Biology Ch 3-7

What makes up the oxidation-reduction reaction?

In cellular respiration, glucose loses hydrogen atoms; therefore it is oxidized. oxygen gains hydrogen atoms; therefore it is reduced.

what are the steps of oxidative phosphorylation?

Input: NADH + FADH + O2 + ADP Output: NAD + FAD + H2O + ATP 28 in this step

what is oxidation and reduction?

Hydrogen atoms contain one electron and one proton. Oxidation is the loss of electrons whereas reduction is a gain of electrons.

protein secondary structure

Hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone. Hydrogen bonds: weaker than covalent bond

What type of bond allows DNA to form a double helix?

Hydrogen bonds

Citric Acid Cycle

Input: acidyl CoA + FAD + NAD +ADP Output: NADH + FADH + 2ATP+ CO2 completes the oxidation of organic molecules, produces 2 ATP

Pyruvate Oxidation

Input: pyruvate molecule (3 carbons) + NAD Output: NADH + acidyl CoA (2 carbons) + CO2

Protein primary structure

Linear sequence of amino acid. Peptide covalent bonds

protein quarternary structure

Multiple polypeptides. ionic, hydrogen, peptide covalent

Do all cell types contain just one of each organelle? Why or why not?

NO, Some cells need more of a certain organelle than another. Liver cells need more smooth ER to get rid of harmful substances. More mitochondria in a muscle cell to produce energy.

Do all cells have the same proteins? Why or why not?

NO, The same proteins that a liver cell needs may not be needed by a lung cell. Allows cells to function differently

Which of the 4 major classes of macromolecules constitute the nucleus?

Nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrate, protein

Which of the 4 major classes of macromolecules constitute the plasma membrane?

Phospholipids and proteins

Redox Reaction of Cellular Respiration

glucose becomes oxidized (loss of hydrogen atoms/electrons), same oxygen in CO2. oxygen becomes reduced (gain of hydrogen/electrons), same oxygen in water.

Hypertonic solution

higher concentration of solutes outside the cell than inside the cell.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

how ATP is formed in glycolysis. An enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate (pyruvate) directly to ADP, forming ATP.

Hydrolysis

how amino acids could be released from the polypetide chain.

Cell Membrane Lipid Bilayer

hydrophobic tails attract each other in the middle; hydrophilic heads border the inside and outside the cell membrane

Fermentation

(anaerobic conditions) can release small quantities of energy without the use of oxygen; these pathways occur in the cytoplasm

Dehydration rxn

monosaccharide—OH + H—monosaccharide = disaccharide +water

Cellulose

most abundant polymer/carb in the world! Found in plant cell walls.

Which way will water move across a membrane?

water will move towards the side with the higher concentration

Polysaccharides

(complex carbohydrates) Long polymers of 100-1000s of monosaccharides. function: energy storage

what are the steps of active transport?

1) Molecules enter the transport protein. 2) ATP activates the protein. 3) Phosphate attaches to the protein. The shape of the active site is changed by the phosphate and allows the protein to release the molecule. 4) The molecule is then pushed against the concentration gradient

Disaccharide

2 unit sugars, simple sugar, ex: sucrose

Amino acids

20 different amino acids. consist of: amino group (NH2, carboxyl group (COOH)). have different: R groups/side changes. How big is a protein? 100-1000 amino acids.

How many total ATP are produced during cellular respiration?

32=28 in oxidative phosphorylation + 4 from glycolosis and citric acid cycle

protein tertiary structure

3D Shape: interactions between R groups. Ionic: weaker than covalent Hyrdrogern bonds and covalent bonds

Glycolosis

All carbohydrate breakdown pathways start in the cytoplasm with this reaction. Input: glucose and NAD. *Note: 2 ATP are required early in glycolysis to split glucose* Output: pyruvate molecules (3 Carbons) + NADH (4 ATP-2 ATP=2ATP per glucose)

glycogen

Animals store glucose in a form of polysaccharides

How are proteins made from amino acids?

Dehydration reaction: water is taken out of a linked amino acid chain to link the amino acids.

How do oxygen and carbon dioxide relate to breathing?

CO2: by-product of cellular respiration. O2: uses to accept electrons. C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP

what kinds of modifications to proteins occur in the Golgi apparatus?

Carbs might be added to the protein (glycoprotein) and molecular tags (phosphate group)

What do enzymes do?

Facilitate reaction so that the activation energy is lower (makes the bonds in the reaction less stable so that the reaction can proceed), therefore requires less energy to start the reaction, and makes the reaction faster and more likely to occur.

what are the causes of diabetes?

Folks with diabetes don't produce enough insulin and as a result have high blood sugar levels. Water moves out of the cells.

facilitated diffusion

Follows concentration gradient (high to low), Movement of glucose and water down a concentration gradient

simple diffusion

Follows concentration gradient (high to low), movement of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water down a concentration gradient

Glycolysis Oxidation

Glucose is oxidized into two molecules of pyruvate. uses 2 ATP to break glucose apart. Yields 4 ATP

How does Chemiosmosis work?

H+ concentration gradient stores potential energy. By electron transport chain, H+ ist pumped into intermembrane space through protein complexes. The high H+ concentration gradient moves H+ through ATP synthase back into the mitochondrial matrix.

active transport

Requires ATP, the movement of ions against a concentration gradient, requires a transport protein

Monosaccharide

Single unit sugar, simple sugars ex: glucose, fructose. Function: energy

How does oxidative phosphorylation's structure fir its function?

