglobulins). T-Cells: Mature in the thymus. Involved in cell mediated immunity.

Amyoplasts:

Both roots and shoots detect gravity through amyoplasts. Amyoplasts are starch containing plastids. They sink toward the gravitational field and may be involved in sensing gravity. The gravity sensing region of the shoot is in the endodermal cells that surround the vascular tissue. In the roots, cells of the root caps sense gravity.

Which of the following choices is the correct path for the filtrate to follow through the nephron in the production of urine?

Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

In mammals, the central nervous system includes:

Brain and spinal cord. (motor and sensory nerves are part of PNS).

Protonephridia:

Branch tubules within the body. These tubes are open only to the outside of the body. The blind end of the tubes inside the body are called flame cells. These cells have small perforations and cilia inside the cell beat to create a pressure gradient that pulls small molecules, such as water and waste material, into the cells through the perforations. The water and waste continue through the tubule and exit through excretory pores on the surface of the animal.

Nerves:

Bundles of axons.

Which of the following processes does NOT accompany embryo development to forma a seed? A. The food supply forms B. The seed coat forms C. Double fertilization occurs D. The fruit develops

C. Double fertilization occurs (this is not one of the 3 critical events that occur in embryo development).

Epithelial tissues perform all of the following functions except: A. Protect from dehydration or mechanical damage. B. Produce glands that secrete materials. C. Provide a structural framework for other tissues. D. Provide a selectively permeable barrier. E. Provide sensory surfaces.

C. Provide a structural framework for other tissues. Connective tissue does that.

Which of thr following plant growth responses does NOT involve the phytochrome? A. Shoot elongation B. Photomorphogenesis C. Thigmotropism D. Seed germination

C. Thigmotropism - this is a growth response to touch.

Which of the following is not one of the levels of organization in the vertebrate body? A. organs B. cells C. bones D. organ systems E. tissues

C. bones Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, organs make up organ systems. All of the organ systems together make up the organism.

Which vessels are composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells? A. arteries B. arterioles C. capillaries D. venules E. veins

C. capillaries are composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells.

Heat regulation by capillaries:

Capillaries constrict and dilate. When you are hot, your capillaries dilate and allow blood flow to the surface of your skin, causing you to turn red - vasodilation. When you are cold, capillaries constrict - vasoconstriction.

Phloem Transport: Translocation

Carbs, plant hormones, mRNA, amino acids organic acids, proteins, and ions are all transported in the phloem. They are all found in sap which can move up or down the tree.

Dichogamous:

Carpels and stamen reach maturity at different times.

Ground tissue:

Carries out many functions for plants including storage of carbohydrates and water, photosynthesis, and support.

Veins:

Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.

Arteries:

Carry oxygenated blood AWAY from the heart. The exception is the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart.

The small intestine empties directly into the large intestine at a junction where what two vestigial structures remain?

Cecum and appendix.

The nucleus of a neuron is contained in the:

Cell body.

Cell-mediated immunity:

Cell-mediated immunity is directed by proteins that indicate self and non-self. These proteins are encoded by the MHC, or the major histocompatibility complex proteins, of DNA. The MHC is unique for each individual. In humans, the proteins produced by the MHC are called human leukocyte antigens (HLA's). The proteins stop the surface of tissue cells, marking the cells as "self." MHC proteins bind to a fragment of another protein, and if the protein fragment is an antigen, it activates the cell-mediated response that is carried out by T cells. What are these protein fragments, and where do they come from? These come from within the cell, it might be a fragment of a normal self protein from the cell, a protein from a virus that has infected the cell, or it might be an unusual protein produced by a cancer cell. In a healthy cell, most of the protein fragments bound to MHC proteins will just be fragments from normal proteins and a T cell will not be activated. But a viral protein or an abnormal protein from a tumor cell can activate the T cell. SO when the MHC protein binds to an antigen from a pathogen, the body cell is telling the T cell, "I'm a cell of the body, but I have an invader." There are two types of MHC proteins: MHC class I and MHC class II proteins. Class I proteins are in every nucleated cell of the body, but only antigen presenting cells (APCs) have both classes of MHC proteins on their surface. APCs include macrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells. The 2 classes of MHC proteins activate two different kinds of T cells. MHC class I proteins activate cytotoxic T cells, while class II proteins activate helper T cells.

Organization of the plant body:

Cells produce waterproof filler called lignin that fills the spaces between cells. Plant types are distinguished by the size of their vacuoles, whether they are living or not at maturity, and by the thickness of their cell wall. Plant cell walls are made of the glucose polymer cellulose. Some cell walls have additional substances that strengthen or waterproof the cell wall. All cells have a primary cell wall. Some cells have additional layers of cellulose that improve the strength of the cell wall (the secondary cell wall). The primary wall is outside of the secondary wall, because the additional cellulose is produced in the cell membrane. Different types of plant cells contribute to the three types of plant tissue (dermal, ground, and vascular).

Trichomes:

Cellular or multicellular hair-like outgrowths of the epidermis. They occur frequently on stems, leaves, and reproductive organs.

What part of the nervous system handles decisions?

Central Nervous System (modulation of sensory input).

Turgor pressure is most directly related to the plant cells' ____.

Central vacuole and cell walls.

Which of the following would NOT be considered a macronutrient for plants?

Chlorine.

Two major types of green algae are the ____ & _____.

Chlorophytes - never made it to land. Charophytes - are a sister group of all land plants.

A naïve toad is offered a bumblebee as food. Toad's feeding response is reflexive...it can't control itself. The bee stings the toad when the toad tries to catch the bee. Subsequent feedings reveal that the toad avoids feeding on bumblebees. The toad learns that the two unrelated stimuli (stimuli to eat and the danger of the striped abdomen) equal danger, so this is an example of:

Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning

Ganglia:

Clusters of cell bodies located on the CNS.

Cocaine:

Cocaine increases the amount of dopamine in the synapse and increases the amount of time that dopamine is present in the synapse. Dopamine is used in the limbic system, or pleasure region, of the brain. The effect of cocaine is to intensify pleasurable sensations. Cocaine binds to the transporter proteins and prevents the reuptake of dopamine.

Most concentrating occurs in the:

Collecting duct.

The semi-hard and hard cells that function to attach a banana to the plant are made up of what kind of ground tissues?

Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Different species that share a related distribution are known as a:

Community.

Nerve tissue:

Composed of neurons and supporting cells called neuroglia. Neuroglia do not conduct electrical impulses, instead they support the neurons in various ways. Neurons produce and conduct electrochemical signals or impulses that are composed of a cell body (containing the nucleus), dendrites (that receive incoming signals), and axons (which conduct impulses away from the cell body).

Acidic gastric juice:

Composed of three main ingredients: mucus, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and pepsin (pepsinogen in inactive form).... HCl is responsible for lowering the pH of the stomach to 2. This highly acidic environment accomplishes 3 main tasks: 1) Helps to denature proteins 2) Kills any ingested live organisms like bacteria 3) Converts the inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin. (Storing the protein digesting enzyme in an inactive form prevents it from digesting the cells in which it is stored).

Forebrain:

Composed of two regions: the thalamus and the hypothalamus. This area serves as a relay center for incoming sensory info and the higher order processing of the cerebrum. It also helps to control homeostasis in the body.

Midbrain:

Composed primarily of the optic tectum, which receives and processes visual information.

The receptors that are shorter and responsible for color vision are:

Cones.

Plasmodesmata:

Connections between cells that transport water.

Meninges:

Connective tissue membranes which cover the spinal cord and extend to also cover and protect the brain.

Which tissue provides a framework for other tissues in organ structure?

Connective tissue. A distinguishing feature of connective tissue is that all produce a non-cellular matrix such as hard bone, cartilage, etc.

Corpus Callosum:

Connects the right and left brain, or right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Salivary production:

Controlled by the nervous system. Tasting, smelling, and even talking or thinking about food stimulates increased salivation.

Iris:

Controls light intensity entering the eye, contracted by smooth muscles (ciliary muscle).

Peristalsis:

Coordinated muscle movement that moves the food toward the stomach regardless of gravity.

Epithelial Tissue:

Covers every surface of the vertebrate body and can come from ANY of the three germ layers. Epithelial provides a barrier that impedes passage of some substances out of the body, such as the movement of water out of the body. It can also facilitate the passage of substances into the body, such as through the lining of the digestive tract. In all epithelial tissues, cells are tightly bound together. Epithelial tissue can be simple, meaning a single layer of cells, or it can be stratified, consisting of multiple layers of cells. Some epithelial cells have modifications, such as cilia or mucus secreting capacity. Cell shape can be squamous (flat), cuboidal (cubed), or columnar (column-shaped).

The exocrine system:

Creates chemical signals in glands, but these differ from endocrine signals in that the gland has a duct that opens into the digestion tract or to the outside of the body (sweat and pheromones are exocrine). Some glands have both an endocrine and exocrine function.

Which of the following is NOT an ion homeostatically maintained in vertebrates? a. Ca2+ b. Na+ c. Cl- d. Fl-

D. Fl-

Nerve impulses are electrical signals produced by which of the following? A. nodes of Ranvier B. lipid sheath of Schwann cells C. neuromuscular junction D. plasma membrane neuron

D. Plasma membrane of neuron

An example of an ecological energy transfer is: a. photosynthetically active light converted to carbohydrate b. radiating heat from a stone that a lizard uses to warm up c. octane burning into carbon dioxide d. all of the above

D. all of the above

Which of the following is NOT one of the principal kinds of tissues in vertebrates? A. epithelial B. muscle C. connective D. cartilage E. nervous

D. cartilage is NOT a principle kind of tissue in vertebrates.

Which of the following chemical defenses is common to plants and animal and provides antimicrobial activity?

Defensins.

Negative side effects of alcohol:

Dehydration occurs due to alcohol blocking the release of ADH by the pituitary gland. Therefore, very dilute urine is excreted because ADH cannot cause water to be absorbed by the kidneys. (Other side effects include acute poisoning causing vomiting, weight gain, psychosis, and even death).

When stimulate by the binding of specific chemicals, the proteins in the membranes of taste bud receptors and olfactory neurons:

Depolarize.

Connective tissue:

Derived from embryonic mesoderm. All connective tissues have cells embedded in an extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of protein fibers and ground substance (which is fluid, protein, and polysaccharides). The matrix can be fluid, such as blood plasma, or solid, such as the crystal in material that makes bones hard. Protein fibers include collagen (which usually forms a mesh-work and is very strong under tension)...Elastin is another protein fiber that makes tissue elastic. Loose-connecting tissue has a large proportion of ground substance with a loose scattering of protein fibers, and is typically found beneath the skin and between organs. Dense connective tissue has less ground substance and tightly packed collagen fibers. Tendons, ligaments, and the tough coverings around organs, muscles, and nerves are made of dense connective tissue.

Organs have ___, ___, and ____.

Dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue (all three types).

Chemoreceptors:

Detect chemical stimuli. These include taste, smell, and pH. Taste and smell are also special senses because they are located within organs specialized for that sense.

Electromagnetic receptors:

Detect electromagnetic energy such as light and heat. Some animals have electromagnetic receptors other than vision.

Sensory Receptors:

Detect information from both inside and outside the body. Receptors that detect stimuli within the body are called interceptors. Those that detect stimuli form outside the body are called extoreceptors. There 3 categories of sensory receptors: mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and electromagnetic receptors.

Mechanoreceptors:

Detect mechanical forces like touch, pressure and blood pressure, pain, temperature and vibration. For example, touch receptors are distributed throughout the bod and there are several different types of them, such as pain and pressure. Hearing and balance are also detected by mechanoreceptors. These two are considered special senses because their receptors are located in an organ specialized for that particular sense.

Nervous system:

Detects stimuli and coordinates the body's responses. Uses the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory organs to collect, interpret, and provide rapid response to stimuli.

Osmolarity:

Determined by how many moles of one or more substances re dissolved in the fluid. For example, if you have water with one mole of sucrose and two moles of sodium dissolved in it, it has an osmolarity of 3 osmolar.

The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis):

Develops from epithelial tissue from the roof of the embryo's mouth and is NOT part of the nervous system, despite being in contact with the brain. It produces and releases 7 hormones, some of which regulate the production of hormones from other glands, but others which act directly on cells without an intermediate hormone. The anterior pituitary is regulated by neural hormones of two classes from the hypothalamus: releasing hormones and inhibitory hormones. They function as they name suggests, to either stimulate the release or inhibition of hormones from the anterior pituitary. The neural hormones are produced in neuron cell bodies of the hypothalamus, and travel down the axons to a capillary bed (called the primary capillaries) in the stalk that contains the hypothalamus and pituitary. These capillaries carry the neural hormones into veins call portal veins, then enter the secondary capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This system of two capillary beds and connecting veins is called the hypothalamohypophyseal portal system. When the neural hormones reach the anterior pituitary, the pituitary responds by releasing or stopping the release of the appropriate hormones into the blood stream.

