Biology- NextStep

somatic cells

cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction

CNS

central nervous system -brain + spinal chord -brain made up of white matter (axons encased in myeline sheaths) & grey matter (unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites); brainstem at base of brain (responsible for basic functions such as breathing)

pseudostratified epithelia

appear to have multiple layers of cells due to differences in cell height but in reality only have one layer

2 domains of prokaryotes

archea bacteria

nucleoid region

area of a prokaryotic cell in which their genetic material is organized into a circular molecule of DNA

endoskeletons vs. exoskeletons

endoskeletons--> internal skeletons exoskeletons--> external skeletons

acinar cells

exocrine cells -enzyme-secreting cells of the pancreas -produce pancreatic juices

hypertension

high blood pressure -may result in damage to the blood vessels and organs

endorphins

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland -direct hormone -decrease perception of pain and can cause euphoria

postsynaptic neuron

neuron after the synaptic cleft

presynaptic neuron

neuron preceding the synaptic cleft

astrocytes

nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier, which controls the transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue

Sertoli cells

nourish sperm in the seminiferous tubules

Glutamine

-Gln; Q -polar

glycine

-Gly; G -ACHIRAL -nonpolar

cellulose

-composition: linear chain of glucose units linked by beta(1->4) bonds -produced by many plants; not digestible by humans; often referred to as dietary fiber

Dicer enzyme

*** go over this***cuts, or dices, double-stranded loops into microRNA (miRNA) each about 20 base pairs in length. The two strands of the loops then separate

why does a protein fold?

*MAXIMIZES ENTROPY* -unfolded protein = H2O molecules try to arrange themselves around nonpolar groups and can only do this in a highly ordered manner -more favorable for hydrophobic residues to be part of the internal core of the protein and polar & charged amino acids to be on the outside of a protein

fetal hemoglobin (HbF) and oxyhemoglobin curve

*SHIFT LEFT* -decreased PaCO2 -decreased [H+] -increased pH -decrease temp -decrease 2,3-BPG but also HbF has a HIGHER affinity for O2 than adult hemoglobin (HbA); more O2 bound to hemoglobin

Exercise and oxyhemoglobin curve

*SHIFT RIGHT* -increased PaCO2 -increased [H+] (decreased pH; shift in bicarbonate rxn) -increased temperature -less O2 bound to hemoglobin

muscle contraction

*all or nothing --> either respond to a stimuli or not depending on if stimuli reaches the threshold value* INITIATION: -begins at neuromuscular junction--> motor neuron releases acetylcholine that binds to receptors on sarcolemma causing depolarization -depolarization spreads down the sarcolemma to T-tubules, triggering the release of Ca+ ions from sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm -Ca+ binds to troponin causing a shift in the tropomyosin and exposes myosin- binding sites on the actin thin filament SHORTENING OF SARCOMERE: -myosin head (thick filament; carrying hydrolyzed ATP) binds to exposed site on actin, forming cross bridges and pulling (resulting from the release ADP + P) the actin filament along the thick filament resulting in CONTRACTION (known as sliding filament model) RELAXATION: -muscle relaxes when acetylcholine is degraded by acetylcholinesterase, terminating the signal and allowing Ca+ to be brought back into the SR -ATP binds to the myosin head allowing it to release from actin (resulting in ADP + P which recocks myosin head)

Neurotransmitter regulation

*almost no circumstances in which constant signaling to the postsynaptic cell would be desirable = neurotransmitter must be removed from synaptic cleft; neurotransmitters must be removed to stop the propagation of the signal 3 mains mechanisms: broken down by enzymatic reactions, brought back to presynaptic neuron using reuptake channels, or they can simply diffuse out of the synaptic cleft

cortical sex hormones

*androgens and estrogens* -produced by adrenal cortex -androgens--> males already secrete large quantity but females more sensitive to disorder of cortisol sex hormone production; could present with male genitalia due to presence of excess corticol sex hormones if certain enzyme deficiencies result in excess androgen production -males can be affected similarly by disorders that lead to excessive production of estrogen

FLAT PEG

*anterior pituitary releases* TROPIC HORMONES: -release of FSH & LH stimulated by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus; they act on gonads (ovaries and testes) -release of ACTH stimulated by corticotropin- releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus; it acts on adrenal cortex -release of TSH stimulated by thyroid- releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus; it acts on the thyroid DIRECT HORMONES: -prolactin stimulates milk production in mammary glands; release of dopamine from hypothalamus decreases secretion of this hormone from anterior pituitary -endorphins decrease perception of pain -GH promotes the growth of bone and muscle; energetically expensive/ requires large amounts of glucose (GH prevents glucose uptake and promotes fatty acid breakdown; increase glucose availability allowing muscle/bone to use it); stimulated by GHRH)

osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts

*bone remodeling--> contribute to constant bone turnover; occurs in response to stress & remodels in such a way to accommodate for the repetitive stress * osteoblasts --> build bone; calcium & phosphate obtained from blood (produce hydroxyapatite) osteoclasts--> polynucleated resident microphages of bone reabsorb ("chew") bone; calcium and phosphate released back into blood

transcription factors

*control of gene expression: eukaryotes* -transcription- activating proteins that search the DNA looking for specific DNA- binding motifs -tend to have 2 recognizable motifs: DNA binding domain and an activation domain *trans regulators--> travel through the cell to their point of action

trp operon

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* -NEGATIVE REPRESSIBLE SYSTEM -when tryptophan concentration high acts as corepressor -2 tryptophan molecules (corepressors) bind to repressor causes repressor to bind to operator site so cell stops producing own tryptophan -energetically expensive process for cell to produce tryptophan

operon

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* -a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA -example of "on- off switch" that regulates gene expression -2 types: inducible systems and repressible systems

lac operon

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* -negative inducible system -induced if lactose concentration is high and glucose concentration is low because not energetically favorable for bacteria to metabolize lactose over glucose -glucose decreases--> increase in cAMP-> binds to CAP (transcriptional activator)--> conformational change of CAP allows it to bind to promotor region increasing transcription of lactase gene POSITIVE CONTROL MECHANISM: binding of molecule increases transcription of gene; if glucose low [cAMP] (monophosphate form of ATP; indicates ATP low b/c glucose low) levels rise and bind to CAP (activator protein sequence) which promotes transcription of the lac structural genes

inducible systems

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* -the system is normally turned "off" but can be made to turn "on" given a particular signal -repressor is bonded tightly to the operator system and acts as a roadblock; RNA polymerase unable to get from promotor to structural gene because repressor in the way -NEGATIVE CONTROL MECHANISM: building of protein reduces transcriptional activity -to remove block inducer must bind to repressor protein so RNA polymerase can move down the gene; as concentration of inducer increases more copies of repressor can be pulled off operator region -useful system because allows gene products to be produced only when needed *ex.) lac operon

negative control mechanism

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* binding of a protein to DNA decreases/stops transcription

positive control mechanism

*control of gene expression: prokaryotes* binding of a protein to DNA increases transcription ex.) cAMP and CAP in lac operon

hypothalamic negative feedback mechanism

*cortisol receptors must be present in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in order to recognize levels of cortisol in order for negative feedback regulation to occur

proximal convoluted tubule

*first section filtrate enters after bowman's capsule* -in the cortex of the kidney -majority of amino acids, glucose, H2O soluble vitamins and salts (by active transport using ATP) reabsorbed along with H2O b/c dont want to lose these things in the filtrate -solutes entering the interstitium (connective tissue surrounding the nephron) are picked up by the vasa recta to be returned to the bloodstream for reuse within the body -also site of secretion for "dump the HUNK": H+ ions, Urea, NH3, K+ -ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Na+/K+ pump uses ATP to pump Na+ into blood out of tube and K+ out of blood into the tube; creates a concentration gradient of Na+ which eventually travels down concentration gradient into the tubule bringing glucose with it; [glucose] gets high enough eventually travels down concentration gradient with Na+ out to blood (secondary active transport--> movement due to concentration gradient that was created through active transport using ATP to pump Na+ against concentration gradient)

sympathetic nervous system

*flight or flight* -activated by stress whether mild or intense -increases heart rate, dialates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, increase blood [glucose], decreases digestion and peristalsis, releases epinephrine into blood stream, stimulates sweating, secretion of adrenaline and noadrenaline (postganglionic), acetylcholine release by preganglionic neurons, inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm, redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion

cortisol and cortisone

*glucocorticoids* -raise blood glucose level by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis -can also decrease inflammation and immunologic responses -cortisol --> known as a stress hormone because released in times of physical or emotional stress; this increases blood sugar and provides a ready source of fuel in case the body must react quickly to a dangerous stimuli; -can increase catecholamine synthesis (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine) = increase catecholamine release *fight or flight*

