Biology Exam 1

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of roundworms.

Roundworm AdaptationsIt allows them to eat, digest food, and eliminate wastes all at the same time. Roundworms have a tough covering of cuticle on the surface of their body. It prevents their body from expanding. This allows the buildup of fluid pressure in their partial body cavity.

List the factors that influence enzyme activity.

Several factors affect the rate at which enzymatic reactions proceed - temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.

Explain the roles of meiosis, gamete formation, and fertilization in sexual reproduction.

Sexual life cycles involve an alternation between meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is where a diploid cell gives rise to haploid cells, and fertilization is where two haploid cells (gametes) fuse to form a diploid zygote.

Explain how sexual selection can promote traits that seem to decrease survival.

Sexual selection leads to a decrease in the effective popu- lation size (Ne) because non-attractive individuals are less likely to reproduce (Kokko & Brooks 2003). A reduced Ne would facilitate inbreeding and genetic drift, leading to the fixation of maladaptive alleles -sexual selection is a type of natural selection resulting from variation in the ability to obtain mates; results either from competition for access to the other sex(rams) or from one sex choosing attractive mates of the other sex; generations of choosy females have selected for males with nest-building traits or elaborate ornamentation; birds use time and energy making nests for females, this behavior might secure a mating opportunity

Describe how DNA sequences can reveal evolutionary relatedness.

Similarities in molecule sequences are unlikely to occur by change; descent from a shared ancestor is more likely.DNA sequence comparisons provide an indication of the relationships among species, as can the amino acid sequence of proteins.

Compare and contrast the structure and function of cytoskeletal proteins.

The cytoskeleton is made up of three major structures: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are hollow rods of the protein tubulin that interact with motor proteins to create movement within the cell. Microfilaments are the thinnest cytoskeletal structures. They support the shape of the eukaryotic cell and strengthen the outermost layer of the cytoplasm, or cortex, distinguishing it from the fluid cytoplasm. Intermediate filaments are midrange in size and have varied molecular composition. They are not as dynamic as microfilaments or microtubules but can form permanent structures within cells.

Summarize the evidence for the origin of life on Earth.

The earliest evidence of life on Earth comes from fossils discovered in Western Australia that date back to about 3. 5 billion years ago. These fossils are of structures known as stromatolites, which are, in many cases, formed by the growth of layer upon layer of single-celled microbes, such as cyanobacteria. summarize the evidence for the origin of life on earth -life arose 4 billion yrs. ago-microbes were the 1st organisms-Miller experiment: it demonstrated Earth's early atmosphere could have given rise to organic molecules; simulated early earth's atmosphere-simple molecules combined into organic compounds, such as amino acids

Compare and contrast how substitution, insertion, and deletion mutations can alter a protein.

Substitution mutations occur due to a substitution of a base pair from a different base pair, while insertion mutations occur due to the addition of extra nucleotides into a DNA sequence and deletion mutations occur due to the removing of one or more nucleotides from a DNA sequence. insertion and deletion mutations are more likely to alter protein structure than substitution mutations

Describe the most common treatments for cancer.

Surgery: An operation where doctors cut out tissue with cancer cells. Chemotherapy: Special medicines that shrink or kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy: Using high-energy rays (similar to X-rays) to kill cancer cells. Hormone therapy: Blocks cancer cells from getting the hormones they need to grow.

Describe two ways that the age of a fossil can be determined.

The age of fossils can be determined by Radioactive isotope method and Relative dating method.In the relative dating method, fossils which are closer to the surface are more recent than the fossils we find in deeper layers.

Explain the relationship between diffusion and concentration gradients.

"Gradient" is a concentration differenceThere are more tea molecules near the teabag than in the rest of the cup. Molecules diffuse until there is no more concentration gradient NO GRADIENT:The tea has diffused to the rest of the cup Maintaining a concentration gradient requires energy A gradient is more ordered (less entropy) than no gradient (more entropy. Entropy tends to increase unless there is some force preventing it. Simple diffusion does not require energy Simple diffusion is a type of passive transport. It takes place when there is a concentration difference on one side of a membrane compared to the other. Molecules move down their concentration gradient. Small, nonpolar molecules can cross cell membranes by simple diffusion

Draw and describe the net reaction in photosynthesis.

, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds. 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2. This means that the reactants, six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow) into a sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules, the products.

Describe the characteristics common to all fungi.

- eukaryotic- heterotrophs- cell walls are chitin- storage carbohydrate is glycogen- multicellular -nonvascular -may be unicellular or filamentous -they reproduce by means of spores -they exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation -they lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis

interpret a phylogenetic tree to determine relationships among species

- phylogenetics: the study of evolutionary relationships among species; phylogenetic trees depict evolutionary relationships based on descent from common ancestors; cladogram is a type of phylogenetic tree;-clade: group of organisms consisting of a common ancestor and all if its descendants; tracing taxa back to their common ancestor reveals evolutionary relatedness In trees, two species are more related if they have a more recent common ancestor and less related if they have a less recent common ancestor. Understanding a phylogeny is a lot like reading a family tree. The root of the tree represents the ancestral lineage, and the tips of the branches represent the descendants of that ancestor. As you move from the root to the tips, you are moving forward in time.

Explain the role of water in photosynthesis.

-During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. -Water is necessary for photosynthesis, which is how plants use energy from the sun to create their own food. During this process, plants use carbon dioxide from the air and hydrogen from the water absorbed through their roots and release oxygen as a byproduct. This exchange occurs through pore-like stoma on the leaves.

Explain how photosynthetic organisms convert light energy to chemical energy.

-Photosynthesis is the process of converting light (kinetic) energy into chemical (stored) energy. -Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that use light energy to assemble CO2 from the air into molecules of glucose (C6H12O6) and other carbohydrates. -sugar is crucial food source Photosynthetic organisms need just a few simple ingredients to make their own molecules of sugar:• Sunlight• Carbon dioxide (CO2)• Water

Explain how light interacts with pigments.

-Pigments are molecules that capture energy from light -Pigments found in plants "specialize" in absorbing energy from different wavelengths of light. -Each type of pigment absorbs energy from some wavelengths of light and reflects other wavelengths. -Plant pigments do not absorb green light -Only absorbed light is useful for photosynthesis. Green light is reflected, which is why we perceive leaves to be green. -Pigment molecules in the thylakoid membranes capture sunlight

Use a template strand of nucleotides to create a complementary strand.

-The DNA sequence that is transcribed to make RNA is called the template strand, while the complementary sequence on the other DNA strand is called the coding or informational strand -DNA replication occurs through the help of several enzymes. These enzymes "unzip" DNA molecules by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold the two strands together. Each strand then serves as a template for a new complementary strand to be created. Complementary bases attach to one another (A-T and C-G). If the original is guanine the complementary is cytosine.

compare and contrast allopatric and sympatric speciation

-allopatric speciation: can lead to distinct species; a barrier physically seperates a population into 2 groups that cant interbreed; with no gene transfer between the 2 populations, each proceeds down its own evolutionary line; genetic differences between the population give rise to one or more reproductive barriers; mutations can arise and gene expressions can arise and same with the barriers which means you can no longer reproduce-sympatric speciation: populations diverge genetically while sharing a habitat* about 3 million yrs. Ago, the isthmus of panama closed, forming a land bridge connecting North and South America. Snapping shrimp collected from water on one side of the isthmus look similar to those on the other side, but they cant interbreed- allopatric speciation-speciation- cant interbreed

describe the characteristic of bacteria

-bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes belonging to distance domains-DNA sequences and chemical composition distinguish these domains Five characteristics of bacteria include being unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic, lacking a nucleus, and having a plasma membrane. These traits are shared by all bacteria.

compare and contrast gradualism and punctuated equilibrium

-gradualism: suggests that evolution proceeds in small, incremental changes over many suggestions-punctuated equilibrium: suggest that long periods of little change are interrupted by bouts of rapid change; evolution might occur quickly when a key adaptation arises

explain how natural selection can maintain harmful alleles in a population

-heterozygote advantage: a heterozygote is favored over homozygotes; heterozygotes for the sickle cell allele don't have sickle cell disease and are protected against malaria; but if 2 heterozygote mate, their child might have sickle cell disease Natural selection can only select against phenotypes. If the dominant phenotype is selected for, heterozygous individuals will retain the recessive allele in the population.