Inhalation:

Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract. The diaphragm is flattened and raised. The volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn in.

Respiration involves the movement of gases by the process of:

Diffusion.

Thigmotropism:

Directional growth in response to contact or touch.

Phototropism:

Directional growth response to light. Generally, stems are positively phototropic to light with blue wavelengths. Roots generally have no phototropic response or may show a weak negative growth response to light.

Fick's Law states that for a dissolved gas, the rate of diffusion (R) is directly proportional to _____ and inversely proportional to the _____.

Directly proportional to: pressure difference and area over which diffusion occurs (surface area). Indirectly proportional to: Distance.

What are 3 ways that blood transports CO2?

Dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate.

Most of the concentration of filtrate occurs in the ____.

Distal tube and collecting duct.

Helper T cells:

Do not kill host or pathogen cells directly, but rather direct immune response by releasing cytokines, activating B cells and macrophages, and producing memory helper T cells. Undergo cell division to make memory helper T cells and activated helper T cells. The activated cells secrete cytokines that direct the immune response. They determine to what extent the adaptive immune response will be cellular or humoral.

You are stranded at sea and are dehydrated. What should you NOT do?

Drink sea water.

At puberty, the hypothalamus begins secretion of GnRh, which triggers the anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH. The first half of the ovarian cycle, called the follicular phase, is stimulated by the hormones FSH and LH.

During the follicular phase, one follicle will complete maturation. A serge in LH halfway through the cycle triggers ovulation. The secondary oocyte surrounded by supporting cells is released from the ovary. The remaining follicle celles become the corpus luteum.

Breathing in humans:

Each breath is initiated by a nerve impulse from the respiratory control center in the medulla oblongata. Neurons stimulate the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles to contract. The diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to flatten. Contraction of the intercostal muscles raises the ribcage. Both of these actions work to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity an therefore reduce the pressure in the lungs and air is drawn in = inhalation.

White blood cells (leukocytes):

Each kill microbes in a different way: - Macrophages (or big eaters) kill pathogens by phagocytosis. Inside the macrophage, lysosomal enzymes kill and digest the microbe. Microphages roam the extracellular fluid in order to engulf any microbes or debris in the tissues. - Monocytes are the immature form of macrophages. Monocytes circulate in the blood until signaled to an infection site where they mature into macrophages. - Neutrophils are similar to macrophages in that they enter infected tissue and engulf pathogens.. In addition, they produce defensins. - Natural killer, of NK cells, don't kill microbes, but rather kill virus infected host cells (as shown in the illustration). They do this by binding with the infected cell, creating a pore in the infected cell's membrane, and secreting a self-destruct signal to the cell. The infected cell the undergoes apoptosis, or programmed cell death, with the resulting cellular debris contained in vesicles that macrophages ingest. - Dendritic cells are involved in both innate and adaptive immunity because they have toll-like receptors (TLR) that bind to pathogens and cause the release of cytokines in the inflammatory response, but they also present antigens to the cells of the adaptive immune system.

Tracheophytes:

Early land plants successfully colonized the land by developing efficient vascular tissue. Xylem is vascular tissue adapted for water conduction. Phloem is vascular tissue adapted for conducting sucrose, hormones, and other organic compounds throughout the plant. Vascular plants, or Tracheophytes, can grow larger due to a more efficient transport system. Most Tracheophytes also have waxy cuticle, stomata, and a dominant sporophyte generation. The three types of Tracheophytes are lycophytes, pterophytes, and seed plants.

A disease of the blood that was found to have genetic roots going back to the blastocyst. Therefore, you deduce that this disease can be traced to embryonic:

Ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm.

oogenesis:

Egg production, occurs in the ovary. During fetal development, germ cells in the female's ovary begin meiosis, but the process is arrested in prophase 1. Therefore in females, all of the potential ova have begun meiosis at birth and are located in the follicles of the ovary. Beginning at puberty, at the beginning of the menstrual cycle, several follicles will begin maturation. One follicle completely matures. The mature follicle is called a grapheme follicle. This follicle will release the secondary oocyte in the process of ovulation. The second product of meiosis 1 is called the first polar body and is smaller than the secondary oocyte. Meiosis 2 will take place only if fertilization occurs. Once again the division of the cytoplasm is unequal. The first and/or second polar bodies eventually disintegrate. The remaining haploid cell becomes the ovum.

Most fish and amphibians use external fertilization:

Eggs and sperm are released into water and free gametes unite to form zygotes. Timing of gamete release is critical for successful fertilization.

Arteries and veins are composed of similar components:

Endothelium, an elastic layer, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. The components are found in different amounts in arteries/veins. Arteries have a thick elastic layer which allows for stretching. These walls stretch and recoil in the response to the pumping of blood by the heart, thereby allowing the arteries to maintain pressure in the circulatory system. Because blood pressure is lower after passing through capillaries, veins don't require the same out of smooth muscle and elastic tissue.

Respiratory system of birds:

Endothermic animals, mammals and birds, have high oxygen requirements due to higher metabolism. In order to meet this requirement, their respiratory systems are more complex and lungs have greater surface area than the lungs of amphibians. The bird respiratory system is unique in that it has one-directional air flow through the tiny air vessels called parabronchi, where gas exchange occurs. One directional air flow is accomplished using anterior and posterior air sacs which are unique to birds. The posterior sacs hold newly inhaled air, and the anterior sacs fill with air leaving the lungs. Thus, the old and new air do not mix in the lungs. This and other respiratory adaptations allow birds to have the most efficient respiratory system of terrestrial vertebrates and to be active at altitudes of 6,000 meters.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):

Energy is expended even when the animal is at rest. The BMR is the minimal amount of energy consumed under defined resting conditions. In actuality, people need 50-100% more calories per day than their BMR - but not all calories are the same. For optimum health, people must consume a balanced ratio of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. In addition to caloric intake, humans need vitamins, minerals, and water for balanced nutrition.

Reproductive system:

Ensures continuity of the species. Both male and female systems consist of organs for developing gametes.

What plays a role in blood clotting?

Enzymes, platelets, thrombin, and fibrin are all involved in blood clotting.

Root hairs:

Epidermal outgrowths; greatly increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals.

The lungs are located in the thoracic cavity of the body, which also contains the heart:

Epithelial cells lining the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, secrete mucous which traps debris in the inhaled air. In the trachea and bronchi, these cells also have cilia which beat in a rhythmic fashion to move the mucous upward through the respiratory system. This process is sometimes described as a mucous escalator. Once the mucous reaches the pharynx, it may be swallowed or expelled from the body. The combo of mucous and beating cilia serves to keep the alveoli free from harmful contaminates. Alveoli macrophages patrol the surface engulfing any particles that have made it to the air sacs.

Cells forming linings that tend to rapidly replace themselves by mitosis are:

Epithelial tissue.

The beginning of the uterine cycle is defined by menstruation or shedding of the endometrial lining. The next phase is the proliferation phase, which is stimulated and sustained by increased secretion of estrogen from the ovary.

Estrogen targets the endometrium of the uterus and stimulates proliferation, or thickening of the lining. After ovulation, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen, which target the endometrium and trigger further thickening and secretion. Increased progesterone and estrogen levels exert negative feedback on FSH and LH.

Which plant hormone is a gas?

Ethylene.

"True Leaves"

Euphylls.

The immune system:

Every form of life, from prokaryotes to mammals, has some form of immune response to attempt to protect itself from other organisms that may harm it. The immune system works extensively with the nervous and endocrine systems to maintain homeostasis by healing damaged tissue and responding to attacks by invading organisms.

Which hormone stimulates seritoli cells and spermatogenesis in males and stimulates follicles in females?

FSH

FSH:

FSH targets the sertoli cells inside the seminiferous tubules. Sertoli cells stimulate sperm development and release the hormone inhibin, which exerts negative feedback on FSH secretion.

Multicellular organism circulation:

Faced with the issues of transporting nutrients, waste, and gases but have the added burden of moving these substances throughout their entire body. Since they are much more complex than single celled organisms, they must have a circulatory system to accomplish this.

Sertoli cells:

Facilitate sperm development

Self-pollination is never advantageous for flowering plants, therefore natural selection favors outcrossing in all environments (true or false?)

False. Self-pollination is an advantage in environments where pollinators are not readily available.

Fats:

Fats are an important energy storage molecule. Fats contain roughly twice the energy as carbohydrates or proteins. Similar to proteins, there are some essential fats that we must obtain through our diet. When a human consumes more calories than he or she can burn, the excess calories are converted to fat. One pound of fat contains 3,600 calories worth of energy.

The same group of animals produces an average of 2.7 offspring per female. This data is called:

Fecundity.

What structure protects male angiosperm gametophytes after they have germinated?

Female flower structures.

Structure and evolution of flowers:

Floral organs are thought to have evolved from leaves. There are 4 whorls that make up a complete flower. An incomplete flower lacks one or more of these: 1) The calyx is the outermost whorl of flower parts and protects the flower bud. The sepals. 2) The corolla attracts pollinators. These are the petals. 3) The androecium is the collective term for all of the stamens (male parts). Most stamens have a stalk or filament and an anther, which houses the microspore mother cells. 4) The gynoecium is the female part of the flower (one or more carpels). The ovary of the carpel contains the ovules. The slender neck of the carpel is called the style, which has a pollen-receptive stigma in the tip.

Short- day plants:

Flower when the amount of darkness exceeds a critical length for that species.

Long day plants:

Flower when the amount of darkness is less than a critical amount for that species.

Lens:

Focuses the image.

Food moved to the back of the mouth by the tongue causes what to happen?

Folding of the epiglottis over the trachea Pressure against the pharynx to initiate swallowing Elevation of the palate to seal off the nasal cavity

What anatomic characteristics are for increased secretion contact and absorption?

Folds.

Phloem:

Food-conducting strands of tissue in the stems, roots, and leaves.

Nervous System Organization:

For animals to respond to environmental stimuli, they must have sensory receptors to detect the stimulus and motor effectors to respond to the stimulus. Sensory receptors and motor effectors are linked via the nervous system.

Excretion:

Formation of urine by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion allows for waste to be excreted while conserving water and other necessary substances. The processes that occur in the nephron are all vital to homeostasis because they regulate water, salt, and acid-base balance in the blood and body. The amounts of ions in water that are absorbed and secreted are influenced by hormones that are controlled by negative feedback so that the kidneys can be responsive to the body's changing needs.

Posterior Pituitary:

Formed from brain tissue and functions differently than the anterior pituitary. Two hormones, called antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, are produced in the hypothalamus and neuron cell bodies. The axons of these cells extend down into the posterior pituitary. These two hormones are transported through these axons and stored in the posterior pituitary. They are released into the blood in response to the appropriate stimuli.

Lateral Meristems:

Found in many gymnosperms and allow for the expansion of the stem and root in diameter. Growth from the lateral meristems is called secondary growth. There are two types of lateral meristems: 1) Vascular cambium: gives rise to secondary xylem and secondary phloem. 2) Cork cambium: gives rise to cork cells which form the outer bark.

Cardiac muscle:

Found only in the heart. Cardiac muscles are interconnected by gap junctions which enable cells to contract as a single, functioning unit. Contraction of the cardiac muscle is involuntary and initiated by special cardiac muscle cells.

Parathyroid glands:

Four small glands attached to the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone helps regulate blood calcium levels by causing bones to release calcium. They also act in the activation of vitamin D, which stimulates absorption of calcium from food in the gut.

Water potential is a measure of _____ that predicts which way water will move.

Free (potential) energy.

Nociceptors:

Free nerve endings that detect pain and tissue damage. There are a number of different nociceptors. They are usually free nerve endings, spread throughout the body, and are particularly concentrated where injury is likely to occur. This is why a paper cut on an index fingers hurts, but the same cut on your thigh may go unnoticed.

Fish - osmotic adaptations:

Fresh water fish can easily excrete waste and ions by passive diffusion into the surrounding water. The kidneys main function is not waste excretion, but rather is used primarily to excrete excess water. The kidney must reabsorb most of the ions from the filtrate in order to form very dilute urine, which is hypotonic to their body fluid. Only a small amount of waste is excreted in the urine. Marine bony fish have the opposite problem, because they are hypotonic to their environment, the must conserve as much water as possible. They drink large amounts of sea water and must get rid of the excess ions that they drink. They excrete ions in a number of ways, but the kidney is important in excreting divalent ions that enter the blood. Their urine is more concentrated than that of freshwater fish, but because of the other path of ion excretion, it is not as concentrated as that of mammals and birds.

How does water move into xylem?

From the epidermis > across the root cortex > regulated by Casparian strip > finally into the stele (vascular bundle).

Fertilization:

Fusion of gametes; forms the zygote. The zygote grows by meiotic cell division to form the multicellular sporophyte.

Gametophytes are haploid and produce ____?

Gametes.

The secretion of pepsinogen and HCL is controlled by the hormone:

Gastrin.