step-by-step how an action potential is generated

*if cell is brought to threshold (-55 to -40mV) voltage gated Na+ channels open in response to delpolarization/ change in membrane potential 1. strong electrochemical gradient promotes Na+ into the cell which continues to depolarize the cell/ voltage gated Na+ channels open (electrically: inside of cell more neg. than outside; chemically: higher [Na+] outside cell SO movement favored) 2. as Na+ passes through channels membrane potential becomes more positive; cell rapidly depolarizes 3. voltage- gated Na+ channels inactivated when Vm approaches +35 mV HOWEVER positive membrane potential opens voltage gated K+ channels 4. K+ driven out of cell by by electrochemical gradient/ voltage gated channel which restores the negative membrane potential (repolarization) 5. efflux of K+ causes overshoot of resting membrane potential hyperpolarizing the neuron (makes neuron refractory to further action potentials); Na+/K+ ATPase brings the neuron back to resting potential and restores the Na+ & K+ gradients

eukaryotic DNA polymerases

*just familiarize with them*

immovable vs. movable joints

*made of connective tissue* immovable--> fused together to form sutures or similar fibrous joints; primarily in head anchoring bones of skull movable --> usually strengthened by ligaments, permit bones to shift relative to each other; contain synovial capsule (enclosed the actual joint/ articular cavity)

aldosterone

*mineralocorticoid* -promote Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct thus INCREASES water reabsorption -increases Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron; water follows the Na+ into the bloodstream increases blood volume and increasing pressure (*blood pressure increases but plasma osmolarity is unchanged) -decreases K+ and H+ absorption thus promoting their excretion in the urine -regulated by renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system -secreted in response to low blood presure

chromosomal mutations

*much larger scale then nucleotide mutations; affect whole segments of DNA* Deletion mutations = large segment of DNA lost duplication mutations = a segment of DNA is copied multiple times inversion mutations = segment of DNA is reversed insertion mutations = segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another; small insertion mutations considered frameshift mutations translocation mutations = segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

oxygen debt & muscle fatigue

*muscles require ATP to function; red fibers have high mitochondria levels & use oxidative phosphoylation to make ATP thus high [O2] required to generate large amounts of ATP -when O2 runs out--> glycolysis to produce ATP; extensive glycolysis leads to lactic acid build up = fatigue -muscle cells have additional energy reserves to reduce oxygen debt (= the difference between the amount of oxygen needed and the amount present) and forestall fatigue 2 supplemental energy reserves: 1. creatine phosphate--> can transfer a phosphate group to ADP--> ATP; created during times of rest creatine + ATP --> creatine phosphate + ADP 2. myoglobin--> heme- containing protein that is a muscular oxygen reserve; binds O2 with high affinity; white fibers = have fewer mitochondria & rely on glycolysis & fermentation for ATP when a person exercises, heart and respiration rate increases to move more O2 to actively respiring muscles; oxyheloglobin curve shifts right (increase CO2, increased H+ (decrease pH), and increase temp) but sometimes muscle still overwhelms ability of body to deliver O2--> red fibers must switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactic acid (muscle fatigues); after exercise, body converts down lactic acid to pyruvate which can enter the citric acid cycle (requires O2 and amount of O2 to recover = oxygen debt)

double cross over vs. single cross over

*note: the double crossover the middle sections exchanged (ends of the homologous arms cross over in 2 different places)

gas and solute exchange in the blood

*occurs at capillary level oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the blood to the tissues CO2, H+, urea and ammonia diffuse into the blood; blood also carries nutrients, waste products and hormones to appropriate locations for use an disposal hormones are secreted into the capillaries to go to their target tissues ions and fluid must be returned to the blood from the tissues to ensure that no area becomes too swollen with fluid *concentration gradients* plays a huge role in this one side of a capillary wall has higher concentration of a given substance than the other - movement of gases and solutes by diffusion

primary difference between somatic & automatic nervous systems

*peripheral component of ANS contains 2 neurons* SNS = motor neuron goes directly from spinal cord to muscle without synapsing ANS = 2 neurons work in series to transmit messages from spinal cord--> preganglionic neuron (1st) and postganglionic neuron(2nd) -preganglionic neuron soma is in CNS & its axon travels to ganglion in the PNS where is synapses with postganglionic neuron cell body which then affects the target tissue

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

*produced by parathyroid* *antagonistic hormone to calcitonin raising blood Ca+ levels* -as levels of plasma Ca+ rise PTH secretion decreases -specifically decreases excretion of calcium by kidneys and increases bone resorption directly to increase blood [Ca+] -activated vitamin D which is necessary for calcium and phosphate absorption from the gut -promotes the resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces reabsorption of phosphate in the kidney, but vitamin D promotes absorption of phosphate from the gut--> these effects on [phosphate] somewhat cancel each other out

structure of myocytes

*sarcomeres attach end to end to become MYOFIBRILS & each MYOCYTE (muscle cell or muscle fiber) contains many myofibrils* -myofibrils--> long rodlike bundles of actin, myosin, other proteins; surrounding by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (high [Ca+] containing modified ER) & cell membrane of a myocyte is the sarcolemma (capable of propagating an action potential & distribute it to all cells by T- system) -system of T- tubules--> connected to the sarcolemma and oriented perpendicularly to the myofibrils allowing the incoming signal to reach all parts of the muscle

parasympathetic nervous system

*subdivision of automatic nervous system* CONSERVE ENERGY; "rest and digest" -reduce heart rate, constrict bronchi, increasing peristalsis & exocrine secretions, contracts bladder, constricts pupil, stimulates saliva flow, -acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in body; released by both pre/ postganglionic neurons -vagus nerve responsible for much of parasympathetic intervention of thoracic and abdominal cavity; activated in brain in response to sight, smell, and taste of food

Repressible systems

*system is normally "on" but can be made to turn "off" given a particular signal -allow constant production of protein product -repressor made by the regulator gene is inactive until if binds to corepressor; this complex then binds to operator site to prevent further transcription *usually serve as negative feedback because final product can be corepressor

antagonistic pairs

*when muscle is attached to two bones its contraction will cause one of the bones to move* -often muscles work serving opposite functions -when one muscle contracts the other lengthens

amylose

-composition: linear chains of glucose linked by alpha(1->4) glycosidic bonds -major component of starch; less easily digested than amylopectin

refractory periods

- caused by hyperpolarization when K+ efflux out of the cell -2 types: absolute and relative refractory periods

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

- hormone secreted by the atria of the heart - promotes excretion of salt and water in the kidneys in response to stretching of the atria (high blood volume)

cooperative binding of hemoglobin

- in lungs high partial pressure of O2 resulting in loading of O2 onto hemoglobin -in tissues low partial pressure of O2 resulting in unloading -with cooperative binding each successive O2 bound to hemoglobin increases the affinity of the other subunits which each successive O2 release decreases the affinity of the other subunits

flagella

- made up of microtubules -involved in movement of the cell itself -found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells but structurally distinct --> eukaryotic = flap back and forth powered by ATP --> prokaryotic = use rotary motion powered by proton gradient; composed of protein known as flagellin (basal body that anchors and rotates flagellum and a hook that connects the two) -ex) sperm cells

phosphodiester bond

- make overall charge of DNA negative -joins nucleotides by 3' to 5' phosphodiester bonds (phosphate group links the 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5' phosphate group of the next incoming sugar on the chain)

Griffith Experiment

- studying bacterium that causes pneumonia in mammals - two strains of bacterium (one virulent and one non-virulent) - when he killed pathogenic bacteria with heat and then mixed the cell remains with living bacteria of the nonvirulent strain, some of the living cells became virulent and killed the mouse; live bacteria with smooth capsules were observed in the dead mice -theorized that the live, nonvirulent bacteria must have acquired the ability to form smooth capsules from the dead virulent bacteria (transforming principle) -scientists confirmed this hypothesis by treating bacteria with enzyme known to degrade DNA the bacteria were not transformed and the mice lived; so the transforming material must be DNA (transforming principle)

Rh factor

- surface protein expressed on red blood cells (antigen like) *Rh+ and Rh- refer to presence or absence of a specific allele called D *Rh+ is dominant so if present, it is expressed *If a woman is Rh+ and her fetus is Rh-, her immune system will make antibodies against it *Not a problem for 1st child b/c mother starts producing the antibodies after the child is born *Any subsequent pregnancies in which fetus is Rh+ will be problematic b/c maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack fetal blood cells (erythroblastosis fetalis (fatal) ) -Avoided by giving the Rh- mother Rh-immunoglobulin during pregnancy & immediately after delivery *immunoglobulin absorbs the fetus's Rh+ cells preventing production of anti-Rh antibodies by mother

facultative anaerobes

- toggle between metabolic processes, using oxygen for aerobic metabolism if present and then switching to anaerobic metabolism if it is not -can survive in environments with or without oxygen

osmotic pressure

-"sucking" pressure drawing water towards solutes; generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water back into the bloodstream -pulls fluid back into the vessels; dependent on number of particles dissolved in the plasma (most are proteins so we refer to this as oncotic pressure) -as fluid moves out of vessels, osmotic pressure (which stays about the same) becomes larger than hydrostatic pressure --> (fluid pushing in = osmotic pressure) at the venule end causes an influx of water back into circulation