What are the characteristics of life?

-life is organized -life requires energy -life maintains internal constancy -life reproduces, grows, and develops, life evolves

Describe how conditions on the early Earth could contribute to the production of biological molecules.

-lipid membranes might have enclosed some self-replicating systems, forming the first protocells-protocells eventually gave rise to the first life-the prokaryotes Scientists think that lightning sparked chemical reactions in Earth's early atmosphere. The early atmosphere contained gases such as ammonia, methane, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. Scientists hypothesize that this created a "soup" of organic molecules from inorganic chemicals.

compare and contrast microevolution and macroevolution

-macroevolution: describes the large, complex changes in life's panorama; large-scale evolutionary change; tend to span very long periods whereas the microevolutionary processes happen so rapidly that we can sometimes observe them over just a few years-microevolution: relatively short-term changes in allele frequencies w/in a population or species

Compare and contrast how mutation, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and migration contribute to evolution.

-mutation: one genotype becomes another; new genetic variant appears in population-genetic drift:chance event eliminates some alleles from ancestral population; new population forms from remaining subset of genotypes; occurs purely by chance, most common in small populations; founder effect- only a few individuals populate, allele frequencies might shift; polydactyle- extra toes or fingers; bottleneck effect- these alleles are the different alleles found in a population; disaster/habitat destruction/ overhunting leads to smaller gene pool-nonrandom mating- migration: moves alleles between populations; might affect the allele frequencies in both populations; genotypes remaining are more common

identify the features and functions of structures found in bacteria

-nucleoid: is the region where the DNA resides-plasmids: are circles of DNA apart from the chromosome-ribosomes: use mRNA to synthesize proteins-pillus: is a hair-like projection made of protein; pill enable ells to adhere to objects-cell wall: gives the cell its shape-endospores: thick-walled, survive harsh conditions 3 most common shapes:-coccus-spherical -bacillus-rod-shaped -spirillum-spiral

Diagram and explain the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain.

.What is the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain? In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed from one molecule to another, and energy released in these electron transfers is used to form an electrochemical gradient. In chemiosmosis, the energy stored in the gradient is used to make ATP.

Compare and contrast the events of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

1. In glycolysis, glucose is split in half, forming pyruvate. Some of the energy is transferred to electrons; some is used to form ATP. 2. In the Krebs cycle, a derivative of pyruvate is oxidized; CO2 is released. More energy is transferred to electrons. 3. In the electron transport chain (ETC), energy from electrons is used to form ATP. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.

Describe how DNA folds into a visible chromosome.

A DNA molecule wraps around histone proteins to form tight loops called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin, in turn, loops and folds with the help of additional proteins to form chromosomes.

Define a cell using the components of cell theory.

A cell is the smallest unit that is typically considered alive and is a fundamental unit of life. All living organisms are composed of cells, from just one (unicellular) to many trillions (multicellular). Cell biology is the study of cells, their physiology, structure, and life cycle.

Compare and contrast genotype and phenotype.

A person's genotype is their unique sequence of DNA. More specifically, this term is used to refer to the two alleles a person has inherited for a particular gene. Phenotype is the detectable expression of this genotype - a patient's clinical presentation. genotype Gg phenotype grey

Draw and explain the net reactions in the transition step and the Krebs cycle.

Acetyl CoA molecules are disassembled during the Krebs cycle. Their carbons are released as two molecules of CO2. Energy from acetyl CoA is transferred to electrons, carried by NADH and FADH2.

Draw and explain the net reaction in aerobic respiration.

Aerobic cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions C6H12O6+O2---->CO2+H2O+ATP The reactants are glucose and oxygen.The products are carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. We inhale oxygen—it is required for anaerobic cellular respiration to occur. It travels to mitochondria inside our cells.We exhale carbon dioxide—it is released from the mitochondria during cellular respiration. Our bodies have no use for it.

Calculate the net ATP produced in aerobic respiration

Aerobic cellular respiration: Calculation of ATP production in aerobic respiration: Glycolysis: 8 ATP (2 ATP + 2 NADH = 6 ATP, i.e. 3 ATPs per NADH molecule) Decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA: Krebs cycle: 24 ATP (6 NADH = 18 ATP, 2 FADH2 = 4 ATP (2 ATP per FADH2) and 2 ATP) Total: 38 ATP.

Compare and contrast aerobic respiration and fermentation.

Aerobic respiration and fermentation are two processes which are used to provide energy to cells. In aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced in the presence of oxygen. Fermentation is the process of energy production in the absence of oxygen.

Describe the characteristics common to all animals.

All animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms, and almost all animals have specialized tissues. Most animals are motile, at least during certain life stages. Animals require a source of food to grow and develop. All animals are heterotrophic, ingesting living or dead organic matter.

Identify the components common to all cells.

All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell's interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.

Compare and contrast the cells that characterize the three domains of life.

All of life can be divided into three domains, based on the type of cell of the organism: Bacteria: cells do not contain a nucleus. Archaea: cells do not contain a nucleus; they have a different cell wall from bacteria. Eukarya: cells do contain a nucleus.

Use an organism's characteristics to classify it into a taxon within kingdom Animalia.

All organisms in the kingdom Animalia are multicellular, meaning their bodies are composed of more than one cell. The number of cells varies widely from one species to another. -eukaryotic -heterotrophic

2 Identify the features and functions of structures found in prokaryotes.

All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell wall. Many also have a capsule or slime layer made of polysaccharide. Prokaryotes often have appendages (protrusions) on their surface. Flagella and some pili are used for locomotion, fimbriae help the cell stick to a surface, and sex pili are used for DNA exchange.

Describe alternation of generations in each of the major plant phyla.

Alternation of generations means that plants alternate between two different life stages, or generations, in their life cycle; a haploid stage called gametophyte and a diploid stage called sporophyte. The terms haploid and diploid refer to the number of chromosomes contained in the cells.

Describe the structure of atoms.

An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons arranged in defined shells about a positively charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and is composed of protons and neutrons (except for common hydrogen which has only one proton). All atoms are roughly the same size.

Explain the interaction of flowers and fruits with animals in angiosperm reproduction.

Animals require the food and oxygen supply from plants to live. Plants need animals to aid in reproduction (i.e. seed dispersion and pollination)

Describe the characteristics used to infer the evolutionary relationships among the nine largest phyla of animals.

Animals with bilateral symmetry have a "head" and "tail" (anterior vs. posterior), front and back (dorsal vs. ventral), and right and left sides. All true animals, except those with radial symmetry, are bilaterally symmetrical.Protostomia (from Greek meaning "mouth first") are a clade of animals. Together with the deuterostomes and other phyla, they make up the Bilateria, mostly comprising animals with bilateral symmetry and three germ layers. The major distinctions between deuterostomes and protostomes are found in embryonic development.