Countercurrent flow of blood and water:

Gills also maximize diffusion by increasing the pressure gradient (delta P). Gills consist of thin membranous lamellae that project into the water...water flows in one direction only. Within the lamellae, blood flows opposite to the direction of the water flow. This is called countercurrent flow. It increases oxygenation by maximizing the oxygen gradient.

In the ____, a tuft of capillaries in the renal cortex, blood is filtered through the porous capillary walls.

Glomerulus.

In normal healthy human urine, the substance not usually found (or should not be found) is _____.

Glucose.

At puberty, the hypothalamus begins secretion of GnRh, which stands for gonadotropin releasing hormone:

GnRh stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH.

Spatial summation:

Graded potentials from dendrites of different presynaptic cells that occur at the same time are summed. These can be excitatory or inhibitory post synaptic potentials, but the net result must depolarize the postsynaptic cell to threshold in order for the action potential to be generated.

Synaptic integration:

Graded potentials interact with each other at the cell body if the postsynaptic neuron in this process. There are two types: spatial summation and temporal summation.

Green algae and land plants share a common ancestor and are collectively called the ____.

Green Plants; all green plants are photoautotrophic.

Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma are all types of cells in the ____.

Ground Tissue.

The leaf mesophyll is composed of parenchyma cells and makes up the ____ tissue of the leaf.

Ground.

Meristems:

Growth and development of the plant body occur at these localized regions - they are clusters of meristem cells that divide indefinitely by mitosis. Found at the apices of roots and shoots of all plants. Meristematic cells are undifferentiated cells that divide indefinitely by mitosis. After each division, one cell will differentiate and become part of the plant body, while the other cell remains meristematic. Apical meristems extend the LENGTH of the root and shoot. Lateral meristems increase the shoot and root diameter or THICKNESS.

Ascisic Acid (ABA):

Growth suppressant and dormancy. Important in making dormancy in winter buds and seeds. Counteracts the effects of other hormones that promote growth and germination.

______ regulate the opening and closing of stomata.

Guard cells.

If a person has vomited due to excessive alcohol consumption, then that person...

Has acute toxicity and has been poisoned.

Pancreas:

Has both exocrine and endocrine functions. In its exocrine role, it releases digestive enzymes and bicarbonate enzymes into the small intestine. In its endocrine role, pancreatic hormones are very important in the regulation of carbohydrates in the blood. The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon.

Adaptive immunity:

Has the ability to remember certain pathogens and mount a quick and effective response to them, should they try to reenter. Divided into two types: cell-mediated and humoral immunity.

Ectotherms:

Have a lower metabolic rate and use external sources of heat. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles are examples of Ectotherms. Typically have little insolation and high conductivity.

Gas exchange in single-celled organisms:

Have the advantage of allowing gases to diffuse directly in or out of the organism.

The immune response is initiated by:

Helper T cells.

The specific immune response is initiated by:

Helper T cells.

Complement:

Helps other immune activities to clear pathogens. Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive form, but are activated when a receptor binds a pathogen. Ex. complement's action - membrane attack complex (MAC) forms a pore in the membrane of the pathogen to kill it.

What is the likely scenario triggering heavy breathing in humans?

High blood pCO2.

Hypertension:

High blood pressure - occurs when systolic or diastolic pressure rise above normal ranges.

Which of the following facilitates the release of oxygen to tissues?

High temp and low pH facilitate the release of oxygen to tissue.

In early vertebrates, the principal component of the brain which is devoted largely to coordinating motor reflexes was the:

Hindbrain.

In shoot Gravitropism, ____ have increased auxin concentration on the lower side which causes that area to grow more than the cells on the upper side resulting in bending.

Horizontal stems.

Gastrin:

Hormone secreted by the stomach in response to the presence of protein. The targets of this hormone are the chief and parietal cells, which release pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Both of these substances assist in the digestion of proteins, so as proteins are digested, the level of gastrin drops by a negative feedback loop.

Chemical properties of hormones:

Hormones are either lipophilic or hydrophilic. These determine how the hormone is transported in the blood and how it interacts with its target. Lipophilic hormones include the steroid hormones, as well as amino acid derivatives produced by the thyroid. Most of the other amino acid derivatives and the peptides and proteins are hydrophilic.

Larynx:

Houses the vocal cords and the glottis the passageway between vocal cords.

You are pregnant if what is present?

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin - released by the gastrula. Stops menstruation to keep the uterine lining in tact.

The human digestive system:

Humans have a highly specialized digestive system, composed of a tubular gastrointestinal (GI) tract with dedicated regions and a group of accessory organs. The GI tract is approximately 8 meters long, beginning in the mouth and ending in the anus. Food is ingested in the mouth where it is mechanically broken down. It passes through the pharynx, or opening of the oral and nasal cavities, and proceeds down the muscular tube called the esophagus in the stomach. From the stomach, partially digested food enters the small and large intestines, where digest nutrients are absorbed, and finally waste exits through the anus. Along the way, accessory organs produce digestive enzymes that assist with chemical digestion. The accessory organs consist of the liver, gallbladder, salivary glands, and pancreas.

Hydrophilic Vs. Lipophilic:

Hydrophilic hormones: can travel unaided through the blood stream because they are water soluble and blood is a water-based solution. However, they cannot pass through the cell membrane of their target cell. The receptors for hydrophilic hormones are therefore on the outer surface of the target cell membrane. Last minutes to hours. Lipophilic hormones: travel through the blood stream attached to transport proteins. They can pass through the target cell's membrane to bind with intracellular receptors. Last hours to days. Typically, hydrophilic proteins have a brief time of action and then are destroyed quickly. Lipophilic hormones tend to persist for a longer period of time before being destroyed. Hydrophilic are polar and dissolve in water. Lipophilic are steroids, lipid based, nonpolar, and therefore do not dissolve in water.

Allergy is a term used interchangeably with...

Hypersensitivity.

Another way to describe an allergy is:

Hypersensitivity.

The hypothalamus and pituitary are vital to the maintenance of homeostasis, because they are responsible for coordinating many hormones and regulating many functions of the body.

Hypothalamus - part of the central nervous system and it helps to regulate neural endocrine activity It primarily acts by controlling the production and secretion of hormones from the pituitary. The pituitary has a direct nerve connection from the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus makes ADH and oxytocin and the pituitary gland releases them.

The region of the brain that integrates visceral activities, body temperature, and heartbeat is the:

Hypothalamus.

The inside endothelial layer of both arteries and veins is of particular importance:

If fatty plaques begin to add up, this layer can get tougher, causing stiffening/hardening of the arteries or veins. This plaque build up causes the blood pressure to rise and the heart to work harder. Just as with a blood clot, if some of this plaque breaks off from an artery or vein, there is a chance it can get lodged in a small artery of the brain, casing a stroke. Blockages of the branches of the coronary arteries (heart arteries) can also cause a heart attack. Hardening of veins arteries - become deposited with fatty plaques increasing work to pump blood...Increased blood pressure, enlarged left ventricle, long-term congestive heart failure, and risk of stroke.

Casparian Strip:

Impermeable membrane surrounding the endodermal cells - this forces molecules to pass through the cell membranes and protoplasts of the endodermal cells to reach the xylem, thus increasing the selectivity of the membrane.

Sodium Potassium Pump:

Important transport protein that helps to maintain and establish concentration differences across the membrane for sodium and potassium. This active transport carrier requires the energy of ATP. It simultaneously transports two potassium ions into the cell, and three sodium ions out of the cell. The three sodium ions are pumped out of the intercellular fluid using ATP as energy. As the sodium ions leave the cell, the transport protein makes a conformational change that allows for the binding of potassium ions. This dephosphorylates the protein which lead to another conformational change, which brings the two potassium ions into the cell. These actions help to maintain concentration differences of sodium and potassium across the membrane. The concentration of potassium is much higher inside the cell. The concentration of sodium is much higher outside of the cell.

Ovipary is found in fishes such as guppies. This internal fertilization along with internal development of the eggs likely exhibits:

Improved fitness through protection of the eggs and fewer eggs necessary.

Closed circulatory system:

In a closed system, such as the earthworm seen in this figure, capillaries join the pathway leading away from the heart, thereby closing the system. In closed systems, plasma and only some leukocytes come out of the capillaries. Once plasma is outside of the circulatory system it is called lymph. This lymph is then collected by another circulatory system called the lymphatic system, which empties back into a vein near the heart. - have capillaries - separated circulation of blood and lymph for interstitial fluids - higher blood pressure

Open circulatory system:

In an open circulatory system, there is no distinction between circulating fluid and the extracellular fluid of the body tissues. This fluid is called hemolymph. The open circulatory system of an insect heart pumps the hemolymph through channels of the body cavity which then drain back to the central body cavity. Organisms with an open circulation system have no capillaries to connect the circulatory pathways away from/back to the heart. The lymph leaks out of the circulatory vessels to bathe the animal cells. These animals do not have a very speedy circulatory pathway, so an organism with an open circulatory system may need a lot of time for its hemolymph to circulate.

Cytokins:

In combination with auxins promote cell division ad differentiation. They are produced in the root tip and travel throughout the plant. These two hormones sometimes work in opposition of each other. Cytokins promote the growth of lateral buds in the shoot and auxins suppress the growth of lateral buds.

LH:

In males, LH targets the leydig cells in the testis and triggers testosterone secretion. Testosterone promotes and maintains secondary sexual characteristics and stimulates spermatogenesis. testosterone exerts negative feedback on LH secretion.

In humans and some other nonhuman primates, when are gametes made?

In males, gametes are made at the onset of puberty. In females, gametes are produced while they are developing as a fetus.

Homeostasis:

In multicellular animals, cells are specialized for specific functions. Most of the cellular functions operate best when extracellular conditions are held within narrow limits. External environments typically have larger fluctuations than the animal's internal environment. The dynamic consistency of the internal environment is called homeostasis. The term dynamic implies that the conditions are never constant, but fluctuate within narrow limits. Some of the homeostatic conditions important for cellular function are temperature, pH, glucose concentration, and oxygen concentration. The main control system used by the body to maintain homeostasis is known as negative feedback.

Saltatory conduction in a myelinated axon:

In myelinated axons, action potentials are only generated in roomyelin, because these are the only areas with the membrane proteins open to the external environment.

Osmoregulatory organs:

In order to osmo-regulate, animals need structures that allow filtration and excretion to occur. Very simple invertebrate animals, such as flatworms, have protonepdridia. Analids and other vertebrates have tubules that open both to the inside and outside.

Knee-Jerk reflex example:

In this example, the stimulus is applied which stimulates a receptor. The sensory neuron carries the impulse to the spinal cord and enters through the dorsal portion. The sensory neuron synapses directly with the motor neuron in the spinal cord and sends the impulse out the ventral side of the spinal cord to an effector. The effector generates a response. This is considered a monosynaptic reflex because only two neurons are involved, with one synapsed between them.

Pterophytes:

Include ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns. The dominant stage of the cycle if the sporophyte. In all of these groups free water is required for sperm to swim t the egg. These groups are all seedless vascular plants and have roots, stems, and leaves with vascular tissue. The true leaves are called euphylls and can have a much larger surface area.

The villi and microvilli on the surface of the small intestine:

Increase the surface area, which increases the absorptive surface.

Hermaphrodites:

Individuals that have both testes and ovaries, and can therefore produce both egg and sperm. Earthworms and tape worms are s simultaneous hermaphrodites, meaning they can produce egg and sperm at the same time. earthworms still require a mate, but tapeworms can self-fertilize. Other animals can change from one sex to another, called sequential hermaphrodites. Protogyny = female turns into male. Protandry = male turns into female.

Snakes known as pit vipers are the only vertebrates know with the ability to sense:

Infrared radiation.

Consumption of alcohol causes urination by:

Inhibiting ADH secretion.

Distinguishing self from pathogens is achieved differently by the two parts of the immune system:

Innate immunity: Allows for a fast response to pathogens by recognizing features that many pathogens share. Adaptive immunity: Creating specific weapons to fight a specific pathogen. This targeted response takes longer to get up and running the first time a pathogen invades, but the ability to target and remember a specific pathogen provides a quick/effective response if the pathogen reappears.

Which of the following BEST describes the difference between innate immune response and adaptive immune response?

Innate response uses non-specific methods to prevent pathogens from entering the body or destroying them after they have, while adaptive immunity uses complex antigen-specific responses to destroy invaders.

Endoderm:

Innermost germ layer. The linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, as well as some major glands, develop in the endoderm.

Osmoregulatory system - insects:

Insects have a unique excretory system because it works by secretion, rather than reabsorption. In insects, waste and potassium ions are actively transported into the malpigian tubules. This creates an osmotic difference that draws water in. The tubules enter into the midgut, where most of the water and potassium are reabsorbed into the body fluids, conserving water. That allows only waste and small molecules to be excreted from the rectum along with feces.

Insect gas exchange:

Insects respire through extensive tracheal systems.

Placental mammals:

Internal fertilization, menstrual or estrus cycle, viviprity. Do NOT perform parthogenesis.