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

--measured by spirometer -volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

diploid cells

-2n -contains two copies of each chromosome

determination

-2nd step of cell specilization -commitment of cell to having a particular function which may be accomplished by uneven segregation of cellular material during mitosis or by specific molecules called morphogens secreted from nearby cells (which promote development down a specific cell line; to respond to a specific morphogen a cell must have competency) -after this stage of cell specialization the cell is irreversibly committed to a specific cell type

ABO antigens

-3 alleles for blood type; A & B alleles codominant with O allele being recessive to both -an individual has ANTIBODIES for any AB alleles he or she does NOT have -wrong ABO blood type = hemolysis -type O blood--> express neither antigen (A or B) so universal donors; every blood type cell will not initiate an immune response -type AB blood--> can receive all blood types because does not produce antibodies against A or B antigens because expressed in their own cells (no blood antigen is foreign to them so do not produce antibodies against it; universal recipient

cytosine and guanine pairing

-3 hydrogen bonds so sequences where C and G bases predominate require higher temps for strands to denature (or separate)

differentiation

-3rd step of cell specialization -changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line -cell assumes the structure, function, and biochemistry of its committed cell lineage (from the determination step)

cardiovascular system

-4 chambered heart, blood vessels, and blood -under autonomic control

parathyroid glands

-4 small pea- sized structures sit on posterior surface of thyroid -produces parathyroid hormone (PTH), which INCREASES blood calcium concentration

DNA ligase

-A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain. -eventually joins the sugar- phosphate backbones of the Okazaki fragments

inhalation

-ACTIVE process -uses diaphragm & external intercostal muscles to expand the thoracic cavity increasing the volume of the intrapleural space (decreasing the intrapleural pressure); chest wall & rib cage expand -muscle contraction is required to create negative pressure in thoracic cavity that forces air into the lungs

exhalation

-ACTIVE: internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles can be used forcibly to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity pushing air out -PASSIVE: simple relaxation of diaphragm/ external intercostals = chest cavity decreases volume, SO pressure in interpleural space goes up (IP space volume decreases)--> now pressure higher in interpleural space than in lungs (still at atmospheric) and air will be pushed out as lungs as volume decreases to increase pressure *surfactant prevents complete collapse of alveoli by reducing surface tension at the alveolar surface*

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

-ATP -high energy compounds because of the energy associated with the repulsion between closely associated negative charges on the phosphate groups

Alanine

-Ala; A -nonpolar

Arginine

-Arg; R -positively charged -basic

Asparagine

-Asn; N -polar

Aspartic acid

-Aspartate--> CB, predominante at physiological pH -Asp; D -negatively charged -acidic

cholecytokinin

-CCK -secreted by the duodenum; peptide hormone -stimulates bile release from the gallbladder, release of pancreatic juices, and satiety produced in pancreas (acinar cells), function in duodenum, PROTEIN BREAKDOWN

carbon dioxide in blood

-CO2 = nonpolar, low solubility in blood, hemoglobin low affinity for CO2 -majority of CO2 leaves blood in the form of carbonic acid a weak acid will dissociate to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions (carbonic anhydrase); these are polar and more soluable in water making them a more effective method of transporting waste to the lungs -once in alveolar capillaries reaction can be reversed allowing us to breathe out CO2

killer (cytotoxic) T- cells

-CTL (cytotoxic T- lymphocytes), Tc, or CD8+ -respond to antigen on MHC- I -kill virally infected cells -better at targeting intracellular infections

calcium levels controlled by what

-Calcitonin--> decreases [Ca+] -PTH--> increases [Ca+]

sucrose

-Composition: glucose + fructose -disaccharide -table sugar

lactose

-Composition: glucose + galactose -disaccharide -lactose intolerance depends on continued expression of lactase

maltose

-Composition: glucose + glucose -disaccharide -found in beer, cereal, pasta, and potatoes; produced by the breakdown of starch

Cysteine

-Cys; C -polar -sulfur containing -form disulfide branches resulting in cystine which are a crucial part of tertiary structure -contains a thiol group--> enabling it to act in a variety of reactions

vasodilation and vasoconstriction

-DILATION: as capillaries expand = more blood can pass through vessels and larger amount of thermal energy dissipated -CONSTRICTION: as capillaries contract = less blood can pass through vessels conserving thermal energy

reannealed DNA

-DNA can be brought back together after being denatures if the denaturing condition is slowing removed -example: if DNA is denatured by heat can cool slowly to bring two single strands back together *Used in PCR with a probe DNA added to a mixture of target DNA sequences

cis regulators

-DNA regulatory base sequences that are in the same vicinity as the gene they control -ex) enhancers, promotors, response elements

semiconservative process

-DNA replication is termed this because one parental strand is retained in each of the two resulting identical doubt- stranded DNA molecules

F+ and F- cells

-F+ cells: male; contain sex pili which are appendages that create the bridge in bacterial conjugation; contains the plasmids (sex factors) that contain the necessary genes to form bridge -F- cells: female; lack sex factors; recipient that receives plasmid converting it into an F+ cell

mismatch repair

-G2 phase of the cell cycle -enzymes encoded by genes MSH2 & MLH1 which detect and remove errors introduced in replication that were missed during the S phase of the cell cycle

hormones released by hypothalamus & response hormone released from anterior pituitary

-Gonodotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH)--> follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) -growth hormone- releasing hormone (GHRH)--> growth hormone (GH) -thyroid- releasing hormone (TRH)--> thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) -corticotropin- releasing factor (CRF)--> adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Histidine

-His; H -positively charged - basic -not generally positively charged at physiological pH because the pKa of -NH side chain is 6.04 so could technically serve as a buffer

Isoleucine

-Ile; I -nonpolar

maintaining resting potential (LONG STORY)

-K+ concentration inside cell = 140 mM; outside the cell = 4 mM --> makes it favorable for K+ to move OUTSIDE the cell -as K+ continually leaks out of the cell the cell loses a small amount of "+" leaving behind a small amount of "-" and making the outside of the cell slightly "+" -however as "-" builds up inside cell from K+ drawn back into cell (attracted to growing "-" inside cell); as potential difference continues to grow K+ drawn more strongly back into cell until a certain potential (-90 mV)

Mendel's second law

-Law of independent assortment (RECOMBINATION); allow for greater genetic diversity -because of crossing over each daughter cell will have a unique pool of alleles (genes coding for alternative forms of a given trait) from a random mixture of maternal and paternal origin -states the inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes (prophase 1) *inheritance of one gene/allele is independent of the inheritance of others/ does not influence the probability of inheriting a given allele for a different trait * -comes from tetrads which are the 4 chromatids (2 sets of sister chromatids from homologues) that "swap" genetic material resulting in a novel combination of alleles that were not present in the original chromosomes

Leucine

-Leu; L -nonpolar

Lysine

-Lys; K -positively charged -basic

Methionine

-Met; M -nonpolar -sulfur containing

M stage

-Mitosis + cytokinesis -prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase -results in two genetically identically daughter cells from a single cell -occurs in somatic cells

Peptide chains

-N terminus: -NH2 group -C terminus: -COOH group -written from N terminus to the C terminus (also corresponds to the order they are synthesized in)

hemoglobin and oxygen

-O2 diffuses into alveolar capillaries in lungs--> O2 binds to heme group inducing a conformational shift from taut to relaxed --> shift increases hemoglobin's affinity for O2 at other heme sites --> O2 binds easy to other heme groups and affinity continues to increase--> once all hemoglobin subunits bound to O2 removal of one O2 will induce conformational shift again decreasing hemoglobin's affinity of O2 making it easier for other O2 molecules to leave other subunits -allosteric regulation--> cooperative binding

Descending Loop of Henle

-ONLY permeable to water -since medulla is hypertonic ("salty") H2O will naturally want to travel down concentration gradient out of the loop into the medulla = reabsorption of H2O -travels deep into the medulla increasingly favoring the outflow of water which is being reabsorbed by vasa recta

prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF or dopamine)

-PIF or dopamine -hormone released from the hypothalamus which inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland

Phenylalanine

-Phe; F -nonpolar -aromatic

Proline

-Pro; P -nonpolar -breaks up secondary structure--> its side chain binds to the nitrogen of its own amine that locks it in place so kinks the alpha- helices and beta- sheets

DNA polymerases

-Responsible for reading the DNA template (parental strand) and synthesizing a new daughter strand -Reads in 3'-5' and synthesizes complementary strand in 5'-3'

tertiary structure of protein

-SIDE CHAIN interactions -hydrophobic, hydrogen bonding, salt bridges between charged side chains, disulfide bridges between cysteine residues

noncellular nonspecific defenses of innate immune system

-SKIN: physical barrier and secrete antimicrobial compounds like defensins (antibacterial enzymes) -MUCUS: on mucus membranes traps pathogens; respiratory system mucus propelled upward by cilia and can be swallowed or expelled -TEARS/SALIVA: contain lysozyme (nonspecific bacterial enzyme) -STOMACH: produces acid killing most pathogens; colonization of bacteria helps prevent overgrowth by pathogenic -COMPLEMENT: system (consists of a # of proteins in the blood act as nonspecific) can punch holes in the cell walls of bacteria making them osmotically unstable -INTERFERONS: given off by virally infected cells & help prevent viral replication and dispersion of nearby cells; reduce permeability of nearby cells decreasing ability of the virus to infect these cells; reduce rate of transcription/ translation decreasing virus ability to replicate; cause systemic symptoms (muscle aches, etc.)