The arrangement of electron carriers built into the membrane creates an H+ concentration gradient across the membrane and uses the energy of that gradient to drive ATP synthesis.

Why do oxidation and reduction always go together?

When molecule loses an electron, another molecule must gain an electron. Electrons are transferred between molecules.

What is lactose intolerance?

a mutation in the DNA that keeps the lactase gene on! Gene makes lactase protein!

what is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

add/remove sugar molecules to get them ready.

Pyruvate "grooming"

after glycolysis and before citric acid cycle, pyruvate loses a carboxyl (COO-) and adds a acetyl coenzyme (acetyl CoA)

what is concentration?

amount of one substance (solute) dissolved in given volumes of another substance (solvent).

Where are proteins synthesized?

at ribosomes in the cytosol. Secreted proteins are synthesized at ribosomes into the ER where it is packaged into a vesicle. This vesicle leaves the ER and the protein is further modified and sorted in the Golgi apparatus.

what is the function of the rough ER?

attached ribosomes synthesize proteins right into the membrane, make secretary proteins

Endocytosis

bringing things into the cell, cell membrane to vesicle

Exocytosis

bringing things out of the cell, Golgi apparatus to vesicle to cell membrane. ex: Many insulin proteins are exported out of the cell after leaving the Golgi Apparatus

what does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not have?

cell wall, chloroplast, photosynthetic pigments, central vacuole

what does a prokaryote have that an animal cell does not have?

cell wall, some have photosynthetic pigments

pinocytosis

cellular drinking, Extracellular fluids and any solutes dissolved within the fluid are brought into the cell in small vesicles

NAD+

coenzyme, accepts electrons and becomes reduced to NADH

what does an animal cell have that a plant cell does not have?

complex cytoskeleton, lysosome

phagocytosis

endocytosis, cellular eating, big macromolecules are engulfed. ex: a white blood cell engulfs a bacterium

receptor mediated transport

endocytosis. ex: Transferrin receptors on the outer surface of bone marrow stem cells attach to the protein transferrin which has iron bound to it. The proteins and the bound iron are brought into the cell via small vesicles

ATP

energy molecule, when its hydrolyzed to ADP, phosphate is kicked out off of the molecule.

unsaturated fats

fatty acid chains contain some double bonds; therefore the chains do not pack tightly→ liquid at room temperature "good" fats from a nutritional standpoint, major source: vegetable oil/plants.

Saturated fats

fatty acid chains lack double bonds, saturated with hydrogens; therefore the chains pack tightly→ Solid at room temperature "bad" fats from a nutritional standpoint, major source: butter/animals. Palm oil: solid, plant-based, saturated fat

Electron Transport Chain

first step, transfer of electrons from an organic molecule to NAD+. Then NADH delivers these electrons to electron carrier molecules in the mitochondrion. At the the end of the chain, O2 is the final electron acceptor. O2 accepts H+ (electrons) to produce H2O.

Hypotonic solution

lower concentration of solutes outside the cell than inside the cell.

Trans fats

made when manufacturers add hydrogen to vegetable oil--a process called ______hydrogenation______. This increases the shelf life and flavor stability of foods containing these fats. (Trans fat is known to increase blood levels of low density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, while lowering levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL), known as "good" cholesterol.)

Phospholipid

major component of ___membranes____. 1. Monomers = glycerol, fatty acids (2 chains), phosphate group 2. Hydrophobic tails + hydrophilic heads = phospholipids

how do molecules move through a concentration gradient?

move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

ATP synthase

multiple copies of an enzyme complex in the membrane which synthesizes ATP

what causes cystic fibrosis?

mutation in the CFTR gene that codes for the CFTR protein attached to the plasma membrane, allowing chloride ion transport.

how does the mutation of the CFTR protein affect a cell?

no proteins were exported from the cell, which means the protein never exits the rough ER

What kind of membrane does the nucleus have?

nuclear envelope has two lipid bilayers with nuclear pores

what does a eukaryote have that a prokaryote does not have?

nucleus, nucleolus, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, chloroplast, central vacuole, complex cytoskeleton

Which molecule can move through a phospholipid the easiest?

oxygen because its a small, non-polar molecule.

Starch

plants store glucose in a form of polysaccharides

Chemiosmosis

process that uses energy stored in a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive ATP synthesis.

what are enzymes?

proteins, are not altered after reaction, enzymes bring substrates together. some enzymes need co-factors. enzymes are used over and over. enzymes can be inhibited at their active site or their allosteric site. enzyme activity is affected by environmental conditions

what is the function of the Cytoskeleton?

provides structural support and cell mobility ie microtubules, actin, intermediate filaments

Isotonic solution

same concentration of solutes outside and inside the cell

How do molecules go through the cell membrane?

semi-permeable barriers that hinder the passage of polar and charges molecules. Small polar molecules can easily go across the membrane slowly and more rapidly through transmembrane proteins. Polar will need more help getting across membrane. Water can go across because its small but goes easier through a transport protein (aquaporins).

What is the function of the Smooth ER?

synthesis of lipids, remove harmful substances, storage of calcium

What are the function of proteins?

the WORKHORSES of cells! They are major components of every organelle of the cell and are absolutely crucial for cellular function.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

the main energy-releasing pathway leading to ATP formation and requires oxygen; it occurs in the mitochondria.