Autonomic Nervous System:

Involuntary. The effectors of the autonomic nervous system are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Menstrual cycles:

Involve menstruation or bleeding to shed the inner lining of the uterus. May involve in copulation with a male at any time.

Primary sensory cortex:

Involved in cutaneous and other senses. Different points on the primary sensory cortex receive sensory input from a particular body part.

Parietal lobe:

Involved in special analysis and math.

Primary motor cortex:

Involved in the control of voluntary muscles. Different points on the surface of the primary motor cortex control voluntary movement of a particular body part.

Nicotine:

Is an example of a drug that binds directly to receptors on postsynaptic neurons. These receptors normally bind acetylcholine. Studies of the brains of smokers reveal fewer nicotine receptors and reduced sensitivity to nicotine by the receptor. Nicotine is a stimulant. It has a "volume control" effect on other neurotransmitters such as dopamine, giving the uses a false sense of pleasure.

The membrane of a resting neuron is much more permeable to which of the following ions than any other?

K+ (potassium) because the pathway closes more slowly so more K can escape.

Haversion System:

Keeps osteocytes alive. Haversion canals may contain nerve fibers. Haversion canals run parallel to the length of long bone.

Human kidney:

Kidneys are located in the lower back and are about 4-5 inches long and 3 inches wide. Perform 3 functions within the nephron for osmoregulation and waste elimination: 1) filtration of the blood 2) reabsorption of certain substances from the filtrate back into the blood 3) secretion of unwanted substances from the blood into the filtrate The nephron is the primary unit of the kidney. It straddles two parts of the kidney: the renal cortex on the outside and the renal medulla on the inside. When the filtrate exits the nephron as urine, it flows through the collecting duct, into the renal pelvis. Urine then leaves the kidney via the ureter and is stored in the urinary bladder. Finally, urine is excreted through the urethra.

Alarm calling seems to be an example of ____, if it favors relatives.

Kin selection.

What are the 3 vegetative organs in angiosperms?

Leaves, roots, and stems. Leaves increase surface area for absorption of solar energy. Vascular tissue arranged in bundles is called a vein and contains both xylem and phloem.

Pigments:

Light absorbing molecules. Allow plants to sense the quality/quantity of light in the environment.

4 genetically regulated pathways for flowering:

Light dependent - depend on external cues. Temp dependent - depend on external cues. Gibberellin dependent - require an increase in the hormone level. Autonomous pathway - does not depend on external cues EXCEPT for nutrition.

The human eye:

Light enters and focused at the cornea and lens. The amount of light allowed in is determined by the size of the pupil, which is the opening of the iris. The iris can contract and dilate to control the size of the pupil. The lens can also change shape. It is attached to ciliary muscles by suspensory ligaments. The changes in the shape of the lens allow the image to focus properly.

Pupil:

Light enters through this space.

The first organ to receive the products of digestion after absorption is the:

Liver.

Although nutrients will eventually reach all cells, the first stop is the ___.

Liver; through a special blood vessel called the hepatic portal vein.

Adrenal glands:

Located just above each kidney and have two portions: the inner layer is called the adrenal medulla and the outer layer is called the adrenal cortex. Both epinephrine (form the adrenal medulla) and corticosteroids (from the adrenal cortex) are involved in the fight or flight response. But epinephrine is involved in very fast responses, while corticosteroids have a more sustained action.

What are the three types of connective tissue?

Loose, dense, and cartilage.

Hindbrain:

Made up of the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons. The functions of the hindbrain are to connect the brain to the spinal cord and coordinate motor responses and some reflexes.

Osmotic balance:

Maintaining the osmotic balance of the fluids of the body requires the exchange of water and electrolytes between intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and the external environment. This allows homeostasis and the osmolarity of fluids to be achieved both inside and outside of the cells, even if the external environment changes.

Depolarization:

Making something LESS negative (or more positive) inside the cell. It is made more positive by the influx of Na+ which makes the neuron more sensitive to neurotransmitters. When Na enters into the cell during depolarization, it becomes more positive. This causes K to be repelled out of the cell, which then makes it more negative.

Dioecious:

Male and female flowers are produced on different plants. This requires out-crossing.

Dessication of gametes was a problem for terrestrial animals, so they perform internal fertilization:

Male gametes are introduced into the female reproductive tract, allowing for fertilization in a non-dessicating environment.

Mammal gas exchange:

Mammals use an extensive system of alveoli within lungs to exchange gases.

Hypersensitive =

Mast cells release histamine due to excessive production of IgE.

Sensory receptors:

May detect information about the external environment from cells in the skin, mouth, eyes, ears and nose. They may also monitor internal body conditions like temperature or oxygen levels.

Sphygmomanometer:

Measure blood pressure. The cuff is inflated around the brachial artery in the arm, until the artery is temporarily closed. The cuff is then slowly deflated until the pulse is heard and seen on the meter (systolic pressure). Then the cuff deflates until the sound disappears (diastolic pressure).

Before proteins are completely digested into amino acids in the jejunum they are:

Mechanically and chemically digested into polypeptides in the stomach and duodenum.

Motion receptors:

Mechanoreceptors make it possible for animals to detect gravity and acceleration. Invertebrates have cells called statocysts that detect gravity and motion. Vertebrates have similar structures that are located in their ears. In vertebrates, the utricle detects horizontal motion, and the saccule detects vertical motion. These two structures have hair cells, the cilia of which are embedded in a gelatinous membrane that has crystals called otoliths. Motion causes the membrane to move with the help of the weight of the otoliths. The movement causes the cilia to bend, which is transduced into an impulse sent to the brain.

Thermoreceptors:

Mechanoreceptors that respond to temperature changes. There are separate receptors for a drop or rise in temperature. Cold receptors respond to a fall in temp, while warm receptors respond to a rise in temperature. These are found in the skin but also in the hypothalamus of the brain, so that the internal temperature of the brain can be monitored.

What are the three categories of vertebrate sensory receptors?

Mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and electromagnetic receptors.

Hyperpolarization:

Membrane potential becomes more negative inside the cell. This is a result of the outward movement of K+ and Na+.

The uterine lining proliferates during the female cycle and then sloughs off in the process of:

Menstruation.

What does the mammalian fetal circulation have in common with the normal amphibian circulation?

Mixing of venous with arterial with arterial circulation.

Nitrogenous waste:

Most bony fish, tadpoles, and aquatic invertebrates can easily get rid of ammonia because they are surrounded by water that contains little ammonia, so it can passively diffuse out of the body with ease through the gills or other transport surfaces. Mammals, adult amphibians, and cartilaginous fish convert ammonia to a less toxic water soluble substance, called urea. The conversion occurs in the liver and urea is transported to the kidneys to be excreted in urine. However, this requires a lot of water. Reptiles, birds, and insects make a trade off in order to save water. They convert ammonia to uric acid, which is only slightly water soluble, so they can excrete it without loosing a lot of water. However, they must use some energy to produce uric acid.

Animals must either conform to the osmolarity of the external environment, or regulate their internal osmolarity at levels that are different from that of the environment:

Most marine invertebrates and a few vertebrates conform to their environment and are osmo-conformers. Most marine vertebrates regulate their internal osmolarity and are osmoregulators. Animals that live in freshwater or on land MUST be osmoregulators in order to survive. One difficulty in maintaining ions and water concentrations is that normal cell activity produces waste. One particularly harmful waste product is nitrogen. This waste is produced by the breakdown, called catabolism, of amino acids and nucleic acids. Amino acid breakdown forms ammonia, which is very toxic, except in very dilute forms.

Transport of gases:

Most of the oxygen transported by the blood is bound to hemoglobin inside red blood cells. Each hemoglobin molecule can bind o 4 molecules of oxygen. When hemoglobin is loaded with oxygen, it is referred to as oxyhemoglobin. When some of the oxygen is released to the body tissues it becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the oxygen containing protein in all vertebrates and also many invertebrates. Other invertebrates use the protein hemocyanin, in which the oxygen binding atom is copper. Hemocyanin is a free protein in the circulating hemolymph of arthopods and some mollusks.

Monotremes:

Most primitive mammals Retain the oviparous reproductive habit of their reptilian ancestors

Although symbiotic relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants are rare, many plants have symbiotic relationships with:

Mycorrhizae fungi in the soil.

Which of the following is an important anionic nutrient chemical that a potato plant obtains through roots?

NO3- (nitrate)

Prolactin (PRL):

Named for its role in stimulating the mammary glands to produce milk. It also has many other roles, such as regulation of ion and water transport across epithelia and activation of parental behaviors.

Germ cells (diploid):

Near the outside of the tubules. Germ cells produce primary spermatocytes (diploid) that go through meiosis to produce haploid spermatids which mature into spermatozoa.

All terrestrial vertebrates except amphibians breathe by expanding their lungs and thereby creating a:

Negative pressure within the lungs. (Amphibians create a positive pressure).

Neurons are supported both structurally and functionally by supporting cells which include:

Neuroglia, Schwann cells, and Oligodendrocytes.

Unlike other hormones, the hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are transported to the hypothalamus by:

Neuron axons.

Breathing is under control of the nervous system:

Neurons in the medulla are sensitive to partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide and adjust breathing rate to maintain homeostasis. A rise in blood carbon dioxide is the primary initiator for increasing respiratory rate. A rise in blood carbon dioxide acidifies the blood due to an increase in carbonic acid. The lower pH is detected in chemo-sensitive neurons in the aorta and carotid artery, which send signals to the respiratory center in the medulla. The respiratory center sends impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm to contract and breathing rate is increased in a negative feedback loop. A similar response is controlled by receptors in the brain, monitoring cerebral spinal fluid. A decline in the partial pressure of oxygen becomes a significant stimulus for increased breathing rate, primarily at higher altitudes.

The central and peripheral nervous systems are in the vertebrates are comprised of:

Neurons.

The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is?

Nitrogen.

What is a distinguishing feature of mammalian erythrocytes?

No cell nucleus.

If no follicle is ovulated then...

No progesterone is produced.

Pathogens:

Non-self invaders; any disease causing agent (including, but not limited to, viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, and prions).

Gated ion channels:

Normally closed, but open in response to a stimulus. Once open, they allow positive or negative ions to enter or leave the cell, causing changes in membrane potential. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that binds to the receptor. Binding causes the channel to open and allows sodium to diffuse into the cell. Since sodium is a cation, the will make the membrane more positive or depolarize it.

Seudostratiphication:

Occasionally, epithelial cells can appear to be stacked on top of each other when they are not, which is called Seudostratiphication.

Allergies (hypersensitivity):

Occur when the immune system responds too strongly to non-self antigens that require only a minor response. On your first, or first few encounters with the allergen, an antigen presenting cell activates a helper T cell. This is sort of a false alarm since the allergen is not attacking the body, it just needs to be removed. The helper T cell doe sits normal job, activating a B cell, which then produces memory B cells and plasma cells that secrete antibodies to the allergen. In particular, the B cells produce IgE's... IgE's attach to the surface of cells that are part of the innate immune response. These cells are not sensitized to the allergen. When the IgE's on the cells encounter the allergen, the cells respond by releasing histamine and other signaling molecules that cause an inflammatory response. If the reaction is system wide, it is called systemic anaphylaxis which can sometimes be so severe that it leads to anaphylactic shock and death. If the reaction is local, then local anaphylaxis occurs (ex. A rash or asthma attack).

Interpretation:

Occurs when the brain forms a perception of the stimulus. * Perception of the stimulus may not be an exact match to reality, for example, optical or auditory illusions can cause us to see or hear something that does not match reality. * Because our senses are limited, there are things we do not perceive, such as the electromagnetic field of the earth and infrared light. Because other animals have differences in their sensor system, they probably have a very different perception of the same things that may include more, less, or just different information.

Transmission:

Occurs when the graded potentials are transformed into action potentials along the axon of the sensory neuron and are conveyed to the central nervous system.

Stimulation:

Occurs when the stimulus impinges on a receptor.

Innate immunity - skin:

Oil and sweat create an acidic mixture to inhibit microbe growth, and sweat contains lysosomes (enzymes that break open bacteria). Skin cells also produce antimicrobial peptides. These defenses help to keep skin relatively clear of harmful microbes. There is an array of beneficial bacteria and fungi that help to defeat would-be invaders by outcompeting them.

What is the best description of double fertilization in angiosperms?

One sperm fertilizes the egg,, which develops into the embryo; the other sperm fertilizes the polar nuclei, which forms the endosperm.

Only certain organs called the target organs respond to the presence of a specific hormone because:

Only those organ cells have the appropriate receptors.

Voltage gated ions channels:

Open in response to changes in membrane potential ad result in action potentials. There are two types: Voltage gated sodium channels and voltage gated potassium channels. The sodium channel has two gates: the activation gate and the inactivation gate. During the resting phase, the activation gate is closed and the inactivation gate is open. The voltage-gated potassium channel ha only gate and is closed during the resting phase.