anatomy of a neuron

-Schwann cells in PNS are oligodendrocytes in the CNS

Serine

-Ser; S -polar

origins of replication

-Sites where the DNA unwinds to begin the process of replication

Schwann cells

-Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin -produce myelin around axons in PNS

positive and negative selection

-T- cells mature in thymus & undergo both POSITIVE: -only selecting for T- cells that can react to antigen presented on MHC -To address the necessity that T cells be capable of binding MHC complexes, T cells undergo positive selection. In this process, cells in the thymus present short pieces of proteins, called peptides, on their own MHC class I and class II molecules, allowing immature T cells to bind. If TCRs are incapable of binding, the T cell will undergo a type of cell death celled apoptosis (Figure 1, middle). If, however, a T cell's TCR successfully binds to the MHC complexes on the thymic cells, they T cell receives survival signals and is thus positively selected. NEGATIVE: -causing apoptosis in self- reactive T- cells (activated by proteins produced by the organism itself) -developing T cells in the thymus are presented with peptides bound to MHC molecules, to which they may be able to bind. Importantly, while a moderate degree of binding leads to survival and positive selection, TCRs that bind too strongly to these MHC complexes are destined for the opposite fate. It is thought that, when TCRs bind too strongly to the MHC complexes in the thymus, the intracellular signaling is so strong that it actually leads to cell death, thereby eradicating immature T cell that have a high likelihood of being self-reactive and attacking our own cells.

Threonine

-Thr; T -polar

Suppressor T- cells

-Treg or regulatory cells -tone down immune response after an infection adequately contained and promote self tolerance (turn off self- reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune disorders which result in immune system responding to "self" proteins and attacking)

Tryptophan

-Trp; W -nonpolar -aromatic

glucose

-Type of carb: aldohexose -main source of fuel for organism -monosaccharide

galactose

-Type of carb: aldohexose -monosaccharide -found in dairy products and sugar beets; can be rapidly converted to glucose

fructose

-Type of carb: ketohexose -monosaccharide -produced by many plants/ fruits; commonly used as a sweetener

Tyrosine

-Tyr; Y -nonpolar -aromatic

nucleotide excision repair (NER)

-UV light induces formation of dimers b/w adjacent thymine residues which interfers with DNA replication/ normal gene expression -these dimers are eliminated by NER which is a cut and patch process: 1. specific proteins scan the DNA molecule and regonize lesion b/c of buldge 2. excision endonuclease makes nicks in the phosphodiester backbone of the damaged strand on both sides of thymine dimer and removes defective oligonucleotide 3. DNA polymerase fills in the gap in 5'--> 3' using undamaged strand as template 4. DNA ligase seals nick in the strand

Valine

-Val; V -nonpolar

5' Cap

-a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap is added to the 5' end of the hnRNA -added during process of transcription & recognized by ribosome as the binding site -protects the mRNA from degradation in cytoplasm

inclusive fitness

-a measure of an organism's success in the population -based on # of offspring , success in supporting offspring, ability of offspring to support others -more contemporary view of fitness instead of solely looking at individual fitness -survival of offspring or relatives ensures continuation of genes in subsequent generations -promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole (organisms sacrificing themselves to save offspring to ensure passing of genes to future generations)

penetrance

-a population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype; proportion of the population with a given genotype who express the phenotype -the probability that given a particular genotype a person will express the phenotype

regenerative activity

-ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body -liver has highest regenerative capacity which the heart has the lowest

induction

-ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells -process mediated by chemical substances (inducers) which diffuse from organizing cells to responsive cells

liver

-accessory oran of digestive system -synthesizes bile (which can be stored in the gal bladder or secreted in the duodenum directly -processing of nutrients (glycogenesis and glycogenolysis, storage and mobilization of fats, gluconeogenesis) -production or urea -detoxification of chemicals -synthesis of albumin (protein that maintains plasma oncotic pressure and serves as a carrier for many drugs) and clotting factors

sarcomere contraction

-actin- myosin bridges allow myosin to pull actin which draws the thin filaments toward the M- line resulting in the shortening of the sarcomere -H- zone and I- band are shortened but A- band is unchanged

action potential propagation

-action potentials propagated down the axon when proximal Na+ channels open and depolarize the membrane inducing neighboring Na+ channels to open as well -because of refractory character of these channels the action potentials only move in ONE direction

Na+/K+ ATPase

-acts to restore the resting membrane potential by pumping Na+ and K+ against their gradients -also acts to restore the K+ and Na+ gradient that have been partially dissipated by the action potential -pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell for every 2 K+ pumped in

B- cells and T-cells

-adaptive immunity -b- cells = produced & mature in bone marrow; turn into plasma cells that produce antibodies to bind to antigens; mature in lymph nodes and spleen; HUMORAL IMMUNITY = antibodies dissolve and act in the blood -t-cells = mature in the thymus (gland in front of pericardium or sac that protects heart); CELL- MEDIATED IMMUNITY = coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells

DNA methylases

-add methyl groups to cytosine and adenine nucleotides

summation

-additive effect of multiple signals -postsynaptic neuron may review info from several different presynaptic neurons, some excitatory and some inhibitory -2 types of summation: temporal & spatial

spatial summation

-additive effects based on the number of location of incoming signals (near each other in space) ex: large # of inhibitory signals firing directly on the soma will cause a more profound hyperpolarization than the depolarization caused by few excitatory signals firing on the dendrites of a neuron

DNA polymerase 𝛿

-adds DNA nucleotides where the RNA primers had been -cannot complete synthesis of the 5' end of the strand so each time DNA synthesis carried out chromosome becomes shorter; telomerase creates repeated sequences of telomeres (can be slightly degraded after each replication without loss of function)

adrenal cortex

-adrenal glands located on top of the kidneys each with an adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla -secreted corticosteriods (steroid hormones) which can be divided into 3 functional classes: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and cortical sex hormones

sensory neurons

-afferent neurons -transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal chord and the brain

cell body

-aka the soma -location of ER and ribosomes -many apendages emanating from soma

mineralocorticoid

-aldosterone -promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tube and collecting duct thus INCREASING water reabsorption; secreted by adrenal cortex portion of adrenal gland

anatomy of immune system

-all immune cells produced in bone marrow produces all leukocytes (WBC that mature in bone marrow = B-cells; mature in thymus = T- cells) -spleen & lymph nodes = site where immune response mounted & which B- cells activated -gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) = tonsils and adenoids

action potentials

-all or nothing messages used by neurons to relay electrical impulses down the axon to the synaptic bouton (nerve terminal) -ultimately cause the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft -rely on both electrical and chemical gradients

antibodies

-also called immunoglobulins (Ig) -target a particular antigen; can be present on surface of cell or secreted into body fluids -contain 2 heavy chains & 2 light chains -have constant region (activates complement system & phagocytes) & variable region (tip of variable region = antigen- binding region --> specific polypeptide sequences that will bind to ONE specific antigen sequence)

nuclear membrane

-also called nuclear envelope -bilayer membrane surrounding the nucleus -maintains nuclear environment separate/ distinct from cytoplasm

large intestine

-also called the colon -COLON: absorbs water and salts forming semisolid feces -CECUM = (beginning)outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve and is the site of attachment of the appendix (attaches to small intestine) -dividing into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid portions -RECTUM = stores feces (indigestible material) which are then excreted through the anus -gut bacteria produce vitamin K (production of clotting factors) and biotin (vitamin B7; coenzyme for many metabolic enzymes)

nonpolar molecules with polar bonds

-also carbon dioxide

helper T- cells (Th)

-also know as CD4+ T- cells -respond to antigen on MHC-II ; better at targeting extracellular infections -coordinate rest of immune system secreting lymphokines (molecules capable of recruiting other immune cells & increasing their activity) to activate various arms of immune defense

hypermutation

-b-cells undergo this when antigen binds -tries to find the best match for antigen -improves specificity of antibody produced by antigen-binding region when activated -may be given signal to switch isotypes of antibody (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, IgA)

osteons

-also know as Haversian systems; structural unit of bony matrix -contains concentric circles of bone matrix = lamellae surrounding a channel --> haversian channels (longitudinal channels; axis parallel to bone) and volkmann's canals (transverse channels; axis perpendicular to bone) = both channels contain blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels to maintain bone health (connect to lacunae to transport these nutrients and take away wastes for osteocytes)

aromatic

-alternating single and multiple bonds or lone pairs creating at least one unhybridized p- orbital for each atom in the ring -extra stability if due to the delocalized pi electrons which can travel throughout the entire compound using available molecular orbitals -fairly unreactive *nucleic acids therefore are imbued with exceptional stability

thyroxine and triiodothyronine

-amino acid- derivative hormones -slower onset but longer duration (like steroid hormones -regulate metabolic rate over a long period of time

Why does an individual lacking the A allele automatically have an anti A antibody?