Describe the characteristics and key adaptations of sponges.

Are symmetrical or radially symmetrical. Porous bodies filter small food particles out of water. lack tissues but have specialized cell types including collar cell and amoebocytes

Explain how meiosis contributes to Mendel's law of segregation.

As chromosomes separate into different gametes during meiosis, the two different alleles for a particular gene also segregate so that each gamete acquires one of the two alleles. Mendel's Law of Segregation: states that two alleles of each gene are packaged into separate gametes (they segregate, or move apart, during gamete formation); crossing over and random assortment-segregation occurs during meiosis and the creation of the 4 haploid cells; fertilization brings the two gametes (egg and sperm) together at random

Explain the role of hyphae and spores in the life cycles of fungi.

As the hyphae branch and grow out in all directions from the spore, they form a circle of growth that is called a colony. Many fungi need two of these colonies to grow next to each other and to mate before that fungus is able to form any new spores and so spread further

Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces offspring that are genetically unique.

Differentiate between atoms and molecules.

Atom refers to the smallest constituent unit of a chemical element. Molecules refer to a group of two or more atoms that are held together due to chemical bonds.

Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.

Autosomes are the chromosomes that determine somatic characters such as body weight, length, etc. of an organism. Sex Chromosomes are the chromosomes that determine sex and sex-related hormonal traits. autosomes determining somatic characters mainly involves the growth of an organism all chromosomes are the same size, that is, homologous follows Mendelian Inheritance in humans, 22 pairs of autosomes are present sex chromosomes determines the gender ad sex related traits chromosomes are partially homologous shows non-mendelian inheritance in humans, only one pair of chromosomes is present

atomic weight

Average of the mass numbers of all isotopes

Explain how biogeography can be used to explain the evolution of a species.

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species on earth.This can be used to explain evolution of species by looking at Pangaea, the first massive continent on Earth. We can then know where species might have came from once the continents were split up.Wallace's Line: water barrier prevented creatures from crossing the line, therefore living in the west or east for quite some time.

biosynthesis

Biosynthesis•During biosynthesis, all parts of the new virus are made. New chromosomes, new capsid and envelopes•If the virus is a DNA virus then the new virus will neef to make 200 new pieces of DNA and 200 new capsidsRNA viruses mist carry •around their own special enzymes to produce RNA chromosomes•The human body is not set up to make RNA from RNA

Compare and contrast C3, C4, and CAM plants.

C3 plants do well in cool, moist weather. C4 and CAM plants are adapted to hot, dry weather. c3 do it all at once c4 divides labor between cells cam plants divide labor temporally

Compare and contrast the effects of crossing over, random orientation, and random fertilization on variability among offspring.

CROSSING OVER- switch with a sister chromatidRANDOM ORIENTATION-no specific order, just randomRANDOM FERTILIZATION-random chance that one egg with fuse with one sperm

Compare and contrast where carbohydrates, fats, and proteins enter metabolism.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are digested in the intestine, where they are broken down into their basic units: Carbohydrates into sugars. Proteins into amino acids. Fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Explain how ATP is used in coupled reactions.

Cells use ATP to perform work by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions. ATP donates its phosphate group to another molecule via a process known as phosphorylation. ATP is dispatched to wherever a non-spontaneous reaction needs to occurs so that the two reactions are coupled so that the overall reaction is thermodynamically favored. When reactions are coupled together, energy released from ATP can power the second reaction.

Explain how cells use energy in food to produce ATP.

Cells use energy in food to make ATP Molecules in food (such as glucose) are used to produce ATP, the energy carrier molecule used to power cell activities. Cellular respiration is the process that makes ATP All organisms, from trees to whales to bacteria, use some form of cellular respiration to make ATP.The potential energy stored in glucose is extracted and that energy is put into ATP.

Describe where in a eukaryotic cell each step in respiration occurs.

Cellular respiration releases energy glucose, one bond at a time, in a series of many steps.If all the energy were released at once, much of it would be lost as heat. The small steps allow cells to store more of the released energy in ATP. Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol, the citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Explain why regulating gene expression is adaptive.

Changes in gene expression have been proposed to underlie many, or even most, adaptive differences between species. Despite the increasing acceptance of this view, only a handful of cases of adaptive gene expression evolution have been demonstrated. -Specifically, gene expression is controlled on two levels. First, transcription is controlled by limiting the amount of mRNA that is produced from a particular gene. The second level of control is through post-transcriptional events that regulate the translation of mRNA into proteins.

Explain how cell cycle checkpoints relate to cancer.

Checkpoints are mechanisms that regulate progression through the cell cycle insuring that each step takes place only once and in the right sequence. Mutations of checkpoint proteins are frequent in all types of cancer as defects in cell cycle control can lead to genetic instability.

Compare and contrast incomplete dominance and codominance.

Codominance and Incomplete dominance are two types of genetic inheritance. Codominance essentially means that no allele can block or mask the expression of the other allele. On the other hand, incomplete dominance is a condition in which a dominant allele does not completely mask the effects of a recessive allele.

Explain what happens in a eukaryotic cell at each stage of the cell cycle.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are separated and the cell divides. *Mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. After mitosis is complete, the cytoplasmic contents, including the chromosomes, are divided and distributed into the two daughter cells that result from the process of cell division, or cytokinesis.

List and explain three ways that meiosis generates genetic variability among offspring.

Crossing over (in prophase I) Random assortment of chromosomes (in metaphase I) Random fusion of gametes from different parents.

Diagram how crossing over can separate linked genes.

Crossing over can put new alleles together in combination on the same chromosome, causing them to go into the same gamete.

Describe the steps of DNA replication and the function of enzymes in each step.

DNA replication is the process of producing two identical copies of DNA, in which each template for the synthesis of a new complementary daughter strand. The central enzyme involved is DNA polymerase, which catalyzes the joining of deoyribonucleoside 5'-triphosphates (dNTPs) to form the growing DNA chain.The points where the DNA first are opened are called replication origins.DNA replication begins at a single origin of replication, and the two replication forks assembled there proceed (at approximately 500-1000 nucleotides per second) in opposite directions until they meet up roughly halfway around the chromosome.Polymerase needs to add nucleotides to an already existing nucleotide chain. Therefore at the beginning of replication on both the leading and the lagging strands, short stretches of RNA are synthesized to act as polymerization starters or primers.

Explain the roles of DNA, RNA, and protein in gene function.

DNA, RNA, and protein are all closely related. DNA contains the information necessary for encoding proteins, although it does not produce proteins directly. RNA carries the information from the DNA and transforms that information into proteins that perform most cellular functions. The synthesis of proteins occurs in two sequential steps: Transcription and Translation. Transcription occurs in the cell nucleus and uses the base sequence of DNA to produce mRNA. The mRNA carries the message for making a specific protein out to the cytoplasm where translation occurs.

Summarize the evidence Darwin used to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.

Darwin used multiple lines of evidence to support his theory of evolution by natural selection -- fossil evidence, biogeographical evidence, and anatomical evidence.

Describe how organelles interact in carrying out a cell's function.

Different organelles play different roles in the cell — for instance, mitochondria generate energy from food molecules; lysosomes break down and recycle organelles and macromolecules; and the endoplasmic reticulum helps build membranes and transport proteins throughout the cell. These organelles communicate with one another through vesicular trafficking pathways and membrane contact sites (MCSs). MCSs are sites of close apposition between two or more organelles that play diverse roles in the exchange of metabolites, lipids and proteins.