ABA (Abscisic Acid)

Opens and closes the stomata to allow the exchange of gases and water. 2 guard cells form the stoma. Guard cell turgor pressure is regulated by K, Cl, and ABA.

Secretion:

Opposite or reabsorption. Molecules or ions are transported from the body fluid into the tubules.

Organs are organized into ___.

Organ systems.

Vitamins:

Organic compounds that are essential for metabolism and cannot be manufactured by the body. They primarily catalyze metabolic reactions in the body. Fat soluble vitamins are stored by the body, but water soluble vitamins exit though urine.

Glands:

Organs that secrete hormones. There are two types: endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Some glands, such as the pancreas, perform both functions.

Roots, stems, leaves and flowers are all plant ____.

Organs.

Fibrillation:

Out of rhythm beating of the chambers. Caused by malfunctions of the SA node, or pacemaker.

Zone of maturation:

Outermost layer: dermal tissue, epidermis. The cells have a very thin cuticle and many have root hairs which increase the surface area for absorption. Just inside the dermal tissue is the cortex: ground tissue that functions in carbohydrate storage. The inner most layer of the cortex is composed of endodermal cells, forming the endodermis. The primary cell walls are impregnated with suberin, a fatty substance that blocks water passage. The suberin is located in strips, called the casparian strip (surrounds the cell wall --> channeling water movement through the cell membrane, rather than between cells). All of the tissues inside of the endodermis are called the stele. The first layer of cells in the stele is called pericycle, which gives rise to branch roots. The next cells are the cells of the primary xylem and phloem (vascular tissue). Vessels are dead at maturity.

In mammals, fertilization usually occurs in the:

Oviduct

An important example of positive feedback physiology in animals is:

Oxytocin causing increase uterine contraction in mammals... which causes the release of more oxytocin.

Guard cells:

Paired, sausage-shaped cells flanking the stoma and contain chloroplasts. Regulate the size of the opening, thereby controlling water loss and gas exchange.

Bicarbonate that neutralizes stomach acid is produced by the:

Pancreas.

Paracrine signaling:

Paracrine regulators are released into the extracellular space and effect only cells that are nearby. This allows tissues and organs to regulate themselves internally.

Parasitic Plants (rare)

Parasitize host plants and extract nutrients - can be photosynthetic or non-photosynthetic.

Sympathetic nervous system:

Part of the autonomic nervous system. Most active during stressful situations and performs functions like speeding up heart rate and dilating pupils. It stimulates the body and uses lots of energy. I also decreased actions associated with digestion.

Parasympathetic nervous system:

Part of the autonomic nervous system. Promotes restful functions that conserve energy, for instance, reducing heart rate. It constricts eye pupils, slows down heart rate, and increases digestive actions ("resting and digesting").

What is the system where offspring are produced without fertilization?

Parthenogenesis or virgin birth.

Gene-for-gene hypothesis:

Pathogens produce numerous proteins when they infect a plant. The proteins are a result of the AVR gene. Plants defend themselves by recognizing the proteins and using a resistance gene. The plant can have a hypersensitive response that destroys the invaded cell and surrounded cells to stop the spread of the pathogen. If it is not recognized in time, the pathogen will spread and disease will occur.

Types of Plant Lifespans:

Perennial: Lives for several years or several seasons. Annual: lives entire life within one year or one season. Biennial: Lives for two years (two seasons).

Minerals:

Perform the same role but are inorganic elements and ted to be more stable in the body.

Photoreceptors - Vision:

Photoreceptors are electromagnetic receptors that detect light to create visual perception. Many invertebrates cannot form a visual image, but have an eyespot that detects light, so that the animal can avoid or seek light.

A sugar maple tree manufactures its sugars that are in sap through its ____.

Photosynthetic parenchyma.

_________ enters the plant nucleus and regulates gene expression.

Phytochrome Far Red

Plants can remove harmful chemicals from the soil by the process of:

Phytoremediation.

Day neutral plants:

Plants that are not dependent on photoperiods at all.

What is the non-cellular matrix of blood?

Plasma; composed of aqueous mixture of proteins.

Circulatory System:

Plays a very important role in sustaining life because it is responsible for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to all cells, as well as removing carbon dioxide and waste products, the maintenance of pH, and the circulation of proteins and cells of the immune system. All organisms must have the ability to circulate nutrients, gases, and to rid their bodies of waste.

Microspore mother cells produce microspores that develop into:

Pollen grains.

Which of the following have haploid cells?

Pollen has haploid cells.

What are characteristics of a density-dependent effect?

Population in maintained around a carrying capacity, slow effects on growth rate, encourage stability. fast, exponential population growth IS NOT characteristic of density-dependent factors.

Cerebrum:

Portion of the forebrain that is involved in conscious thought, learning, and memory. The dominance of the cerebrum is greatest in humans, where it envelops much of the rest of the brain. The cerebrum is split into right and left cerebral hemispheres.

The ___ hypothesis explains the translocation of carbohydrates in the phloem tissue.

Pressure-Flow Hypothesis

Bile:

Produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Composed of bile salts and bile pigments. The pigments are waste products from broken down red blood cells. Bile salts help to emulsify or disperse clumped lipids. The arrival of fatty food in the duodenum triggers a neural and endocrine reflex that stimulates the injection of bile into the duodenum.

Function - anatomy:

Prostate gland - adds secretions to semen. Scrotum - encases testes below abdominal cavity. epididymis - maturation and storage of sperm.

Ion channels:

Protein channels that allow the diffusion of specific ions, for example, sodium or potassium. Leakage ion channels: channels that are always open. Gated ion channels: only open in response to a stimulus.

Proteins:

Proteins are broken down into component amino acids to build new, complex proteins for the body. Every animal requires 20 different amino acids to make proteins, however, humans can only make 11 out of the 20. Therefore, we must obtain the other 9 from our diet. These 9 amino acids are called the essential amino acids.

Embryonic ___ gives rise to root hairs that can then form symbiotic relationships with fungi.

Protoderm --> forms the epidermas. Epidermal cells originate and the specialized cells occur: guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs.

Sensory neurons:

Receive signals from senses and other organs.

Postsynaptic cell:

Receives the signal.

Receptors:

Recognize pathogens that enter the body. The receptors of the innate immune system recognize general features of pathogens, such as membrane molecules found in all or many bacteria, or double stranded RNA found in many viruses. Toll-like receptors (TLR's) are located in the membranes of many of your body cells. Other receptors are found in the cytoplasm inside cells and are called cytoplasmic receptors. Other receptors circulate in the blood, called soluble receptors. The binding of any receptor to the pathogen starts the activity of the innate immune system.

Cytotoxic T cells:

Recognize virally infected or tumor cells by the antigens presented on the cell's surface. Once it recognizes the cell, it instructs the cell to undergo apoptosis.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes):

Red blood cells contain hemoglobin. Red blood cells are shaped like biconcave discs. Red blood cells = erythrocytes. Red blood cells develop from stem cells.

Mammalian erythrocytes:

Red blood cells with no nucleus. Typically, mammalian erythrocytes are not living because they have no nucleus and cannot reproduce.

Cornea:

Refraction of light.

The endocrine system:

Regulates body processes by using chemical signals sent through the blood, called hormones, to control cells throughout the body. It is made up of those hormones and the organs and tissues that produce them. Hormones are secreted by cells and enter the blood stream so they can reach many cells rather than just neighboring cells. Although hormones may encounter many cells, only cells that have receptors for the hormone respond to it. These are called target cells. When a hormone binds to a receptor, on or inside a cell, signal transduction pathways are activated inside the cell that lead to the appropriate response to the hormone.

Thyroid gland:

Regulates metabolism and development, with the production of three hormones: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. The first two hormones are called thyroid hormones and regulate the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates. Calcitonin acts in the regulation of levels of calcium in the blood.

ADH (antidiuretic hormone):

Released by posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) involved in osmotic balance.

ADH (antidiuretic hormone):

Released by posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) involved in osmotic balance. The hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that sense the solute concentration of blood. Increased osmarity causes the release of ADH. In the presence of ADH, the kidneys reabsorb more water before forming urine to return osmarity to normal. Without ADH, the kidney tubules are almost completely impermeable to water and a very dilute urine is excreted. Alcohol inhibits hypothalamus function and ADH is not released, causing dehydration.

Corticosteroids:

Released by the adrenal cortex. Regulate glucose homeostasis. The main corticosteroid in humans is called cortisol. Corticosteroids are typically present in the blood stream but became elevated during stressful times, and so they are sometimes used in stress studies.

Insulin:

Released by the pancreas. works similarly to leptin. Short term control of appetite appears to be under the control of CCK, GIP, and Ghrelin, all of which target cells in the hypothalamus CCK and GIP are released in response to food in the stomach, and inhibit appetite. Levels of ghrelin rise just before feeding and appear to increase appetite

Leptin:

Released from fat cells Decreases appetite and prevents over eating by targeting cells in the hypothalamus As fat levels decrease, so do leptin levels, and the appetitie increases again

The posterior pituitary hormones:

Releases only two hormones; both are peptides. Antidiuretic hormone causes water to be reabsorbed from the kidneys into the blood, which decreases urine production. Oxytocin is important is social behaviors and reproductive events. Social interactions, apparently releasing fear and enhancing positive emotions. Important in pair bonding between mates and plays a role in sexual stimulation and orgasm. Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth, milk letdown in breast feeding, and maternal bonding between mother and child.

White-tailed deer and moose are introduced on the same island. Though both are able to graze on grasses, the moose start concentrating their feeding on aquatic vegetation and high forage on trees. What best describes this?

Resource partitioning.

Different gas exchange of mechanisms:

Respiration at the body systems level requires a host of processes, not found at the cellular level, ranging from the mechanics of breathing, to exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiratory organs. Regardless of which strategy is employed by the animal, gas exchange of CO2 and O2 takes place by diffusion across a plasma membrane.

Which 4 organ systems help regulate and maintain body chemistry by acquiring nutrients, disposing of waste, distributing materials, and maintaining internal homeostasis?

Respiratory system, urinary system, digestive system, and circulatory system.

Occipital lobe:

Responsible for processing visual information.

The action of the sodium-potassium pump, the leakage of positive potassium ions out of the cell, and the presence of negative proteins and nucleic acids inside the cell result in the build up of charge differences across the cell membrane, known as the _____.

Resting potential. The average resting potential of a neuron is about -70 mV.

Angiosperms and double fertilization:

Results in fertilization of the egg to form a diploid zygote and the union of the second sperm with the polar nuclei to form a triploid into sperm (endosperm).

In the vertebrate eye, light is focused onto the:

Retina.

Even in the absence of transpiration, some water can move into the roots and partially up the xylem columns. This phenomenon is due to:

Root pressure.

2 organ systems of plants:

Root system and shoot system.

What are two accessory organs other than the pancreas and gallbladder?

Salivary glands and liver.

Impulses are conducted by myelinated axons by jumping from node to node in a process called:

Saltatory conduction (the movement of an impulse along the axon).

Impulses are conducted by myelinated axons by jumping from node to node in a process called:

Saltatory conduction.

Which type of cells lack living protoplasts at maturity?

Sclerenchyma.

You can determine the age of an oak tree by counting the annual rings of ____ formed by the ____.

Secondary xylem; vascular cambium.

Exocrine glands:

Secrete chemicals into a duct that empties to the outside of the body or into the digestive tract.

Endocrine glands:

Secrete chemicals into the extracellular space where it diffuses into the blood.

IgE:

Secreted from B cells and become bound to the surface of mast cells of basophils. They play a role in fighting helminth worms as well as allergic reactions.

Adrenal medulla:

Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which act in the fight or flight response. The fight or flight response is activated when a potentially threatening stimulus is received by sensory receptors. The central nervous system perceives the threat and the response begins in the amygdala, which activates the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus activates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, at the same time a nerve impulse is sent to the adrenal medulla, causing almost immediate release of epinephrine.

Secretion:

Secretion of unwanted substances such as drugs, nitrogenous waste, or excess ions from the blood into the filtrate occurs in the distal convoluted tubule by active transport from the blood into the nephron. The filtrate becomes urine as it is concentrated in the collecting duct by reabsorption of water.

The movement of substances from the blood into the extracellular fluid, then into the filtrate in the tubule system is:

Secretion.

Growth responses to phytochrome:

Seed germination is inhibited by far red light and stimulated by red light. Under the shade of a tree, the amount of red-light is reduced. In these shaded conditions, the greater amount of far red light prevent germination. In sunny conditions, more favorable for seedling success, germination will occur due to more red light and the build up of Pfr.

Seed plants:

Seed producing plants currently dominate terrestrial landscapes. Their success is due in large part to the seed an innovation that protects embryos, provides nutrition for the embryo, and allows for periods of dormancy. Seeds have a seed coat, which hardens and protects the embryo from drought and microorganisms. The seed coat may also facilitate dispersal. The embryo enclosed in the seed can remain dormant during periods of cold or drought and then resume growth when conditions are more favorable.