-antibodies are created in response to an antigen & specifically target that antigen (ex. if you have been exposed to virus, your body has antibodies against it); antigens are stimuli for b- cells to make antibodies so after exposure of a b- cell to its specific antigen, the cell becomes an antibody producing factory -may come from E.Coli in gut have proteins that match A and B alleles = source of exposure

primary response

-antibody production is energetically expensive so naive B- cells (those not yet exposed to an antigen) wait in lymph nodes for their particular antigen--> upon exposure B- cell will proliferate and produce 2 types of daughter cells: plasma cells (produce large amounts of antibodies) & B- memory cells (stay in lymph node awaiting reexposure to same antigen) -initial activation is the primary response

hormones regulating feeding behavior

-antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) and aldosterone = promote thirst -glucagon and ghrelin = promote hunger -leptin and cholecystokinin = promote satiety

collecting duct

-anything that does not leave tubule by end of collecting duct is excreted (waste products & H2O not needed); *point of no return* no further opportunities for reabsorption after -filtrate leaves tubule and enters renal pelvis (eventually to ureter and into bladder) -fluid = mostly urea, uric acid, excess ions (Na+, K+, Ca+, Mg+) -responsive to BOTH aldosterone and ADH = act to increase H2O reabsorption in the duct--> increases the permeability of the duct to H2O which increases H2O absorption (enters interstitium then to vasa recta to the bloodstream) *if body is well hydrated, duct fairly impermeable to salt and water (H2O moves with salt)

euchromatin

-appears light under light microscopy -contains genetically active DNA -dispersed chromatin or uncondensed during interphase

where is the largest drop in blood pressure occur?

-arterioles -necessary because the capillaries are thing- walled and unable to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature aorta--> artery--> arterioles--> capillaries--> venules--> veins--> venae cavae

supercoiling

-as helicase unwinds DNA it will cause positive supercoiling that strains the DNA helix -wrapping of DNA on itself as its helical structure is pushed even further toward the telomeres during replication

robert hooke

-assembled a crude microscope and tested its properties on a piece of cork -noticed honeycomb- like structure/ small "rooms" --> called them cells

epiphyseal (growth) plate

-at internal edge of the epiphysis (round head of long bone) -cartilaginous structure and site of longitudinal growth

polysynaptic reflex arc

-at least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neurons ex.) stepping on a nail or withdrawal reflex--> extremity one steps on nail with will be stimulated to flex to pull foot away from nail (monosynaptic); if person is to maintain balance other foot must be planted on ground & to occur motor neuron that controls quad in opposite limb must be stimulated to extend it --> interneurons in spinal cord provide the connections from the incoming sensory into to the motor neurons in the supporting limbs -the sensory neuron may fire onto a motor neuron as well as interneurons that fire onto other motor neurons

nonsense mutations

-type of point mutation; expressed mutation -occur when the change in nucleotide results in substituting a stop codon for an amino acid in the final protein

2 main types of cell walls

-bacteria can be classified by their wall color determined by Gram staining--> crystal violet followed by a counterstain with safranin gram positive --> envelope absorbs crystal violet and appears deep purple; consist of a thick layer of peptidoglycan gram negative--> enveloped does not absorb crystal violet but absorbs safranin and will appear pink-red; cell wall is very thin & also contain peptidoglycan but in smaller amounts; human immune system can respond to components of cell wall inciting an inflammatory response; outer membrane containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

obligate aerobes

-bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism

DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

-bacterial chromosome (closed double stranded DNA ring) has one origin of replication; thus has two replication forks -eukaryotic replication --> much slower process, has multiple origins of replication

lysogenic cycle

-bacteriophage life cycle -in an event that the virus does not lyse the bacterium it may integrate into the host's genome (as a provirus or prophage) -virus will be replicated as the bacterium reproduces -environmental factors will eventually cause the provirus to leave cell and revert to lytic cycle

lytic cycle

-bacteriophage life cycle -makes maximal use of the cell's machinery with little regard for the survival of the host cell -once the cell is swollen with new virions the cell lyses and other bacteria can be infected -bacteria in this stage are termed virulent

sarcomeres

-basic contractile unit of striated (striped) muscle or skeletal muscle; appears striped because of the arrangement of actin and myosin when viewed microscopically -made up of myosin (thick) and actin (thin) filaments -troponin and tropomyosin are found on the thin filament and regulate actin- myosin interactions (used by skeletal and cardiac muscle)

restriction point

-between G1 phase and S phase -cell determines if the DNA is good enough for the cell to pass this point and enter synthesis stage -if there has been damage to the DNA cell cycle goes into arrest until DNA repaired (p53 main protein in control)

senescence

-biological aging -the result of multiple molecular and metabolic processes; most notably, the shortening of telomeres during cell division.

peptide bonds

-bonds that join amino acids together -one -COOH group of one amino acids binds with the -NH2 group of another and RELEASES water -dipeptides = 2 amino acids -tripeptides = 3 amino acids *creates an amide functional group*

role of Calcium in the body

-bone structure and strength -release of neurotransmitters from neurons -regulation of muscle contraction -clotting of blood (calcium is a cofactor) -also plays a role in cell movement and exocytosis of cellular materials -increased by PTH and decreased by calcitonin

metaphase

-centriole pairs now on opposite ends of cell -kinetochore fibers interact with fibers of spindle apparatus to align the chromosomes at metaphase plate (equidistant between the poles)

Triidothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)

-both produced by follicular cells and contain iodine -increase basal metabolic rate and alter the utilization of glucose and fatty acids -increased amounts of T3 & T4 = increased cellular respiration --> greater amount of protein and fatty acid turnover by speeding up synthesis and degradation of these compounds -high plasma levels of thyroid decrease TSH & TRH synthesis -NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

pancreatic amylase

-breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides so involed in carb digestion; starch to maltose and dextrins -found in pancreatic juice produced in pancreas (acinar cells) functions in duodenum, CARB BREAKDOWN

hypothalamus

-bridge b/w nervous & endocrine systems -release of hormones from here is mediated by projections from other parts of brain, chemo- & baroreceptors in blood vessels, negative feedback from other hormones, etc. -stimulates the anterior pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal system which directly connects the two organs

eicosanoids

-broad family of signaling molecules -prostaglandins are a subclass

Absorption of Carbohydrates and amino acids in small intestine

-broken down to monosaccharies first; secondary active transport with Na+ for glucose & galactose into epithelial cells -secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion for carbs & amino acids into epithelial cells lining small intestine--> move to intestinal capillaries; flow down concentration gradient b/c constant flow of blood through capillaries -blood constantly passing by epithelial cells in capillaries (carrying carbs & amino acids away) so concentration of these molecules lower in the blood -absorbed molecules then go to the liver via hepatic portal circulation

peptidases

-brush border enzyme in the duodenum released in presence of chyme; breakdown proteins -include aminopeptidase and dipeptidases

disaccharidases

-brush border enzyme in the duodenum released in presence of chyme; digest disaccharides -enzymes break down maltose (maltase), isomaltose (isomaltase), lactose (lactase), and sucrose (sucrase) into monosaccharides -lack of particular disaccharidase = inability to breakdown particular disaccharide, bacteria hydrolyzes disaccharide produced methane gas as byproduct, osmotic affect can occur pulling H2O into the stool causing diarrhea produced in intestinal glands, functions in duodenum ; CARB BREAKDOWN

amino acids

-building blocks of proteins -central carbon with an amine group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen (-H), and a side chain who's properties contribute to the function of the protein or peptide sequence that the amino acid is incorporated into -joined together by peptide bonds

tracts

-bundles of axons in the CNS -only carry ONE type of information -cell bodies of the individual neurons within a tract cluster in nuclei in the CNS

denaturing of DNA

-can be denatured by conditions that disrupt hydrogen bonding and base- pairing resulting in "melting" of the double helix into 2 single strands -conditions include heat, pH, and chemicals (like formaldehyde and urea)

memory T- cells

-can be generated -lie in wait until exposure to next exposure to same antigen -when activated may respond in more robust and rapid response

signaling cascade

-can demonstrate amplification of the signal -Connection between the hormone at the surface and the effect brought about by second messengers within the cell -at each step possible for amplification--> 1 hormone molecule may bind to multiple receptors before degraded or each receptor may activate many enzymes (increasing production of second messengers = intensify the signal)

recombination

-can link and unlink genes thereby increasing the variety of genetic recombinations that can be produced via gametogenesis *linkage refers to the tendency for genes to be inherited together; genes located farther from each other physically are less likely to be inherited together and are more likely to undergo crossing over relative to each other -small segments of genetic material are swapped between chromatids in homologous chromosomes (tetrads) resulting in novel combinations of alleles that were not present in the original chromosome -related to mendel's 2nd law

internal intercostal muscles

-can speed up active task of exhalation -oppose the external intercostal muscles and pull rib cage down; this actively decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity

stem cells

-capable of developing into various cell types; have no yet differentiated/ give rise to other cells that will differentiate -classified by potency; as cells become more differentiated potency gets more narrow