What are the three branches of life

Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea, and Domain Eukarya

name the levels of the taxonomic hierarchy from domain to species

Domain-Eukarya Kingdom-Plantae Phylum-Anthrophyta Class-Liliopsida Order-Liliales Family-Asphodelaceae Genus-Aloe Species-Aloe Vera dear king philip came over for good soup

Explain how meiosis contributes to independent assortment of alleles.

During meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosome are divided in half to form haploid cells, and this separation, or assortment, of homologous chromosomes is random. This means that all of the maternal chromosomes will not be separated into one cell, while the all paternal chromosomes are separated into another. In essence, the law states that copies of genes separate or segregate so that each gamete receives only one allele. ... As chromosomes separate into different gametes during meiosis, the two different alleles for a particular gene also segregate so that each gamete acquires one of the two alleles

Explain how cells divide to give rise to identical cells.

During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because this process is so critical, the steps of mitosis are carefully controlled by certain genes. When mitosis is not regulated correctly, health problems such as cancer can result.

Identify the components of double-stranded DNA

Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T). The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine.

Explain why one X chromosome is typically inactivated in female cells.

Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in cells other than egg cells. This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or lyonization. X-inactivation ensures that females, like males, have one functional copy of the X chromosome in each body cell. As it turns out, the level of gene activity produIMAGEced by a single X chromosome is the normal "dosage" for a human. Men have this dosage because, well, they only have one X chromosome! Women have the same dosage for a different reason: they shut down one of their two X chromosomes in a process called X-inactivation.

Diagram and describe how endosymbiosis contributed to the evolution of eukaryotes.

Endosymbiosis led to the evolution of eukaryotic cells with mitochondria and chloroplasts. It allowed these kind of eukaryotic cells to gain a reproductive advantage over their neighbors when the mitochondria, a rich source of energy, moved in with them. This kind of natural selection led to the evolution of eukaryotic cells and the plants and animals we see today.

Explain the relationship between reactions that absorb energy and those that release energy.

Endothermic reactions absorb energy, and exothermic reactions release energy. The law of conservation of energy states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. Whether a chemical reaction absorbs or releases energy, there is no overall change in the amount of energy during the reaction.

Explain how enzymes catalyze reactions.

Enzymes (and other catalysts) act by reducing the activation energy, thereby increasing the rate of reaction. The increased rate is the same in both the forward and reverse directions, since both must pass through the same transition state.

Explain how multicellular eukaryotic organisms may have evolved.

Eukaryotic cells may have evolved from a symbiotic relationship between specialized prokaryotic cells. There are many reasons why complex life may have taken so long to evolve, including the rate of evolutionary processes, the lack of an evolutionary advantage, unfavorable environmental conditions, or mass extinctions.

Explain the evidence supporting the evolution of plants from green algae.

Evidence shows that plants evolved from freshwater green algae, a protist. The similarities between green algae and plants is one piece of evidence. They both have cellulose in their cell walls, and they share many of the same chemicals that give them color.

Explain how cells use information in DNA to produce proteins.

First, enzymes read the information in a DNA molecule and transcribe it into an intermediary molecule called messenger ribonucleic acid, or mRNA. Next, the information contained in the mRNA molecule is translated into the "language" of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.

Understand the adaptations of plants to terrestrial habitats.

Four major adaptations are found in all terrestrial plants: the alternation of generations, a sporangium in which the spores are formed, a gametangium that produces haploid cells, and apical meristem tissue in roots and shoots.

Eukarya Kingdom, Fungi

Fungi are nature's composers. most are multicellular and are heterotrophs by external digestion.

Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene regulation.

Gene expression in prokaryotes is mostly regulated at the transcriptional level (some epigenetic and post-translational regulation is also present), whereas in eukaryotic cells, gene expression is regulated at the epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels.

Explain how genetic information is passed from one generation to the next.

Genetic information is passed from generation to generation through inherited units of chemical information (in most cases, genes). Organisms produce other similar organisms through sexual reproduction, which allows the line of genetic material to be maintained and generations to be linked.

Explain how some mutations alter an organism's reproductive success.

Germ-line mutations occur in reproductive cells (sperm or eggs) and are passed to an organism's offspring during sexual reproduction. ?genetic drift?

Differentiate between haploid and diploid cells.

Haploid refers to the presence of a single set of chromosomes in an organism's cells. Sexually reproducing organisms are diploid (having two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent). In humans, only the egg and sperm cells are haploid.

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of angiosperms

Has flowers, fruits, seeds, vascular tissue, pollen, snivels carries pollen to another plant

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of seedless vascular plants.

Has vascular tissue, live in damp areas, lack seeds, swimming sperm

Describe the role of homologous chromosomes in sexual reproduction.

Homologous chromosomes are important in the processes of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the recombination and random segregation of genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.

Compare and contrast homologous, vestigial, and analogous structures.

Homologous structures: similar bone structures in humans, bats, seals, eagles and lions are homologous limbs. The forelimbs may have different functions, but they are all organized the same and have the same tissue.Vestigial structure: has no apparent function for the current species, but indicates that in the past, a whale or dolphin may have used their pelvis bone and had legs at one point in time.Analogous structures: the structures evolved independently. For example when a salamander moves into a cave to avoid being hunted by predators, over time it develops a trait of having no eyes.Convergent evolution can produce analogous structures.

water expands as it freezes

Hydrogen bonds make water molecules spread out as it freezes into ice. This why ice is less dense than liquid water, and the ice floats to the top. In large bodies of water, a top layer of ice provides insulation and keeps the rest from freezing underneath. Thus, it is possible for aquatic life to survive the winter.

water regulates temperature

Hydrogen bonds make water resist changes in temperature. So, water cools and heats up very slowly. This is why coastal regions have milder temperatures than landlocked regions and also how sweating cools the body.

Describe the four key characteristics of chordates.

In chordates, four common features appear at some point during development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.

Describe the role of chromosomes in inheritance.

In humans and most other complex organisms, one copy of each chromosome is inherited from the female parent and the other from the male parent. This explains why children inherit some of their traits from their mother and others from their father.Aug 15, 2020

Explain the relationship between the products and reactants of the light and carbon reactions.

In photosynthesis, there are light reactions and dark (carbon) reactions. The reactants of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water, and the products are glucose and oxygen gas.

Identify the products and reactants in the carbon reactions.

In photosynthesis, there are light reactions and dark (carbon) reactions. The reactants of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water, and the products are glucose and oxygen gas.

Describe the structures in a leaf that are involved in photosynthesis.

In plants, photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which contain the chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane and contain a third inner membrane, called the thylakoid membrane, that forms long folds within the organelle. -The chloroplast is where photosynthesis takes place. The thylakoid, grana, stroma and chlorophyll are inside the chloroplast and the molecules are carbon dioxide and water

Describe how linked genes produce inheritance patterns that do not appear to follow Mendel's laws.

In short, whenever two genes are linked because of their location on a chromosome, their alleles will not segregate independently during gamete formation. As a result, test crosses involving alleles of linked genes will yield phenotypic ratios that stray from the classic Mendelian ratios. "Linked genes" are located close together on the same chromosome. The inheritance of such genes does not follow the pattern described by the principle of independent assortment because the two genes are normally inherited together on adjoining portions of the same chromosome.

Describe the events of binary fission in prokaryotic cells

In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA. Binary fission is the primary method of reproduction of prokaryotic organisms.

Describe the general structure of viruses.