Negative feedback:

Sensor, integrating center, and the effector are the three components of a negative feedback loop. Changing conditions are detected by a sensor that's ends info to the integrating center, which is often a region of the brain or spinal cord, but could also be cells in an endocrine gland. The integrating center compares the conditions to a set point. Deviations from the set point result in a response from the effector, which is usually a gland or muscle. The actions of the effectors reverse the initial change.

Three different types of neurons:

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

Monecious:

Separate male/female flowers on the same plant. If these flowers mature at different times, outcrossing is promoted.

Many fish have both male and female reproductive abilities, but only one at a time. As such, they are an example of:

Sequential hermaphrodites.

Functions of skin:

Several functions of the skin are related to maintaining homeostasis. Protection from water loss/entry is important for maintaining the body's overall water homeostasis. Carotene, a waterproof protein, is made by the outer skin cells. The skin also offers protection against trauma, UV radiation, and pathogens. Constriction and dilation of blood vessels in skin and sweat production are important mechanisms in thermoregulation. In addition, accessory structures like hair and feathers play an important role in homeostasis by providing insolation. Insolation is important in reducing heat loss and in some environments, heat gain. Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium homeostasis by proper bone development. Vitamin D production by cells in the skin requires exposure to small amounts of UV radiation. A variety of sensory receptors are located in the skin and convey info about the external environment to the central nervous system.

Action potentials:

Short lived interruptions in the membrane potentials and the actual signals that move along the axon. When a particular level of depolarization is reached, which is about -55mV, a nerve impulse or action potential may be generated in the axon. They are all or nothing events, meaning if the threshold is reached an action potential is generated, but if it is not reached, it will not be. They do not add together or interfere with each other as graded potentials do. The production of an action potential is completely passive, meaning no energy is needed.

Motor neurons:

Signal organs; involve signals from the bran and or spinal cord.

Saltatory conduction:

Since depolarization spreads beneath myelin to the next node, it appears that the action potentials jump from one node to the next. This is a faster method of propagation than on unmyelinated axons.

The mammalian pacemaker of the heart is the _____.

Sinoatrial node (SA node).

Nodes of Ranvier:

Small gaps that interrupt the myelin sheath.

Stomata:

Small openings in the leaf surface solve the gas exchange problem. Gas diffusion into and out of the plant occur here.

Graded potentials:

Small, continuous changes to the membrane potential. Some changes result in depolarization, which makes the membrane potential less negative. Other changes result in hyperpolarization, making the membrane more negative. These changes in membrane potential are due to the actions of gated ion channels.

The three types of muscle tissue in vertebrates are:

Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscles.

Uncommon senses:

Snakes have pit organs that are capable of sensing infrared wavelengths, which we consider to be radiant heat. Thus, you could say they can see or smell heat which might be coming from a possible predator or prey, even when no light is available. Electromagnetic sense in sharks - a series of openings around their head that are relayed to their brain. They can detect changes in electrical frequency put off my living things.

On the African savannah you would observe large herds including striped zebra, marked and striped gazelle, impala, wildebeest, and heartabeast all migrating together seeking fresh sources of grass to graze on. In animal behavioral ecology, this phenomenon where there becomes safety in numbers and types is called the benefit of...

Social groups.

Translocation involves movement of ____ from phloem cell to phloem cell along concentration gradients.

Solutes such as sucrose and hormones dissolved in water.

No circulatory system:

Some organisms, such as sponges, hydra, and nematodes, have no circulatory system at all. Sponges circulate water via incurrent and excurrent pores. The gastro vascular cavity in the hydra serves in part to circulate water and nutrients. The nematode is thin enough to use its digestive tract to circulate bodily fluids. The two more abundant types of circulatory systems are either open or closed systems.

Sound detection:

Sound is also detected by mechanoreceptors. Because waves travel through both air and water, many animals that live in either medium can hear. Fish hearing structures are called otoliths. Because fish are about the same density as the water surrounding the, they need a hearing system of a different density in order to detect sound waves. Otoliths are denser than water, enabling fish to detect sound.

Tracheids:

Specialized cells for transport of water and minerals. Component of the transport system called xylem.

Gills:

Specialized extensions of tissue that project into water to absorb oxygen. Gills maximize surface area to extract far more oxygen than would be possible from body surface alone. Some fish larvae, and aquatic amphibians, have external gills. These gills can be easily damaged and must be constantly moved to ensure contact with oxygen rich fresh water. A structure called operculum covers the gills to protect them. The two cavities (oral/buccul cavity and the opercular cavity) function as pumps that alternately expand to move water through the gills and out of the open operculum.

Muscle tissue:

Specialized for contraction, due to an organization of abundant actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cells.

The diploid sporophyte produces ___ by meiosis. Spores grow by mitosis and produce the gametophyte.

Spores.

The androecium is a collective term for the:

Stamens (male parts).

Self-compatibility:

Stamens and carpels reach maturity at the same time.

The rate of diffusion across a membrane: Fick's Law -

States that for a dissolved gas, the rate of diffusion (R) is directly proportional to the pressure difference (delta P) between the two sides of the membrane and the area (A) over which diffusion occurs. When the surface area is larger, diffusion is faster. When the membrane is thicker, the rate of diffusion is lower.

Stems:

Stems provide support for leaves above ground to maximize the leaves' exposure to solar radiation. Flowers are also supported by the stem. They also provide transport between roots and leaves.

Melanocyte:

Stimulating hormone (MSH) is not a true tropic hormone. It stimulates the production dispersion of melanin, which is a pigment of the hair and skin.

There are four steps in the process of conveying sensory information:

Stimulation, transduction, transmission, and interpretation.

Cohesion-Tension Theory:

Stomata are tiny, allowing surface tension to maintain the water/air boundary. Water transpires off the leaves and solutes stay behind in the tissues, thus increasing solute concentration and making a more negative water potential. So, water is continually on the move by osmosis into the root hairs and stems. Slows down at night.

Most of the water that evaporates from leaves passes out through the _____.

Stomata.

Loop of Henle:

Structure that enables the production of hypertonic or concentrated urine. Only mammals and birds have them. The purpose of this structure is to create a gradient of increasing osmolarity as you move deeper into the kidney. As the filtrate travels down through the descending loop, water passively moves out into the extracellular space. This limb is thin and permeable to water, but not salt. Water moves out because of the high osmolarity of the surrounding extracellular fluid. In the lower, thin portion of the ascending limb, salt but not water can passively diffuse. In the upper, thick portion of the ascending limb, salt is actively transported out of the nephron. It is the difference in selective transport of the two limbs that creates the gradient. This also makes the loop of Henle another example of the countercurrent exchange system that we have seen in other situations.

Many snails have both male and female reproductive abilities at the same time, but do not self fertilize. As such, they are an example of:

Synchronous hermaphrodites.

Aldosterone:

Synthesized by the adrenal cortex, controlled mainly by levels of potassium and sodium in plasma; and by blood pressure. If blood pressure (or volume) is low, aldosterone is released. The principle action of aldosterone is the retention of sodium by kidneys. Where sodium goes, so does water. Caffeine is a stimulant and causes hypertension and increased metabolism and this blocks aldosterone.

The perception of taste, or gustation, is broken down into sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami.

Taste in terrestrial vertebrates is senses with taste buds on the surface of the tongue and other surfaces of the oral cavity. The sensory neurons of taste buds respond to particular properties of food in different ways. Sweet = pleasant and high in energy. Bitter = prevents ingestion of toxic substances. Umami = savory, rich in lipids.

An important example of a negative feedback physiology in animals is:

Temperature regulation and sugar regulation.

An important example of negative feedback physiology in animals is:

Temperature regulation.

Frontal lobe:

Tends to be involved in higher order thinking, comparing, and predicting.

Male reproductive system:

Testes = glands where gametes are produced in males. Located outside of the body in a pouch of skin called a scrotum. This location keeps the testis at a cooler temp that is optimal for sperm development. The testis contain seminomas tubules where the sperm are produced. The epididymis is located at the top of the testes and is the location of sperm maturation and storage. The vas deferens are the tubes that carry the sperm from the epididymis into the body cavity and join the urethra. The urethra is the passageway through the penis which is the organ for depositing sperm in the female reproductive tract.

Leydig cells:

Testosterone producing cells. Located between the seminiferous tubules.

Tissues of the digestive tract:

The 4 main layers are consistent from mouth to anus. 1) Mucosa - the inner layer. An epithelial lining. Major functions are to secrete mucus, absorb end products of digestion into the blood, and protect the underlying tissues from foreign invaders and disease. 2) Submucosa - Connective tissue, rich in blood, lymphatic muscle, and nerve fibers. 3) Muscularis layer - composed of smooth muscle arranged in 2 orientations: a circular layer and longitudinal layer. Combined, these two layers help to move food through the canal. The circular layers are also responsible for the sphincters found in some specialized regions. 4) Serosa - the smooth epithelial covering of the digestive system. Protects the canal from harsh abrasions as the walls flex and extend.

What is a mole in context of the current subject?

The amount of any substance that contains as many units (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure 12 C (Avogadro's number).

Filtrate production/urine collection:

The arteriole branches to form the pertitubular capillaries, which interlace with the nephron tubule. In nephrons with a loop of Henle, the capillaries surrounding the loop are called vasa recta. These capillaries allow reabsorption and secretion to occur and also supply the cells of the tubule with oxygen. The blood flows out of these capillaries, into the renal vein, to leave the kidney.

Interneurons:

The brain and spinal cord; integrate the signals.

Heart contraction:

The cardiac muscle tissue of the heart beats in a coordinated fashion, because the pulse is conducted through a series of specialized cardiac tissues that receive impulses from the autonomic nervous system. These tissues are capable of producing and conducting cardiac impulses.

Neuron structure:

The cells of the nervous system include neurons and their supporting cells, called neuroglia. Although neurons vary in structure, depending on the type and location,the typical neuron has three major parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The function of neurons is to produce and conduct electrochemical impulses. The dendrites extend outside the cell body and enable the cell to receive the chemical impulses. The dendrites pass the impulses on to the cell body, which contains the nucleus, where the impulses are integrated. If the electrochemical impulses are sufficient for excitation, the cell body generates an outgoing electrical impulse on the axon. The axon may branch to interact with a number of other cells. Dendrites are very short, but the axon can be quite long.

Bryophytes:

The closest living descendent of the first lad plants. They are non-tracheophytes and thus do not possess tracheids. Instead, they use other types of water conducting cells. The size of the bryophytes is limited by their reduced transportability. They do not have true roots for water absorption and require water to transport the sperm for sexual reproduction. Therefore, water may be a limiting factor in bryophyte distribution. These plants are more common in moist areas. Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are three distinct clads within the bryophytes. In all groups, the gametophyte is the dominant photosynthetic stage if the life cycle.

How do we perceive different pitches of sound?

The cochlea has fibers in it, which are strung somewhat like a harp. Fibers at one end (the apex) are long and flexible, and fibers at the other end (the base) are short and tight. Low frequency sound causes the basilar membrane to vibrate near the apex, where the fibers are long and we perceive that as low pitch sound. Conversely, high membrane sound moves the basilar membrane near the base, which we interpret as high pitch sound.

Cochlea:

The cochlea is housed in the inner ear. It is a spiral shaped complex structure that is fluid filled. Sound waves are converted into pressure waves that travel through the fluid of the cochlear duct and strike the organ of corti, which is made of several smaller structures. In the organ of corti, the pressure waves vibrate a membrane called the basilar membrane, in which hair cells are embedded. These hair cells have cilia, called stereocilia. The tips of the stereocilia are embedded in another membrane, called the tectorial membrane. The bending of the cilia, relative to the tectorial membrane, is transduced into receptor potentials, and then action potentials transmit the information to the brain where we perceive sound.

Exhalation:

The diaphragm relaxes and is dome shaped. Intercostal muscles relax, lowering the ribcage. The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases, increasing the pressure and forcing air out of the lungs.

Organization of the nervous system:

The electrochemical signal, or impulses, from a sensory neuron is passed to an interneuron and then to the motor neurons.

If fertilization and implantation do occur:

The embryo prevents regression of the corpus luteum by secreting hCG. The persistent corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and estrogen, thus preventing menstruation. HCGis the hormone tested for in most pregnancy tests. In females, estrogen is the hormone that stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristics at puberty.to meet

The niche for a Central American sloth could be:

The exact role that the sloth plays in maintaining carrying capacity for the community of trees that the individuals live in and feed on.

Beginning of chemical digestion:

The first chemical digestion of food may also occur in the mouth. The tongue mixes chewed food with saliva released from the salivary glands. The composition of the saliva will be dependent on the salivary gland that produces it, but the major components of saliva are water for dissolving hydrophilic substances, mucous for binding food together, salivary amylase which initiate the breakdown of starch, and antibacterial compounds.