X chromosome

-carries sizeable amount of genetic info -mutations of X-linked genes can cause sex- linked disorders -males = hemizygous with respect to the unpaired genes on the X chromosome so will express sex linked disorders even if they only have one recessive disease carrying allele (XY) vs. women with only one recessive copy will be carriers (XX)

messenger RNA

-carries the information from the DNA specifying the amino acid sequence of the protein to the ribosome -mRNA transcribed from template DNA strands by RNA polymerase enzymes in nucleus of cell -only type of RNA that contains info that is translated into a protein

arteries

-carry blood AWAY from the heart thick highly muscular structures with elastic quality--> allows for recoil and helps propel blood forward within the system (creates a great deal of pressure) & creates tremendous resistance to the flow of blood -blood travels AWAY from the heart to lungs and body -largest is aorta

depolarization

-caused by an excitatory input received by axon hillock, RAISING the membrane potential from its resting potential (-70 mV) -makes neuron MORE likely to fire an action potential--> MORE POSITIVE

hyperpolarization

-caused by inhibitory input received by axon hillock, LOWERING the membrane potential from its resting potential (MORE NEGATIVE) -makes the neuron LESS likely to fire an action potential

dorsal root ganglia

-cell bodies of the spinal chord SENSORY neurons found here

inducer

-cell communication -the cell secreting a signal to a responder cell to become a certain cell type -usually surrounding the responder cell -commonly growth factors

cancer

-cell cycle becomes derange and damaged cells allowed to undergo mitosis; tend to accumulate mutations over time -proliferate excessively because able to divide without stimulation from other cells; no longer subject to normal controls on cell proliferation -most common mutation found in cancer is damage to p53 protein resulted in the cell cycle not being stopped to repair damaged DNA -often undergo rapid cell division resulting in tumors metastasis = cells begin to produce right factors to reach tissues that can lead to distant spread of cancerous cells through bloodstream or lymphatic system

S stage

-cell replicates genetic material so that each daughter cell will have identical copies -after replication each chromosome consists of 2 identical chromatids bound together by centromere -still 46 chromosomes present but 92 CHROMATIDS present at this stage

G0 phase

-cells that do not divide spend their time in this offshoot of G1 -cell is simply living and serving its functions without preparing for division

hummoral immunity

-centered on antibody production by plasma cells (which are activated B- cells; antibodies are specific to the antigens of the invading microbe

cell mediated (cytotoxic) immunity

-centered on the functions of T- cells -

anaphase

-centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere which allows the sister chromatids to split -sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the kinetochore fibers

natural selection

-certain characteristics or traits possessed by individuals within a species may help those individuals have greater reproductive success thus passing those traits to offspring -chance variation exist between individuals and advantageous variations (those that increase an individual's fitness for the environment) afford the most opportunity for reproductive success -fitness= directly related to the relative genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation *evolution is NOT natural selection; natural selection is a mechanism for evolution

birth

-cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures -then uterine contractions coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin result in birth of fetus -finally placenta and umbilical chord are expelled

mutation

-change in DNA sequence that results in a mutant allele -wild type = counterpart to mutant alleles; considered normal/ natural -can be advantageous (positive selective advantage) or deleterious (detrimental)

mutations

-changes in DNA sequence -results in a mutant allele -contrasted to wild-type counterparts which are considered "normal"

genetic drift

-changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance; change in allele frequencies in a population from generation to generation that occurs due to chance events. -more pronounced in smaller populations -absence of strong selective pressures

cholesterol

-characteristic 4 ring structure -contributes to membrane fluidity -precursor for steroid hormones

prophase 1

-chromatin condenses to chromosomes, spindle apparatus forms, nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear -DIFFERENCE BTW MITOSIS: homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine in process called synapsis

translocation mutations

-chromosomal mutation -occur when segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

duplication mutations

-chromosomal mutation -occur when segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome

deletion mutations

-chromosomal mutation -when a large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome -small deletion mutations are considered frameshift mutations

insertion mutations

-chromosomal mutation -when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another -small insertion mutations (including those where the inserted DNA is not from another chromosome) are considered frameshift mutations

9 + 2 structure

-cilia and flagella structure in eukaryotes -9 pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring and two microtubules in the center

lymphatic system

-circulatory system that consists of one- way vessels with intermittent lymph nodes -B- cells proliferate & develop here -connects to cardiovascular system via thoracic duct in posterior chest; vessels carry lymphatic fluid (lymph) and join to this duct -equalizes fluid distribution, transports fats and fat soluble compounds in chylomicrons, and provides sites for mounting an immune response

ventilation center

-collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that regulates ventilation -neurons fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles -can respond to high concentration of CO2 (hypercarbia) by increasing respiratory rate or low O2 concentration in the blood (hypoxemia) by increasing ventilation -we can control ventilation consciously to a certain extent through cerebrum until medulla oblongata overrides during extended periods of hyper- or hypo ventilation

genotype

-combination of alleles one has at a given gene locus

dimerization

-common form of conformational change that occurs when steroid hormone binds to the receptor -pairing of 2 receptor- hormone complexes

growth factors

-commonly inducers -peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues

nucleus

-compartmentalize and store genetic info (DNA)

adaptive immunity

-composed of defenses that take time to activate but can target a specific invader and CAN maintain immunologic memory -also called specific immunity -b- cells and t- cells

ribosome

-composed of proteins and rRNA -large and small subunits but only bind together during protein synthesis -main function: bring the mRNA message together with the charge aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate protein

starch

-composition: 20-30% amylose & 70-80% amylopectin -major energy store produced by most green plants; most common form of carbohydrates in most diets

amylopectin

-composition: linear chains of glucose linked by alpha(1->4) glycosidic bonds + branching due to an alpha(1->6) glycosidic bonds every 24-30 units -comprises aprozimately 70-80% of starch; broken down more easily than amylose

glycogen

-composition: linear chains of glucose linked by alpha(1->4) glycosidic bonds + branching due to an alpha(1->6) glycosidic bonds every 8-12 units -similar to amylopectin but more branched; synthesized by the liver and stored primarily in liver cells and muscle cells; how the body stores glucose to be used

cardiac muscle

-comprises the contractile tissue of the heart -appears striated -under involuntary (autonomic) control -uninucleated (sometimes binucleated) -can display myogenic activity -cells connected with intercalculated discs that contain gap junctions --> connection between cytoplasm of adjacent cells allows for flow of ions directly between cells which allows for rapid spread of depolarization (action potential starts at SA node, to AV node not to ventricles but gets there vis bundle of His and Purkinje fibers; SA node can fire on its on or sympathetic/ parasympathetic control)

prophase

-condensation of chromatin into chromosomes -centriole pairs separate and move to opposite poles of the cell where they begin to form spindle fibers (composed of microtublues) -nuclear membrane dissolves -nucleoi disappear

fallopian tubes

-connected to the uterus (the lower end of which is called the cervix)

portal system (kidneys)

-consists of 2 capillary beds in a series which blood must travel through before returning to the heart -blood from renal artery branches out to pass through the medulla & flows into the cortex through afferent arterioles which form the glomeruli (highly convoluted capillary tuft; surrounded by Bowmen's capsule) = 1st capillary bed---> blood then flows to the efferent arterioles which form the 2nd capillary bed (surround the loop of Henle & known as vasa recta) before leaving the kidney through the renal vein (enters bladder as urine)

bacteria

-contain a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and some have flagellas (1, 2 or many) -mutualistic symbiotes--> both bacteria & humans benefit (ex. bacteria in human gut produce vitamins K & B which prevent bacteria overgrowth) -pathogens/ parasites--> provide no benefit/advantage but disease; may live intracellularly or extracellularly (ex. chlamydia or MRSA); some produce specific toxins -classified by shape and ability to engage in certain types of metabolism

trachea and bronchi

-contain ciliated epithelial cells to catch material that has made it past the mucous membranes in the nose and mouth -BRONCHI: continue to divide in lungs into smaller structures (bronchioles) which divide further into tiny balloon like structures called alveoli--> gas exchange occurs here, each coated with surfactant (detergent that lowers surface tension and prevents them from collapsing on themselves)

peroxisomes

-contain hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) -primarily involved in breakdown of very long chain lipids via beta- oxidation -participate in synthesis of phospholipids and contain some enzymes involved in the pentose phosphate pathway

lysosomes

-contains hydrolytic enzyme capable of breaking down many different substrates, including materials ingested from outside the cell via endocytosis -operate best at acidic pH levels -often function in conjunction with endosomes (transport, package and sort cell material) -capable of releasing these enzymes to start apoptosis (autolysis of cell)

posterior pituitary

-contains nerve terminals of neurons with cell bodies in the hypothalamus -receives and stores 2 hormones produced by the hypothalamus: ADH and oxytocin *does not actually produce any hormones just stores and releases them

seminal vesicles

-contribute fructose to nourish sperm -also produce alkaline fluid (prostate gland also produces alkaline fluid) which allows sperm to survive in acidic female reproductive tract

hypothyroidism

-deficiency of iodine or inflammation of the thyroid results in thyroid hormones being secreted in insufficient amounts or not at all -characterized by lethargy, decreased body temp, slowed respiratory & heart rate, cold intolerance, weight gain