In the simpler viruses the virion consists of a single molecule of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat, the capsid; the capsid and its enclosed nucleic acid together constitute the nucleocapsid.

Explain what features of DNA allow semiconservative replication to occur.

In this model, the two strands of DNA unwind from each other, and each acts as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand. This results in two DNA molecules with one original strand and one new strand.

Describe the participants and events in transcription.

Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a small open complex. ...Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesising an mRNA molecule. ...Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which transcription is terminated. ...Processing. 1) Initiation- RNA polymerase binds to promoter region on the DNA2) Elogation- RNA polymerase II synthesizes RNA in eukaryotes- noncoding strand used for RNA synthesis- 5' to 3'3) Termination- RNA polymerase II reaches termination sequence

Compare and contrast the light and carbon reactions of photosynthesis

LIGHT REACTIONS:Light energy is captured and converted to chemical energy. CARBON REACTIONS:Energy is used to produce sugar. The light reactions begin photosynthesis The light reactions occur in the thylakoids and require water and light. ATP and NADPH are produced to carry stored energy. Oxygen gas (O2) is formed as a byproduct. The carbon reactions occur in the stroma. ATP and NADPH from the light reactions power the Calvin cycle, which assembles CO2 molecules into carbohydrates. Carbon reactions require rubisco (Calvin Cycle) -carbon reactions fix carbon and produce PGAL, produce sugar, regenerate RuBP

List some of the factors that increase the risk for developing cancer.

Leading risk factors for preventable cancers are smoking, getting too much ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds, being overweight or having obesity, and drinking too much alcohol.

explain the relationship between chemistry and biology

Life on Earth is based on the chemical process where in the air we breathe itself is a chemistry that is oxygen and the gas we breathe out that is carbon dioxide. - It is said that biology only works because of chemistry. It uses the atomistic understanding of chemistry on molecules and in molecular interactions and applies it to defined and reduced biological systems. Chemistry provides an understanding of the molecular structure of amino acids and how they bond to make proteins.

Photosynthesis includes light reactions and carbon reactions

Light reactions: Chlorophyll captures light energy and transfers it to electrons, forming ATP and NADPH. Oxygen is given off as a by-product. Carbon reactions: RuBP, powered by ATP and NADPH, removes C atoms from CO2 and uses them to form sugar.

Water is an excellent solvent

Many things dissolve in water. Water's polar charges can keep other ions separated in solution -polar solutes -ions The polarity of water molecules helps water dissolve most biologically important molecules, since many of them are hydrophilic. water dissolves salt

Explain how meiosis and the production of gametes are associated with inheritance.

Meiosis and inheritance are closely intertwined, as parental germ cells undergo meiosis and produce gametes that carry specific alleles, and two gametes unite during fertilization to form an offspring

Sketch and identify the steps in meiosis.

Meiosis consists of two divisions, both of which follow the same stages as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) Meiosis is preceded by interphase, in which DNA is replicated to produce chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids A second growth phase called interkinesis may occur between meiosis I and II, however no DNA replication occurs in this stage

Identify different functions of membrane proteins.

Membrane proteins serve a range of important functions that helps cells to communicate, maintain their shape, carry out changes triggered by chemical messengers, and transport and share material.

3 main properties of a cell

Membrane. A cellular membrane, also called a plasma membrane, surrounds all cells. ... Nucleus. The nucleus, a spherical organelle surrounded by a membrane, is the information center of the cell. ... Cytoplasm

Describe the evidence supporting human evolution.

Millions of stone tools, figurines and paintings, footprints, and other traces of human behavior in the prehistoric record tell about where and how early humans lived and when certain technological innovations were invented.

Identify the roles of mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization in the human life cycle.

Mitosis gives rise to almost all the cells in the body. A different type of cell division called meiosis gives rise to sperm and eggs. During fertilization the sperm and egg unite to form a single cell called the zygote which contains chromosomes from both the sperm and egg.

Diagram and identify the phases in mitosis.

Mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. After mitosis is complete, the cytoplasmic contents, including the chromosomes, are divided and distributed into the two daughter cells that result from the process of cell division, or cytokinesis.

Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis produces two genetically identical "daughter" cells from a single "parent" cell, whereas meiosis produces cells that are genetically unique from the parent and contain only half as much DNA. Most cells in the body regularly go through mitosis, but some do so more often than others.

Explain the use of a molecular clock to estimate when two species diverged.

Molecular locks compare DNA sequences to estimate the time when two species diverged from a common ancestor.

Explain how viruses cause disease in plants

Most plant viruses are transmitted by insect vectors that cause damage to the plant and create an entry point for pathogens, or that tap into the phloem to feed. Once inside, viruses use the handful of genes in their tiny genomes to orchestrate the plant cells' machinery, while evading the plant's defenses.

Describe how mutations arise.

Mutations result either from errors in DNA replication or from the damaging effects of mutagens, such as chemicals and radiation, which react with DNA and change the structures of individual nucleotides. All cells possess DNA-repair enzymes that attempt to minimize the number of mutations that occur

Compare and contrast the characteristics and key adaptations of the main chordate groups.

The characteristic features of Chordata are a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. endostyle thyroid gland Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in Vertebrata.

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of bryophytes.

No seed, no roots, no vascular tissue, live in damp areas, swimming sperm

Explain how viruses cause disease in animals.

Once an animal becomes infected with a virus, the virus can inject its genetic material into the healthy cells of an animal. It is then able to make the cells work to replicate the virus into many viruses, which can then be shed and further spread to other animals or, in some rare cases, to the humans caring for them.

Describe the participants and events in translation.

Once the mRNA has been exported from the nucleus it binds to a ribsome. The ribosome scans along the mRNA reading each codon, after reading the codon, the ribosome facilitates the correct tRNA to bring in the correct specific amino acid that is required. Anti codons and codons match up by forming correct complementary base pairs. This pairing allows a peptide bond to form and adjacent amino acids join together. This process continues along the mRNA which will create a polypeptide. Once a stop codon is reached, the mRNA falls off the ribsome and the polypeptode is finished.

Diagram and explain the relationship between codons and amino acids.

One codon codes for one amino acid; one amino can be coded by multiple codons, A on top of two C's

Explain how genetic traits are passed from one generation to the next.

One copy is inherited from their mother (via the egg) and the other from their father (via the sperm). A sperm and an egg each contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When the sperm fertilises the egg, two copies of each chromosome are present (and therefore two copies of each gene), and so an embryo forms.

Identify the functions of the organelles in eukaryotic cells.

Organelles serve specific functions within eukaryotes, such as energy production, photosynthesis, and membrane construction. Most are membrane-bound structures that are the sites of specific types of biochemical reactions.

Explain the link between natural selection and reproductive success

Organisms with heritable (genetically determined) features that help them survive and reproduce in a particular environment tend to leave more offspring than their peers. If this continues over generations, the heritable features that aid survival and reproduction will become more and more common in the population. in natural selection, environmental factors cause the differential reproductive success of individuals with particular genotypes

Explain the role of O2 in respiration.

Oxygen is required in the cellular respiration in the electron transporter chain. It serves as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain facilitating the movement of electrons down the chain hence producing the ATP or adenosine triphosphate.

Analyze a pedigree to determine what pattern of inheritance a trait displays.

Pedigrees show the presence or absence of a trait as it relates to the relationship among parents, offspring, and siblings.

Explain how the chemical structure of phospholipids enables them to form a bilayer in water.

Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules. This means that they have a hydrophilic, polar phosphate head and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails. These components of the phospholipids cause them to orientate themselves, so the phosphate head can interact with water and the fatty acid tails can't, hence forming a bilayer.

Explain how hydrogen bonds contribute to the structure of DNA.

The complementary base pairs of guanine with cytosine and adenine with thymine connect to one another using hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotides are what keeps the two strands of a DNA helix together.

Explain the function of plasmodesmata in plant cells.

Plasmodesmata (PD) are gated plant cell wall channels that allow the trafficking of molecules between cells and play important roles during plant development and in the orchestration of cellular and systemic signaling responses during interactions of plants with the biotic and abiotic environment.

Describe pleiotropy and explain how it occurs.

Pleiotropy refers to disorders where multiple, seemingly unrelated organ systems are affected. For example, one individual in a pedigree may exhibit cardiac arrhythmia, whereas another individual with the same disorder in either the same or different pedigree shows muscle weakness and deafness.

Explain how the environment and polygenic traits can influence phenotype.

Polygenic inheritance results in an additive effect of the genes on a single phenotype. Environment Can Impact PhenotypeEnvironmental factors such as diet, temperature, oxygen levels, humidity, light cycles, and the presence of mutagens can all impact which of an animal's genes are expressed, which ultimately affects the animal's phenotype.

explain the relationship between monomers and polymers

Polymers are large molecules made up of many subunits called monomers linked together to form a chain. Therefore, the relationship between monomers and polymers is that polymers are made up of monomers. For example, proteins are all made up of a polymer known as a polypeptide.

Diagram and explain how polyploidy and nondisjunction can lead to missing or extra chromosomes in a gamete.

Polyploidy means having extra sets of chromosomes; for instance 3n (triploid), 4n (tetraploid), or 6n (hexaploid).Nondisjunction -If the chromosomes don't separate properly at anaphase I or II, chromatids are unequally distributed into daughter cells. Some gametes will have too few chromosomes, whereas others will have too many.

Compare and contrast potential and kinetic energy.

Potential energy is the stored energy in any object or system by virtue of its position or arrangement of parts. However, it isn't affected by the environment outside of the object or system, such as air or height. On the other hand, kinetic energy is the energy of an object or a system's particles in motion.

Describe the characteristics of prokaryotes.

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack organelles. All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell wall. Many also have a capsule or slime layer made of polysaccharide.

What are the 4 phases of mitosis explain each phase?

Prophase - The chromosomes shorten and thicken. Metaphase - Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. Anaphase - Chromatids break apart at the centromere and move to opposite poles. Telophase - Two nuclei formed after nuclear envelopes reform around each group of chromosomes.

Compare and contrast the structures and functions of the four classes of biological molecules.

Proteins are unbranched polymers of amino acid residues. There are about 22 amino acids that are involved in the synthesis of proteins according to their location and function Proteins are essential components of organisms. It participates in almost every process within cells. It is involved in the processes of DNA replication, cell signaling, catalyzing metabolic reactions, construction of cell and tissue structures, and transportation of molecules from one place to another Carbohydrates are a vital part of a healthy diet. They provide the energy required to do work. Scientifically, it's a polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone.[1] Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth. Nucleic acids are macromolecules present in cells and viruses, and they are involved in the storage and transfer of genetic information. Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble or poorly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (like dissolves like) such as ether, benzene, or chloroform.[1] They are hydrophobic and structurally composed of a chain of hydrocarbons. They are chemically more diverse than other biomolecules, and they are primarily involved in membrane structure and energy storage.

Explain how protists interact with other organisms.

Protists are essential sources of nutrition for many other organisms. In some cases, as in plankton, protists are consumed directly. Alternatively, photosynthetic protists serve as producers of nutrition for other organisms. -can be used for food and medicine, but also cause problems regarding plant and animal health, etc

Explain how oxidation and reduction reactions are linked.

Reduction and oxidation reactions are linked, in order for one to occur, the other must take place. Therefore, if a chemical species is oxidized, an oxidizing agent must be present. The oxidizing agent is simultaneously reduced as a result of oxidizing another chemical species.

step 5 of viral replication

Release•viruses are released in one of two methods:1. Cell rupture: if a virus is non-eveloped, the host cell is ruptured, releasing the new virions2. Cell budding: if the virus is enveloped, the pushes (buds) its way out of the cell. As it pushes out, a piece of the host cell membrane breaks off, wraps around the virus and becomes the envelope

Explain how linked genes can be used to create a chromosome map.

Researchers can use linkage to find the location of a gene on a chromosome. By looking at how often different genes are inherited together, researchers can create maps of the relative distances between them.

Explain the relationship between evolution, allele frequencies, and populations.

The evolution of organisms generates changes in a population influenced by a simultaneous change in allele frequencies, indicating evolution has occurred.

Explain which types of organisms are most likely to appear in the fossil record.

The hard parts of organisms, such as bones, shells, and teeth have a better chance of becoming fossils than do softer parts.

Water is essential to life.

The hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together give water a collection of important unique properties. These emergent properties of water make it essential for all life.

Compare and contrast the five phyla of fungi.

The kingdom Fungi contains five major phyla: Chytridiomycota (Chytrids), Zygomycota (conjugated fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi), Basidiomycota (club fungi, and Glomeromycota.

Describe how the light reactions produce ATP and NADPH.

The light reactions occur in the thylakoids and require water and light. ATP and NADPH are produced to carry stored energy. Oxygen gas (O2) is formed as a byproduct. ATP and NADPH power the carbon reactions ATP and NADPH produced during light reactions carry the stored chemical energy derived from sunlight. In the carbon reactions, this energy is used to break up molecules of CO2 and build molecules of sugar from it.

Compare and contrast lytic and lysogenic replication pathways.

The lytic cycle involves the reproduction of viruses using a host cell to manufacture more viruses; the viruses then burst out of the cell. The lysogenic cycle involves the incorporation of the viral genome into the host cell genome, infecting it from within.

Explain how acids and bases affect pH.

The more H+ ions, the more acidic it is and the lower the pH will be. Bases have a pH above 7. pH 7 is said to be neutral - this means there is a balance of H+ and OH- ions. Sometimes, the pH value can be less than 0 for very strong acids or greater than 14 for very strong bases.

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles of a gene.

The most common interaction between alleles is a dominant/recessive relationship. An allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it effectively overrules the other (recessive) allele. Eye colour and blood groups are both examples of dominant/recessive gene relationships.

Explain why a biological membrane has selective permeability.

The phospholipids are tightly packed together, and the membrane has a hydrophobic interior. This structure causes the membrane to be selectively permeable. A membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided. The membrane is selectively permeable because substances do not cross it indiscriminately. Some molecules, such as hydrocarbons and oxygen can cross the membrane. Many large molecules (such as glucose and other sugars) cannot. Water can pass through between the lipids.

Explain the roles of somatic cells and germ cells in sexual reproduction.

The somatic cells are diploid - comprising two sets of chromosomes, which are inherited one each from a parent. On the other hand, germ cells can produce and reproduce. These produce gametes in living entities through sexual reproduction.

Compare and contrast the different types of bonds.

The two main types of chemical bonds are ionic and covalent bonds. An ionic bond essentially donates an electron to the other atom participating in the bond, while electrons in a covalent bond are shared equally between the atoms. The only pure covalent bonds occur between identical atoms.

attachment

The viral receptor matches up with the receptor on the host cell. The two receptors must have a perfect 3D match for the virus to attach

step 2 of viral replication

The virus enters the host cellSeveral different processes may be used. One is called ebdocytosis

Describe the diversity and evolutionary history of chordates.