The duodenum releases 3 hormones, collectively known as the enterogastroes:

The first two, cholecystokinin (CCK) ad Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) are released in response to fatty chime in the duodenum. CCK targets cells in the gallbladder, stimulating the release of bile to emulsify fats. It also stimulates the pancreas to release additional digestive enzymes. GIP targets the stomach and inhibits the emptying of chime to the duodenum. The result is extended time in the duodenum to breakdown fatty chime. Secretin is the last enterogastro and is released in response to acidic conditions in the duodenum. Its action is to stimulate the pancreas to release bicarbonate, which neutralizes acidic chime.

Human nutrition:

The food we consume serves two primary functions: it serves as a source of energy and a source of raw materials. Food contains energy in the form of calories. A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temp of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. However, in human nutrition, a calorie refers to a kilocalorie (1,000 calories).

The intensity of the stimulus is communicated by ___.

The frequency of an action potential. So, a large stimulus (putting your hand on a stove) will produce a large receptor potential which gets converted into very frequent action potentials, compared to a warm cup of coffee.

Dermal Tissue:

The function of dermal tissue is to protect. The epidermis is dermal tissue derived from the embryo or the apical meristem.

Fish gas exchange:

The gills of fish are extremely efficient in gas exchange.

Female reproductive system:

The gland that produces gametes and hormones is the ovary. Secondary oocytes released during ovulation travel down the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. Fallopian tubes are also called oviducts or uterine tubes. Unfertilized secondary oocytes disintegrate within a day. If fertilization occurs, the developing embryo will travel to the uterus, which is a muscular organ that houses the developing embryo and fetus. The narrow neck of the uterus, the cervix, opens to the vagina. The vagina is both the repository for sperm during sexual intercourse, and the birth canal for delivery of a baby.

Chlorophyll:

The green pigment. The primary pigment involved in photosynthesis. Uses light for energy. Converts light energy to chemical energy. Some critical plant developmental events are influenced by light.

Sperm structure:

The head contains the haploid nucleus, and the acrosome which is vesicle containing enzymes that function to digest away the protective coatings around the egg. Mitochondria are found in the body and generate the ATP needed for flagellum movement. During ejaculation, approximately 2-5 mL of semen is ejected, containing an average of 300 million sperm.

Hemispheres of the human brain:

The hemispheres are divided into temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes. Each hemisphere primarily receives input from the contralateral or opposite side of the body and has motor control over that side. Therefore, a touch to the right hand is received by the left hemisphere, which also controls the movement of the right hand.

Human ears:

The human ear is composed on the outer, middle, and inner ear. The inner ear contains the receptors for sound waves. The middle ear and outer ear convert sound waves into motion of solid. Sound waves first strike the tympanic membrane, which transfers the vibrations to the bones of the middle ear. The last bone vibrates the oval window which transfers sound into the inner ear. The middle ear contains three ossicle bones: the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are the smallest bones in the body.

Bronchitis:

The inflammation of the bronchiole lining and may be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis may be due to an infection, it results in thickened mucous, coughing, and is short lived. Chronic bronchitis is often the result of smoking and usually requires medical attention.

Inflammatory response:

The inflammatory response is either localized or systemic. Cells that are infected or injured may release chemical alarm signals, including histamine. This causes the blood vessels in the area to dilate. The increased blood flow at the site causes it to become red and warm, two of the hallmarks of inflammation. The alarm chemicals also cause the capillaries to become more permeable in the area, which causes swelling, the third hallmark of inflammation. The swelling causes pain and possible loss of function, the last two hallmarks of inflammation. Because the capillaries are highly permeable, neutrophils can enter the site and kill pathogens as well as secrete molecules that recruit monocytes, which mature into macrophages. These macrophages can cause the release of a cytokine called interleukin one, this cytokine travels to the brain and causes the hypothalamus to raise the body temperature, in other words to cause a fever. This promotes activity of phagocytes and impedes the growth of some microbes. The fever does not directly impede the growth of the bacteria, but rather the fever reduces blood-iron levels, causing it to be stored in the liver and spleen. Bacteria need iron in high amounts, so storage of iron inhibits their growth. So for adults, if you have a fever, it may be a good idea to allow it to continue as long as it is under 102 degrees F.

Stomach:

The inside of the stomach is highly convoluted and allows the stomach to expand to nearly 80x its normal size. Inside the stomach, the bolus is combined with very acidic gastric juice composed of three main ingredients: mucus, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and pepsin (pepsinogen in inactive form).

The integumentary system and immune system help protect and defend the body against pathogens and injury.

The integumentary system: (hair, skin, fingernail). Provides a physical barrier. The immune system: Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels...responds using antibodies and other specialized attack cells.

Asthma:

The intense constriction of the bronchi which makes ventilation difficult. It is primarily the result of allergens that trigger the release of histamines.

Threshold potential:

The level of depolarization needed to produce an action potential (-55mV). It is accompanied by the opening and closing of voltage gated ion channels.

Habituation:

The loss of sensitivity by neurons. Occurs when cells are exposed to a constant stimulus that produces a chemical signal for a prolonged period. Some nerve cells reduce the number of receptor proteins in the membrane in response to high levels of neurotransmitters and reduce the cell's sensitivity. This response is normal and makes the cell more efficient. If artificial neurotransmitter effects are produced by drugs, more of the drug may be needed to achieve the same effect. Thus, the habitual drug addict uses drugs to feel normal, rather than to get high.

Testosterone:

The major male sex hormone. During embryonic development, testosterone secretion triggers development of the male reproductive genitalia. Testosterone is also responsible for the development and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics and stimulates sperm production.

Mechanics of swallowing:

The mechanically fractured food and saliva is formed into a bolus by the tongue and swallowed. The swallowing of food begins as voluntary action as the tongue moves the bolus towards the posterior portion of the pharynx. When food enters the back of the mouth, the soft pallet seals off the nasal cavity and breathing is temporarily paused. As the bolus passes the soft pallet, the involuntary swallowing reflex is initiated. The elevation of the larynx, or voice box, and the subsequent folding of the epiglottis keeps food out of the respiratory tract and directs it to the esophagus. After the bolus enters the esophagus, the larynx relaxes and the air passageway is restored.

Potassium ion channels:

The membrane also has many potassium ion channels. These channels make the cell leaky, and potassium will move down its concentration gradient and diffuse out of the cell.

Mesoderm:

The middle germ layer. Several organs, muscle, and bone develop from the mesoderm.

The stronger the intensity of a stimulus...

The more RAPID the FREQUENCY of action potentials.

Angiosperms:

The most highly evolved of all land plants. "Seed in a vessel." Most advanced land pants... Vessel is diploid sporophyte tissue called the capal, encloses the ovule. Uses fruit to aid in seed dispersal and flowers to attract pollinators. Each pollen grain has two functional sperm. Endosperm provides nutrients for embryos and is part of the seed. Female gametophytes are enclosed in the ovary of the flower, which is a sporophyte. The angiosperm plant bodies we are all familiar with are sporophytes.

Mosses:

The most primitive group of living land plants. Gametophytes are the dominant phase of the moss lifecycle, The sporophytes are usually smaller, brownish structures attached the gametophyte.

Mouth and teeth:

The mouth is the first opening of the digestive system and is responsible for ingestion and typically the mechanical breakdown of food through mastication (chewing). Birds lack teeth so they use a gizzard filled with ingested pebbles to mechanically grind up their food.

Propagation:

The movement of an action potential down the axon. Myelination of the axon is one mechanism that speeds up this process. Another way to speed up conduction is to increase the diameter of the axon. (Thus, large diameter and myelin produce the greatest velocity).

Pollen grains:

The multicellular male gametophyte. They carry sperm to the female gametophyte, which contains the egg.

Which two systems support the animal body and provide controlled movement?

The muscular system and skeletal system.

Myelin Sheath:

The myelin sheath is formed by the successive wrapping of the Schwann cell membrane around the axon. It serves as insolation. Axons with a myelin sheath are said to be myelinated. Myelinated axons form the white mater of the brain and spinal cord, while unmyelinated dendrites and cell bodies form the grey matter.

Nephron:

The nephron straddles two parts of the kidney, the renal cortex on the outside and the renal medulla on the inside. When the filtrate exits the nephron as urine, it flows through the collecting duct, into the renal pelvis. Within the nephron, blood leaves the Bowman's capsule and flows through the proximal convoluted tubule and the into the loop of Henle. The length of the loop of henle depends on which type of nephron it is. The filtrate ascends into the distal convoluted tubule in the cortex, then flows into the collecting duct. The duct flows down through the medulla into the renal pelvis. It is now urine and is ready to flow through the ureter, to the bladder, and then be excreted through the urethra.

Collagen, plasma, and hard bone are examples of:

The non-cellular components of connective tissue.

Kidney:

The organ of osmoregulation in vertebrates - uses filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. The primary unit of the kidney is the nephron. The blood is filtered when it enters the glomerulus, a ball of capillaries which is inside the bowman's capsule. Blood pressure forces the fluid and small molecules out of the capillaries and into the capsules. From there, the fluid flows through the tubules, where reabsorption and secretion take place. After leaving the nephron, the fluid which is now urine, is then stored in the bladder until it is excreted.

Cerebral Cortex:

The outer few millimeters of the cerebrum. It is densely packed with neurons. It has increased surface area due to its convoluted surface and is the location of most neural activity. The cerebral cortex carries out most motor, sensory, and associative activities.

Ectoderm:

The outer germ layer. Skin and hair, as well as the nervous system, develop in the ectoderm.

Sinoatrial node:

The pacemaker. Located in the right atrium of the heart. The signal from this node travels to the surrounding atrial tissue, causing them to beat. This then stimulates the atrioventricular node (AV node). When the sinoatrial node is not functioning properly, the heart's rhythms can become too fast or too slow. If the tissues of the heart are cut off from the blood supply by a clot, the rhythms can become dysfunctional, causing fibrillation.

Ovulation:

The periodic release of eggs.

Facultative plants:

The photoperiod requirement is not absolute. Other factors may play a role in flowering.

Systolic blood pressure:

The pressure of the blood when the ventricles contract.

Primary and secondary responses to antigens:

The primary response of the adaptive immune system occurs when a pathogen is encountered for the first time. Because there may be only a few lymphocytes with the appropriate antigen receptors, it takes some time for the appropriate response to be produced, and then for that response to effectively eliminate the pathogen. It is likely that you will get sick during the primary response because it takes a few days for this response to really kick in. But those memory cells remain in the body for a long time, often for years or even decades. So when the same pathogen returns, the adaptive immune system responds swiftly. When a memory cell encounter its antigen it responds more quickly than a naïve lymphocyte, causing the secondary response to both start and peek more quickly than the primary response (as you can see in the graph). The combination of specificity and memory is what makes adaptive immunity so adaptive - this is also what allows for vaccines to be so affective.

Bone remodeling:

The process by which bones respond to use or disuse. Large or frequent forces may lead to changes in bone size, shape, or thickness. The changes occur when additional bone is produced by osteoblasts and bone is removed by osteoclasts.

Hematopoiesis:

The production of blood cells from bone marrow.

Photoperiod:

The proportion of light to dark in the daily 24 hour cycle; day length.

18,000 feet above sea level and 2,100 feet above sea level have:

The same amount of oxygen, HOWEVER, the partial pressure of oxygen is lower at higher altitudes.

Convoluted seminiferous tubules:

The site of spermatogenesis, or sperm production.

Mechanoreceptors come in many forms:

The skin has many kinds of receptors, including some for pain, heat, cold, touch, and pressure. Our perception of pain is caused when receptors detect tissue damage, or potential tissue damage, and are stimulated.

Skin - the largest organ in the human body:

The skin of the adult human has about 1.8 meters squared of surface area and accounts for 15% of body weight. It is the largest organ in the body. Like other organs, skin is composed of multiple tissues (epidermal, nervous, muscle, and connective tissues).

Synaptic cleft:

The small space between the pre and post synaptic cells. Neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft to terminate the existing signal and allow new signals to be transmitted.

What is a sarcomere?

The smallest subunit of muscle contraction is the _____.

Transduction:

The stimulus energy is converted into graded potentials in the sensory neuron's dendrites.

Apical dominance:

The suppression of lateral buds by auxin.

Tonicity:

The tonicity of a solution surrounding a cell refers to the ability of the solution to change the volume of the cell by osmosis. Tonicity is a relative measure, not a property itself. A solution must be compared to another solution to talk about tonicity. - A cell placed in a hypertonic solution looses water to the surrounding environment. - A cell in a hypotonic solution gains water and expands. - A cell in an isotonic solution does not change volume.

Embryo Development:

The zygote begins mitotic divisions and very quickly establishes the 3 dimensional body plan of the embryo. A suspensor develops that links the embryo to the nutrient tissue of the seed.

What is the best explanation as to how a Weddell seal's fins are warm enough to function while swimming through frigid waters?

Their fins limit heat loss to the water because their circulatory anatomy includes countercurrent heat exchange.

Lower pH and higher temp reduce hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen:

Therefore, increased metabolism cases hemoglobin to release more oxygen. Higher temp/lower pH may occur in periods of exercise and therefore the blood unloads a higher percentage of its oxygen during exercise.