Thyroid

-controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary -located at the base of the neck in front of the trachea -produces 3 key hormones: triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and calcitonin -2 main functions: setting basal metabolic rate (mediated by T3 and T4 release) & calcium homeostasis (controlled by calcitonin)

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

-controls aldosterone -decreased blood pressure causes the juxtagomerular cells of the kidney to secrete enzyme RENIN which cleaves an inactive plasma protein (angiotensinogen from LIVER) to its active form angiotensin I -angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin- converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs; angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone -once blood pressure restored there is a decreased drive to stimulate renin release thus serving as a negative feedback mechanism for this system

epithelial tissue

-covers the body and lines its cavities providing a means for protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation; some absorb or secrete substances or participate in sensation -tightly joined together by underlying layer of connective tissue or the basal membrane -highly diverse; function depends on their location but in most organs constitute the parenchyma or the functional parts of the organ -polarized (one side faces outside environment or lumen of organ and one side interacts with underlying blood vessels)

Hershey- Chase experiment

-created bacteriophages with radioactive DNA & protein; found only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage infected bacteria -group 1: bacteriophages contained radiolabeled sulfur which is found in protein but not DNA group 2; bacteriophages contained radiolabeled phosphorus which if found in DNA but not protein -each group premitted to infect nonlabeled bacteria group--> found after bacteriophages injected material and sample was centrifuged to separate material that remained outside the cell the remaining material contained protein but no DNA *confirmed DNA was the heritable genetic material*

antibody

-created by cells to fight things in your body that your body does not want in it -tags foreign materials to mark for destruction by the immune system -created in response to an antigen and specifically target that antigen

replication forks

-created by the generation of new DNA in replications proceeding in both directions

transmembrane proteins

-cross through the lipid bilayer plasma membrane of the cell and have 3 domains: extracellular (polar), intracellular (polar), and transmembrane spanning the plasma membrane (nonpolar)

cuboidal, columnar, and squamous epithelial cells

-cube shaped -long and thin -flat and scalelike

Bowman's capsule

-cup-shaped structure around the glomerulus -leads to a long tubule (in this order): proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending limbs of loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct

common second messengers

-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)--> used in activation of g coupled receptor = binding of peptide hormone tirggers receptor to either activate or inhibit the enzyme adenylate cylase raising or lower the levels of cAMP; cAMP can bind to intracellular targets such as protein kinase A with phosphorylates transcription factors -inositol -triphosphate (IP3)

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

-deepest layer of the skin -layer of connective tissue connecting the skin to the rest of the body -layer contains fat and fibrous tissue

Avery-MacLeod-McCarty Experiment

-demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material from the griffith experiment because degradation of DNA led to a cessation of bacterial transformation -confirmed the transforming principle -purified heat killed bacteria & separated subcellular components before injecting into mouse; substances treated with enzymes known to degrade DNA--> bacteria were not transformed and moue lived

action potential speed

-depends on the length and cross sectional area of the axon increased length = higher resistance & slower conductance greater cross sectional area = faster propagation b/c decrease resistance -myelin maximizes the speed of transmission b/c good insulator preventing dissipation of electric signal

testosterone (structure)

-derivative of cholesterol

terpenoids

-derivatives of terpenes -have undergone oxygenation & rearrangement of the carbon skeleton -contribute to steroid biosynthesis -similar characteristics w/ terpenes -example shown: retinol (vitamin A)

steroid hormones

-derived from cholesterol (which is a nonpolar molecule) & minimally polar so can cross cell membrane = means these hormones bind to and promote conformational change of intracellular or intranuclear receptors (hormone receptor complex binds to DNA affecting the transcription of a particular gene) -produced primarily by the gonads & cortex (ex. estrogen & testosterone) -effect of hormones is slower than peptide hormones but longer- lived -not water soluable have to be carried by proteins in bloodstream to travel; some proteins can carry 1 or more than one, hormone is generally inactive if on protein, active amounts of hormone present dependent upon [carrier protein] -once in the cell they bind with nuclear receptors--> nuclear receptor hormone complex undergoes comformational change and enters nucleus to bind directly to DNA affecting gene transcription

bone composition

-derived from embryonic mesoderm -includes both compact and spongy (cancellous) types: compact bone = provides strength; dense, outermost portion of bone spongy (cancellous) bone = lattice like structure consisting of bony spicules (trabeculae); cavities filled with bone marrow; internal core of bone periosteum--> connective tissue surrounding bones; site of muscle attachment

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

-designed for O2 transport -lack mitochondria, a nucleus, and organelles in order to make room for hemoglobin -common measurements: hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit (% of blood composed of erythrocytes)

neurulation

-development of the nervous system which is derived from the ectoderm -begins after the formation of the 3 germ layers

chyme

-digestion of solid food in the stomach results in this acidic, semifluid mixture -mechanical + chemical digestion in stomach results in increased SA of food particles making absorption of nutrients maximized when chyme enters the small intestines through the pyloric sphincter (enters duodenum)

autosomal cells

-diploid (2n) -2 copies of each chromosome

polarity

-distribution of charge within a molecule as mediated by electrons; driving force behind intermolecular forces and physical/ chemical compounds of various functional groups -polar covalent bonds create permanent dipoles in molecule *have to take molecular geometry into account b/c molecule can have polar bonds but be arranged such that the dipoles cancel each other out--> giving a net dipole = 0 or nonpolar molecule*

viruses

-do not fit the definition of living things because they are acellular; need a host to replicate -lack organelles and nucleus -can only infect a specific set of cells because has to bind to specific receptors on the host cell -viral genomes may be composed of DNA or RNA & may be single or double stranded

DNA-binding domain

-domain of transcription factor that binds to a specific nucleotide sequence in the promotor region or to the DNA response element (a sequence of DNA that binds only to specific transcription factors) to help in the recruitment of transcription machinery

activation domain

-domain of transcription factors -allows for the binding of transcription factors and other important regulatory proteins (such as RNA polymerase and histone acetylases) which function in remodeling of chromatin structure

notochord

-during neurulation -group of overlying ectodermal cells form neural folds surrounding a neural groove -neural folds fuse to form neural tube which becomes central nervous system -tip of neural fold = neural crest cells which become the PNS (sensory ganglia, automatic ganglia, adrenal medulla, and schwann cells) as well as specific cell types in other cells (calcitonin- producing cells of thyroid, melanocytes in the skin, etc.)

chromosome vs. chromatid

-each chromatid composed of complete double stranded DNA molecule -sister chromatids are identical copies of each other -chromosome can either be referring to singe chromatid or sister chromatids connected by centromere

activation of amino acid for protein synthesis

-each type of amino acid is activated by a different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that requires 2 high energy bonds from ATP (implying the attachment of amino is an energy rich bond) -synthetase transfers activated amino acid to the 3' end of the correct 3' end of tRNA *energy rich aminoacyl- tRNA bond used to supply energy to create peptide bond during translation

cleavage

-early divisions of cells in the embryo as zygote moves to uterus for implantation -mitotic divisions result in a larger number of cells as the overall volume does not change; zygote becomes an embryo after 1st cleavage because it is no longer unicellular

motor neurons

-efferent neurons -transmit motor information from the brain and spinal chord to muscles and glands

dentrites

-emanate from the soma -receive incoming messages from other cells -info received from dentrites is transmitted through the cell body before it reaches the axon hillock

retroviruses

-enveloped single- stranded RNA viruses -virion contains 2 identical RNA molecules -carry reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from their single stranded RNA; DNA then integrates into host genome and replicated as if part of host's DNA -only way to cure infection is to kill the cell itself -ex.) HIV

triacylglycerols

-ester derived from 3 fatty acids (R-COOH) and glycerol backbone -esters formed between the -COOH groups of the fatty acids and the -OH groups of the glycerols (can be broken down in saponification)

cell cycle

-eukaryotic cells -4 stages: G1, S, G2, M (also G0)

hydrocarbons

-ex) alkanes, alkenes, alkynes -major intermolecular forces: london dispersion forces -soluble in water? NO -lipophilic? YES *most nonpolar type of compound*

histones

-example of nucleoprotiens (proteins that associate with DNA) organizing proteins in which linear DNA is wound around (further wound into chromosomes) -DNA that makes up a chromosome is wound around a group of these small basic proteins forming chromatin

hyperthyroidism

-excess of thyroid hormone -may result from a tumor or thyroid over stimulation -heightened activity level, increased body temp, increased respiratory and heart rate, heat intolerance, weight loss