Then, chordates were thought to have evolved from an ancestral chordate tadpole larva that underwent paedomorphosis and now retains adult characteristics with the larval tail (13). Chordates have also been thought to evolve from a pterobranch-like ancestor (reviewed in refs. 9 and 10) or from calcichordates

Explain the forces that drive microevolution.

There are a few basic ways in which microevolutionary change happens. Mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection are all processes that can directly affect gene frequencies in a population.

list the lines of evidence that support evolutionary theory

There are five lines of evidence that support evolution: the fossil record, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, and molecular biology.

Describe the forces that lead to the evolution of new species.

There are four forces of evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutations create new genetic variations in a gene pool. Gene flow and genetic drift alter allele frequencies in a gene pool. each species' name combines the broader classification genus with the term species; biological species concept defines species based on their potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring-speciation: formation of a new species, occurs when some individuals can no longer interbreed

Compare and contrast the ways that molecules move across membranes.

There are two major ways that molecules can be moved across a membrane, and the distinction has to do with whether or not cell energy is used. Passive mechanisms like diffusion use no energy, while active transport requires energy to get done. Diffusion, osmosis and active transport are three main ways that molecules and ions can move into and out of cells through the membrane.

Describe the five stages of viral replication in a host cell.

These include attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and virion release.

Explain how fungi interact with other organisms.

They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may causes illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic.

Explain the importance of photosynthesis in ecosystems.

They use the process of photosynthesis to transform water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide into oxygen, and simple sugars that the plant uses as fuel. These primary producers form the base of an ecosystem and fuel the next trophic levels. Without this process, life on Earth as we know it would not be possible.

Explain how RNA is processed after transcription in eukaryotic cells.

This transcript must undergo processing (splicing and addition of 5' cap and poly-A tail) while it is still in the nucleus in order to become a mature mRNA. The mature mRNA is exported from the nucleus to the cytosol, where it is translated at a ribosome to make a polypeptide. -Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes process their ribosomal and transfer RNAs. Pre-rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is cleaved and/or trimmed (not spliced because the pieces become separate rRNAs) to make multiple, shorter mature rRNAs.Aug 4, 2021

Describe how cells use energy to do work.

Through the process of cellular respiration, the energy in food is converted into energy that can be used by the body's cells. During cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide and water, and the energy is transferred to ATP.

Compare and contrast different cell junctions in animal cells.

Tight junctions form an impermeable barrier between cells.• Anchoring junctions attach cells to the extracellular matrix, so tissues can withstand mechanical stress.• Gap junctions are tunnels that ions and small molecules can pass through.

water is cohesive and adhesive

Together, cohesion and adhesion allow water molecules to "climb" from a tree's roots to its highest leaves.

Describe how drugs and vaccines help fight diseases caused by viruses.

Vaccines can help protect against certain diseases by imitating an infection. This type of imitation infection, helps teach the immune system... Once the antigen-specific antibodies are produced, they work with the rest of the immune system to destroy the pathogen and stop the disease

Explain how prions and viroids cause disease.

Viroids are small, circular, single-stranded molecules of infectious RNA that cause several plant diseases. Prions are infectious protein particles responsible for a group of transmissible and/or inherited neurodegenerative diseases as a result of prion protein misfolding.

water is adhesive

Water molecules also form hydrogen bonds with other molecules, a property called adhesion.

Explain how the structure of water affects its chemical properties.

Water molecules are polar, so they form hydrogen bonds. This gives water unique properties, such as a relatively high boiling point, high specific heat, cohesion, adhesion and density.

Explain how embryonic development can reveal evolutionary relationships.

When looking at an embryo of two different species, we know that they look the most similar. As they grow and develop, the features become more defined and the two species start to look different from each other.

Differentiate between the terms gene, allele, locus, and chromosome.

Where are alleles located? Alleles are the variants of a gene that are located on the same place on a chromosome. Locus is the location on the chromosome where a gene is found.

The slight positive charge on the hydrogen atom of one water molecule attracts the slight negative charge on the oxygen of an neighboring water molecule. The result is

a hydrogen bond

Describe the characteristics of algae, slime molds, water molds, and protozoa.

algae - Eukaryotic- multicellular or unicellular- occurs most frequently in water - slime molds: live in damp habitats such as forest floors, engulfing bacteria and other microbes on decaying vegetation - water molds: decomposers or parasites of plants and animals in moist environments protozoa -protozoan, organism, usually single-celled and heterotrophic (using organic carbon as a source of energy), belonging to any of the major lineages of protists and, like most protists, typically microscopic. All protozoans are eukaryotes and therefore possess a "true," or membrane-bound, nucleus.

all cells have

all cells have genetic material, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane.These structures are needed in order to carry out the chemical reactions of life.

Compare and contrast archaea and bacteria.

arcahea -methanogens, thermophiles, halphiles -psuedopeptidogyclan -they perform modified form of glycolysis and citric acid cycle -ether linked lipids -they can sustain in extremely harsh environments such as hot springs, marshlands, deep see vents, and the gut of humans and ruminants bacteria -gram positive and gram negative -lipopolysaccharide/peptidoglycan -they perform glycolysis and citric acid cycle -ester linked lipids -they are found everywhere, including soil, organic matter, the earths crust, water, bodies of animals and plants, radioactive wastes, hot springs, etc.

Explain how natural selection can affect allele frequencies.

artificial selection, or selective breeding, also helped Darwin form the theory of evolution by natural selection; in artificial selection, a human chooses desired features, then allows only the individuals that best express those qualities to reproduce;

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of mollusks.

bilateral symmetry and a complete digestive tract. include a mantle a muscular foot and a visceral mass. most have a shell and many have a tongueike radula are filter feeders herbs and predators.gastropod (snails/slugs), cephalopod (octopus,squid), bivalve, chiton

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of annelids.

bodies consist of repeated segments, feed in diverse ways have a complete digestive tract a closed circulatory and respiratory,excretory and nervous systems the coelem acts as a hydroskeleton leeches, earthworms...

electrons determine what?

bonding

Describe the characteristics used to infer the evolutionary relationships among chordates.

bony or cartilage rich cranium vertebrates, jaws, lungs, limbs

Identify the most important elements in living organisms.

carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen

cells contains four major types of organic molecules

carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids

ions are

charged atoms

water is cohesive

cohesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick together- gives it high surface tension

proteins are

complex and highly versatile

define a biological species

defines species based on their potential to interbreed and pro due fertile offspring

isotopes

different forms of the same element, they have different numbers of neutrons

Compare and contrast directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection.

distinguished by their effects on the phenotypes in a population-directional: one phenotype is favored over another-disruptive: extreme phenotypes are favored over an intermediate phenotype(middle)-stabilizing: an intermediate phenotype is favored over the extreme phenotypes*as humans migrated out of Africa towards northern Europe, reduced exposure to UV radiation selected for lighter skin color. What type of natural selection does this illustrsate>-directional selection

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of nematodes.

diverse diet and complete digestive tract the psuedocoelo is a hydrostaic skeleton

Osmosis

does not require energyOsmosis is a type of passive transport. It takes place when there is a different concentration of water on one side of a selectively permeable membrane compared to the other.Water moleules move down a concentration gradient, determines water content in plant cells

Facilitated diffusion

does not require energyPassive transport includes facilitated diffusion, which occurs when membrane proteins transport substances across a cell membrane.Substances move down their concentration gradient. requires membrane proteins