In the spring, the sap in maple trees flows up the tree through the xylem by the pressure difference between root tissues and stems.

Therefore, we know that root tissues have a higher pressure than stems, because the sap travels upward.

Carnivorous Plants (rare):

These plants are able to grow in acidic and nitrogen deficient soils by extracting nitrogen directly from other organisms.

Which characteristic do all types of multi organ system animals have in common?

They digest food items into polymers and then monomers, which are absorbed. Digestion breaks large food items into polymers and then monomers.

Unlike vertebrates, invertebrates have optic neurons and nerves behind their retina so...

They do not have a blind spot.

Why are primary consumers important?

They make organic carbon available to other heterotroph consumers.

Which is true of fast twitch fibers?

They rapidly deliver power.

The spinal cord:

This cable of neurons is enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the meninges. The inner zone of the spinal cord is gray in color and called the gray matter... It consists of cell bodies of motor neurons, interneurons, and neuroglia. The outer zone is white in color and is called white matter. The white matter contains the myelinated axons of sensory and motor neurons. The spinal cord functions to relay information back and forth from the body and the brain. It also functions in reflexes.

The digestive tract, respiratory tract, and urogenital tract open into the external environment, so they must have protection from pathogens. All 3 of these tracts are lined by epithelial cell and special cells within the epithelium secrete mucous -

This layer of mucous is called the mucosa, where pathogens can be trapped and destroyed. Additionally, each tract has specialized defenses that allow for both the functioning of organs involved, and defense against pathogen invasion. Ex. saliva in the mouth has lysosomes that kill bacteria, urine and tears flush pathogens out of the body, and stomach acid kills pathogens with its low pH.

Peripheral Nervous System structure:

This portion of the nervous system receives information, passes it to the central nervous system, and carries responses to the effectors. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia. Nerves are bundles of axons and ganglia are clusters of cell bodies. In the spinal cord, nerves separate into sensory or motor tracts, running to and from the brain respectively. Axons of sensory neuron enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and the cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia. Conversely, axons from motor neurons leave the ventral surface. Depending on the division of the nervous system, somatic or autonomic, the cell bodies of the motor neurons may be found within the CNS or outside of it in the ganglia.

Autocrine signaling:

Those that a cell releases and that bind to a receptor on the very same cell, so that it regulates itself. This is common in cells of the immune system.

Carbohydrates:

Through cellular respiration, humans utilize carbohydrates as a primary fuel source. Humans can quickly utilize the energy stored in the chemical bonds of carbohydrates or store the energy as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells or fat in adipose cells. Carbs are found in fruit, vegetables, and grains.

The hormone _____ sets the body's basal metabolic rate.

Thyroxin.

What is the function of the waxy casparian strip?

To control water movement of water and solutes into the stele.

Cuticle:

To protect against desiccation, most land plants have a waxy covering on the exposed surface called cuticle. This relatively waterproof material prevents water loss, but also limits gas exchange.

Why do diabetics produce so much urine?

Too much sugar dissolved in the blood > increased osmolarity of blood (blood wants to go out of the cell, hypotonic) > body excretes more dilute urine.

What is meant by osmolarity of blood?

Total moles substances dissolved per unit of blood.

Mechanoreceptors detect mechanical forces such as:

Touch, pain, and pressure.

Several types of nociceptors and thermoreceptors have a particular kind of stimulus gated ion channel called the ____.

Transient receptor potential ion channel. These TRP ion channels respond to temperature. The fact that both nociceptors and thermoreceptors respond to temp means that we can sense the difference between harmless temperature changes and harmful temperature changes.

Presynaptic cell:

Transmits the action potential to the synapse.

Angiosperm tree stems:

Transport dissolved carbohydrates (in sap) within the phloem.

Epinephrine:

Triggers many of the important responses in the fight or flight response, including increased heart rate and increased blood pressure. Shortly after epinephrine release, the adrenal cortex releases large amount of corticosteroids dye to the ACTH now circulating in the blood.

Baroreceptors:

Type of mechanoreceptor that monitors blood pressure. These are located in the arteries that supply blood to the brain and in the aortic arch, very close to the heart.

Epidermis:

Typically one cell layer thick. In exposed parts of the plant the epidermis will be covered by cuticle which waterproofs the plants surface. Gas exchange occurs through the stomata which are epidermal openings that have a pair of guard cells. The density and distribution of stomata varies in different plants. Some plants also have outgrowths of epidermal cells called trichomes. These hair-like outgrowths can have numerous functions (may protect leaves from high light intensities).

Smooth muscle:

Typically under involuntary control (controlled by autonomic nervous system) and is found in organs, lining the blood vessels, and in the iris of the eye.

Ethylene:

Unique among plant hormones because it is a gas. Plays a major role in promoting fruit development. Production is stimulated by the release of auxin from developing fruits. Ripens fruit.

The journey of the egg:

Upon ovulation, the potential egg cell is swept into the oviduct by waves of ciliary motion in the tube walls. If sperm were present they wpuld travel upward through the uterus and oviduct to meet the secondary oocyte. Sperm that contact the egg release acrosomal enzymes that erode away at the protective coverings around the secondary oocyte. If one sperm penetrates the oocyte membrane, meiosis is completed and fertilization takes place. The zygote will begin repeated mitotic divisions, called cleavage, as it continues to travel down the oviduct. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, it is a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyte. The blastocyte implants int he endometrium and continues development.

Endotherms:

Use metabolism to generate the body heat and typically maintain their temps above the ambient body temperature. Birds and mammals are examples. Have low conductivity due to high insolation. A special case of endotherm is homoothermatic - maintains stable temperature, although it can vary over time is not necessarily much higher than its surroundings.

Phytoremediation:

Use of plants to clean pollution, concentrate or breakdown pollutants.

Echinoderm gas exchange:

Use papula to increase the surface area for diffusion.

Single-celled organism circulation:

Use their cell surface as a point of exchange with the external environment.

Endocrine system:

Uses chemical signals called hormones to respond to stimuli in a less rapid, but longer lasting method.

Skeletal muscles:

Usually attached to bones by tendons and therefore cause movement when they contract. Contraction is initiated by the nervous system and is under voluntary control (controlled by the somatic nervous system so you can control movement).

One-way flow of blood through veins:

Veins have the same tissue layers as arteries, but veins contain less smooth muscle. Blood pressure alone is not adequate in the veins to return blood to the heart from feet/legs. Help comes in the way of the venous pump... Skeletal muscle surrounding the vein contracts, thereby squeezing the veins, which helps to move blood. The blood flows in only one direction, due to the contraction of the muscle and one-way venous valves, which open and close in response to the muscle contraction, pushing the blood toward the heart. This is why it is good to move your feet and legs while sitting for long periods of time.

Capillaries:

Very small in diameter. Typically only large enough to allow red blood cells to travel one at a time Where materials are exchanged between the blood and the cells of the body. Some plasma leaves the blood from the capillaries to carry materials to the cells. This fluid, outside of the vessels, is called lymph. Not only are capillaries the sites of oxygen and nutrient transfer from the blood stream into the tissues, they also collect carbon dioxide and waste for return to the veins. Capillaries in different parts of the body have differing permeability, based on the number of pores in their endothelial cells. Capillaries are also responsible for regulating heat exchange within the body.

Placental mammals:

Viviparous Young are more completely developed at birth The fetus is nourished by the placenta during development in the female's uterus.

Marsupials:

Vivparous Give birth to incompletely developed offspring that finish development in a pouch of the mother's skin. During pouch development, they are nourished by mammary glands.

Somatic Nervous System:

Voluntary. Uses skeletal muscles as the effector. Responds to conscious control and to reflexes.

Xylem:

Water-conducting tissue in the stems, roots, and leaves.

Synapses:

When action potentials get to the end of an axon they must be communicated with the adjacent neuron or effector. These intercellular junctions are called synapses. In a typical neural path there are multiple synapses and each synapse will have multiple cell types: a pre and post synaptic cell. Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters, which are chemical ligands that carry the message across the synapse.

Insulin:

When blood glucose is high, the pancreas secretes insulin into the blood stream. This causes glucose to move from the blood, into the cells of the body to be used as energy or stored until needed. Glucose can be stored as fat in adipose tissue and converted to glycogen for storage in the liver. Insulin is the sole factor in promoting movement of glucose, from the blood into the cells.

Glucagon:

When blood glucose is low, the pancreas secretes glucagon, which causes the liver to hydrolyze glycogen to glucose and secrete it into the blood, and to hydrolyze fat into fatty acids and adipose tissue and secrete it into the blood stream too. Glucose and fatty acids can then be used for energy by the cells of the body.

Reabsorption:

When fluid is transported out of the fluid in the tubules and back into the body fluid.

Erythropoiesis:

When oxygen availability is low, the kidneys convert a plasma protein into a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO) which stimulates the production of erythrocytes. Since EPO accelerates erythrocyte production, it also increases oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Because of this effect, some athletes in endurance sports improve their overall oxygen delivery by injecting EPO.

When do chemo-sensitive neurons signal the respiratory system to breathe harder?

When pH decreases and temperature increases (during exercise). O2 unloading to tissues is facilitated.

Autoimmunity:

When the immune system attacks self cells as if they were pathogens.

Diastolic blood pressure:

When your ventricles are relaxed.

Transition to land:

While gills are very efficient in water, they collapse when not supported by water and cannot function. The high surface area of gills would facilitate water loss since rarely is saturated with water. As animals transitioned out of water, they had to develop new strategies for gas exchange. Internal air passages, such as trachea of insects and lungs, can remain open for gas exchange because the body provides support. Lungs minimize evaporation. Lungs of amphibians are sack like out patchings of the gut. In contrast to most terrestrial vertebrates, these lungs have little surface area. Amphibians force air into their lungs by filling the buccul cavity with air, closing their mouth and nostrils, and then squeezing the buccal cavity. This forces air into the lungs and is called positive pressure breathing. Humans, reptiles, and other veretbrates create low pressure inside their lungs using negative pressure breathing.

Vascular tissue:

Xylem - dead when mature (tracheids and vessels are part of xylem). Phloem - alive when mature.

The Hammer Orchid of Australia transports water up through its flower's hinge through tubes of dead cells called ____.

Xylem - water transport system made of dead cells.

Overview of transport:

Xylem cells accomplish water transport. Water can only move upward and exits out of the stomata. Water moves unidirectionally. Transpiration from the leaves pulls water upward. Sugars enter the phloem and can move up or down depending on nutritional needs of the plant (birectional).

Could excessive testosterone lower sperm count?

Yes, because testosterone inhibits GnRH which in turn inhibits LH.

Which of the following does NOT affect the differences in temperature at the poles and equator? a. curvature of the earth b. tilt of the earth's axis c. earth's orbit around the sun d. amount of atmosphere

c. Earth's orbit around the sun

An infant regulates her body temperature homeostasis using a part of the brain that is the same part used in hibernating mammals to signal adipose tissue to release heat energy. This part of the brain is the: a. pituitary b. cerebellum c. thalamus d. hypothalamus

d. hypothalamus

What does mammalian fetal circulation have in common with normal amphibian circulation? a. distinct separation of arterial and venous circulation b. the fetus obtains oxygen from surrounding environment c. amphibian and mammalian placenta both contain parent and offspring tissue d. mixing of venous with arterial circulation

d.Mixing of venous and arterial circulation.

HIV -

evolved a particularly effective way of disabling the immune system, by infecting Helper T cells that direct the immune response. When it infects these cells, it reproduces rapidly inside them. The T cells die and release the newly made copies of the virus. For a time, the immune system can hold the virus to low levels, but eventually the helper T cell numbers decrease and the infection cannot be controlled by the body, which is when the host can be said to have AIDs. Also, because HIV is a retrovirus, it can integrate itself into host DNA and hide there. When the host cell replicates its DNA and the cell divides, the virus genome is also replicated. Thus, the virus can increase in number undetected and then be produced by the host cell at anytime. As the host immune system succumbs to the infection, the host becomes more susceptible to other diseases and will often die of infections that should be easily treatable.

Hormonal control of feeding behavior:

feeding behavior is partially controlled by hormones and is under both long term and short term control. Long term control is related to the levels of the hormones leptin and insulin.

Reabsorption:

most of the water that enters the Bowman's capsule needs to be reabsorbed to avoid death by dehydration. Water is reabsorbed by filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule, the descending loop of Henle, and the collecting duct, or basically anytime the filtrate is moving downward a nephron. Water may also be reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule, depending on the needs of the body. Regardless of where the water is reabsorbed, it leaves the nephron by osmosis. The gradient needed for osmosis is formed by sodium ions being actively transported out of the filtrate and chloride ions follow due to the electrical attraction. Thus, salt leaves the filtrate and creates the osmotic gradient needed for water to leave the filtrate. Reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, and other molecules occurs by active transport out of the nephron in the proximal convoluted tubule.