Draw and explain the net reaction in glycolysis.

during glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate. these reactions convert two molecules of adp into atp. electron carrier NAD+ picks up electrons, forming two molecules of NADH

Explain how prokaryotes interact with other organisms

ecosystems would shut down without prokaryotes Prokaryotes can form relationships with other organisms. It can be mutualistic (both benefit), commensal (one benefits), or parasitic. Prokaryotes can form close relationships with other organisms. Usually, bacteria live on or in other organisms - their host.

in the conclusion, the data can

either support or refute the hypthesis

Describe the characteristics common to all plants.

eukaryotic, photosynthetic, and multicellular make food through photosynthesis

explain why RNA may have been the 1st form of genetic material

explain why RNA may have been the 1st form of genetic material -clay and iron pyrite might have catalyzed the 1st synthesis reactions-once a self-replicating molecules-like RNA- formed and replicated natural selection took over-stable molecules that could self-replicate became more common

transfer or electrons

form ions

elements are

fundamental types of matter

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of gymnosperms.

has pollen and seeds, lack fruits and flowers, do not rely on water for reproduction, rely on find to transport pollen, seeds protect the embryo

Differentiate between homozygous and heterozygous.

homozygous RR heterozygous Rr

Use the genetic code to translate a nucleic acid sequence into protein.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WL70VZfBj6o

Partial charge in molecules creates

hydrogen bonds

lipids

hydrophobic and energy-rich

identify factors that can affect the extinction rate of species

identify factors that can affect the extinction rate of species -extinct: when all of the species' members have died- most extinction occur as part of the background extinction rate: pace at which species go extinct due to gradually changing environments-Earth has witnessed 5 mass extinctions: many species went extinct in a short time-impact theory: suggests that meteorites or comets caused some mass extinctions;can shut off food webs and kill families that live in the food web; evidence that we still have today= iridium which is an element that is rare on the surface of earth but common in outer space; layre of it on rock which is evidence that there mustve been a lot in the air and created a layer on the rock The main direct causes of extinction are loss and degradation of habitats due to human use of land and sea; overexploitation of wild populations; and the impacts on populations and ecological communities of invasive alien species, pollution, and climate change

Diagram and explain why males express X-linked recessive traits more than females.

in X-linked recessive traits, males are more likely to be affected because for the traits/mutations to show or express, females should carry two affected X chromosomes however, only one copy of the affected X chromosome is enough to show its effect on males as they only have one X chromosome in total. Some examples of X-linked recessive diseases or conditions include hemophilia and color blindness. Like 0

Eukarya Kingdom, Animalia

includes vertebrates such as frogs, humans, and fish. multicellular and heterotrophs (by ingestion)

The attraction between oppositely charged ions creates

ionic bonds

Use a Punnett square to diagram and explain the inheritance of one gene.

know how to use a punnet square

Explain how physical laws constrain energy use in organisms.

law of energy conservation- energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted- cells translate potential energy into kinetic energy to do work all energy transformations are inefficient- every reaction loses some energy to surrounding as heat

chemical bonds

link atoms together.into molecules

atoms are

make up all matter, they are particles of elements

compounds

molecules of two or more elements

atoms are organized into

molecules, two or more chemically joined atoms

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of cnidarians.

mostly marine animals and capture prey with tentecale, move by contracting muscle cellsthat act in a hydroclastic skeleton Corals and jellyfish

Use an organism's characteristics to classify it into a taxon within kingdom Plantae.

multicellular eukaryotic, autotrophic, plant cell contains rigid cell wall, have chloroplast abd chlorphylln pigment, which is required for photosyntesis

limitations to the scientific method

multiple interpretations, misinterpretations of observations or results, slow acceptance of unexpected conclusions, limited to existing phenomena of the natural world

data must be

objective and quantifiable

the scientific method has multiple interrelated parts

observations and questions, hypothesis and predictions are based on observations, the experiment is designed to test the hypothesis, the conclusion is based on the data from the experiment, the research is subjective to peer review

observations and questions

observations are the knowledge amassed before the experiment begins

in an ionic bond

one atom transfers electrons to another atom

what is a byproduct of photosynthesis

oxygen

cells have optimum pH

pH scales is based on amount of H+ ions in a solution. most of chemical reactions occur at pH=7.

Use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele and genotype frequencies.

p^2 + 2pq + q^2=1 p = the frequency of the dominant allele in a population. q = the frequency of the recessive allele in a population. 2 p q 2pq 2pq = the frequency of the heterozygous dominant genotype. p 2 p^2 p2 = the frequency of homozygous dominant genotype.

water participates in life's chemical reactions

photosynthesis and respiration

Describe the energy transfers that are common to life.

photosynthesis- plants use carbon dioxide, water, and kinetic energy to produce sugars cellular respiration- glucose changes back to carbon dioxide and water, liberating the energy necessary to power life

Eukarya Kingdom, Plantae

plants are producers that capture light energy from the sun. Multicellular and autotrophs

Atoms with different electronegativity form

polar covalent bonds

hypotheses are

potential explanations for the observations, which can be supported or falsified by the data

Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea are

prokaryotic and unicellular

Explain why the term protist combines many unrelated organisms.

protists are a heterogeneous group of eukaryotic organisms represented by over 100,000 known species.

Eukarya Kingdom, Protista

protists are the most diverse group of eukaryotes. unicellular or multicellular. Autotrophs or heterotrophs. organisms in eukarya have larger, more complex cells with nuclei.

An atom is composed of three smaller particles:

protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of arthropods.

segmented animals with jonted appendeges and a chitin rich exoskeleton great diversity in feeding repiratory excretory nervous and reprodutions system

covalent bonds

shared electrons

What are 4 methods of transport across the membrane?

simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

carbs function and structure

simple sugars structure- monosaccharides and disaccharides function- provide quick energy complex carbs (cellulose, chitin, starch, glycogen) structure: polysaccharides function: support cells and organisms, store energy

carbs include

simple sugars and polysaccharides

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of echinoderms.

spiny shaped marine animals have radial symmetry are deutersomes

nucleic acids

store and transmit genetic information

proteins structure and function

structure: polymers of amino acids function: carry out nearly all the work of the cell

nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) function and structure

structure: polymers of nucleotides function: store and use genetic information, and transmit it to next generation

What powers photosynthesis?

sunlight

protons and neutrons determine

the atomic mass

protons determine

the atomic number

Define apoptosis.

the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development.

Use the product rule to predict inheritance patterns for two or more genes.

the probability of two (or more) independent events occurring together can be calculated by multiplying the individual probabilities of the events.

what does prokaryotic mean

their cells lack nuclei and other compartments

lipids function and structure

triglycerides glycerol + 3 fatty acids; stores energy phospholipids glycerol+2 fatty acids + phospate group form major part of biological membranes steroids four fused rings mostly of C and H. stabilize animal membranes, sex hormones

A chemical reaction occurs when

two or more molecules, the reactants, exchange their atoms resulting in different molecules, the products.

Describe the characteristics, key adaptations, and diversity of flatworms.

unsegmented lack a coelem lack circularity and respiratory but have specialized structures that maintain water balance. have simple nervous systems and hydroclastic skeleton tapeworms

electron microscopes

used to view parts of cell and viruses, which are smaller and may require higher magnification

light microscopes

view entire cell

sun emits energy into

waves

Identify the variables in an experiment

well designed experiments include: sample size, independent variable, dependent variable, standardized variable, control

maturation

•all of the parts of the virus are assembled within the host cell•you now have a cell filled with matured virus