Amphiphatic molecules

-exhibit both polar and non polar properties localized to different parts of the molecules -common example: fatty acids ex shown = oleic acid

polymorphism

-existence facilitates disruptive selection -naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population -significant phenotypic variation that can exist within a single species

pancreas

-exocrine and endocrine (secretes insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin; peptide hormones that regulate blood sugar via islets of Langerhans cells) -bulk of organ made of exocrine cells or acinar cells that produce pancreatic juices (bicarbonate- rich containing many digestive enzymes)

spinal chord

-extends down the brainstem -divided into 4 sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral -protected by vertebral column -consists of white (outside the chord) & grey (deep within chord) matter -sensory neurons bring info in from periphery & enter on the dorsal (back) side of the spinal chord -motor neurons exit the spinal chord ventrally (side closest to the front of the body)

scrotum

-external pouch that hangs below the penis -maintains a temp 2 to 4 degrees lower than the body -location of the testes

founder effect

-extreme case of genetic drift -a small population of a species finds itself in a reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, catastrophic events or bottlenecks that drastically and suddenly reduce the size of the population available for breeding -because breeding group is small inbreeding (breeding between 2 genetically related individuals) may occur--> reduction in genetic diversity; increased prevalence of certain traits & diseases; encourages homozygosity (both RR and rr)

sodium leak channels

-facilitates the movement of Na+ INTO the cell -[Na+] inside cell = 12 mM; outside the cell = 145 mM

prostaglandins

-fatty acid defrivative -synthesized from arachidonic acid -20 carbons & a 5 carbon ring -wide range of effects; most notable for regulation of inflammation (whether pro or anti)

4 classes of lipids

-fatty acids and derivative -cholesterol and derivatives (such as steroid hormones) -eicosanoids (including prostaglandins) -terpenes and terpenoids

ova

-female eggs -produced in follicles in the ovaries -each month one egg is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn into the fallopian tube or oviduct

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

-fertilization of two eggs by two different sperm

kidney

-filters the blood to form urine -contains a cortex (outermost layer) & medulla (within cortex) -each kidney has a hilum (deep slit in center of medial surface) which contains a renal artery, renal vein, and ureter -contains portal system with 2 capillary beds

duodenum

-first part of small intestine -primarily involved in chemical digestion (minor involvement in absorption) -presence of chyme in duodenum causes release of brush border enzymes: disaccharidases (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) and peptidases (dipeptidease)

countercurrent multiplier system

-flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle is OPPOSITE to the flow of blood through the vasa recta -if they flowed in the same direction = quickly reach equilibrium and kidney would be unable to reabsorb H2O -flow in opposite direction = filtrate constantly exposed to hypertonic blood allowing maximal reabsorption of H2O

genetic leakage

-flow of genes between species -some cases individuals from different (but closely related) species can mate to produce hybrid offspring -sometimes hybrids can reproduce with member of one of species and sometimes cannot reproduce at all

blastula (blastocyst)

-fluid filled center called a blastocoel and 2 different cell types: trophoblasts (which become placental structures) and the inner cell mass (becomes the developing organism) -embryo--> morula--> blastula

impulse propagation

-for a signal to be conveyed to another neuron the action potential must travel down the axon and initiate a neurotransmitter release -as Na+ rushed into one segment of the axon it will cause depolarization in the surrounding regions of the axon and this depolarization will bring subsequent segments of the axon to threshold opening the Na+ channels in those segments -each of these segments then continues through the rest of the action potential in wavelike fashion until action potential reaches the nerve terminal -the fact that the preceding segment of the axon is in its refractory period means that the AP can only travel in one direction http://www.indiana.edu/~nimsmsf/P215/p215notes/LabManual/Lab6.pdf

hydrostatic pressure (bloodstream)

-force per unit area blood exerts against the vessel walls; pressure of fluid within a blood vessel -pushes fluid out of vessels; dependent on blood pressure driven by heart and elastic arteries -generated by contraction of the heart and elasticity of arteries -pushes fluid out of bloodstream and into the interstitium through capillary walls; out of arteriolar end of capillary bed -larger than osmotic pressure at arteriole end--> (fluid pushing out = hydrostatic pressure) so efflux of water from circulation

blood pressure

-force per unit area that is exerted on the walls of blood vessels by blood; shows effectiveness of circulatory system -divided into systolic and diastolic components -must be high enough to overcome resistance created by arterioles and capillaries but low enough to avoid damaging the vasculature and surrounding structures -ratio of systolic (ventricular contraction) to diastolic (ventricular relaxation) pressures

absorption of lipids in small intestines

-form micelles with aid of bile salts--> absorbed in epithelial cells through diffusion which are then packaged into triglycerides in a way to reduces concentration of freed fatty acids to keep harnessing energy of concentration gradient -triglycerides--> combined in to chylomicrons, move into lacteals entering the lymphatic system -small fatty acids--> diffuse directly to intestinal capillaries (nonpolar) -larger fats, glycerol, cholesterol--> move separately into intersinal cells but then reform triglycerides = packaged into chylomicrons & then enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals (small vessels that form beginning of lymphatic system), lacteals converge forming thoracic duct and empties into left subclavian vein

spermatogenesis

-formation of 4 haploid sperm cells from diploid stem cells (spermatogonia) -occurs in seminiferous tubules

secondary structure of protein

-formed by hydrogen- bonding interactions between the carbonyl and amine components for the amino acid backbone (NOT the side chains) -2 common types: alpha- helices & beta- sheets -alpha- helices: In an α helix, the carbonyl (C=O) of one amino acid is hydrogen bonded to the amino H (N-H) of an amino acid that is four down the chain. (E.g., the carbonyl of amino acid 1 would form a hydrogen bond to the N-H of amino acid 5.) -beta- sheets: In a β pleated sheet, two or more segments of a polypeptide chain line up next to each other, forming a sheet-like structure held together by hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds form between carbonyl and amino groups of backbone, while the R groups extend above and below the plane of the sheet

quaternary structure of protein

-formed by interactions between polypeptide chains *not all proteins have this*

leukocytes (white blood cells)

-formed in bone marrow; crucial part of immune system

nucleotides

-formed when one or more phosphate groups are attached to C-5' of a nucleoside make up nucleic acids -have 3 components: 1. nitrogenous base 2. a 5- carbon sugar 3. phosphate group -building blocks of DNA -joined by 3' to 5' phosphodiester bonds (phosphate group links the 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5' phosphate group of the next incoming sugar on the chain)

centrioles

-found at the centrosome of the cell -organizing centers for the microtubules (structured as 9 triplets of microtubules with a hollow center) -made primarily of tubulin -migrate to different poles during mitosis; microtubules emanate from centrioles attach to chromosomes via complexes called kinetochores

interneurons

-found between other neurons -most numerous of 3 types of neurons -located predominantly in the brain and spinal chord -often linked to reflexive behavior

fetal hemoglobin (HbF)

-found in fetal blood cells -has a greater affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin (primarily HbA) which also assists in the transfer (and retention) of oxygen in the fetal circulatory system

pancreatic lipases

-found in pancreatic juice -capable of breaking down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol produced in pancreas (acinar cells) functions in duodenum, LIPID BREAKDOWN

cell wall

-found in prokaryotes -forms the outer barrier of the cell; provides structure and controls the movement of solutes into and out of the bacterium (allows cell to maintain concentration gradients relative to enviornment) -just outside the cell membrane (composed of phospholipids -cell wall + cell membrane = envelope

yellow bone marrow

-found in spongy bone -composed of primarily fat -relatively inactive

red marrow

-found in spongy bone -filled with hematopoietic stem cells --> responsible for the generation of all the cells in out blood

G- cells

-found in the pyloric gland -secretes gastrin (peptide hormone that increases HCL secretion and gastric mobility or signals the stomach to contract mixing its contents)

antioncogenes

-function to stop tumor suppression -mutations of these genes result in loss of tumor suppressor activity & therefore promote cancer -need inactivation of both alleles to lose function; usually one allele is sufficient enough to inhibit tumor formation

3 functions of the respiratory system

-gas exchange -thermoregulation -immune function -control of pH

gastrulation

-generation of 3 distinct cell layers after the cell mass implants -ectoderm (nerve), mesoderm (bone, dermal, circulatory), endoderm -archenteron (membrane invagination in blastocoel) formed with blastopore at the end; as archenteron grows through blastocoel it contacts opposite side establishing the 3 layers (like pressing on a balloon until hit other side)

conjugation (prokaryotes)

-genetic recombination -bacterial form of mating -conjugation bridge forms between cells from the sex pili (unidirectional from donor male+ to recipient female-) -to form pilus the bacteria must contain plasmids known as sex factors with the necessary genes -plasmid can be transferred from F+ to F- cells, or portion of genome can be transferred from Hfr cell to recipient

transduction (prokaryotes)

-genetic recombination -requires a vector (a virus that carries genetic material from one bacteria to another and cannot replicate outside of a host) -bacteriophage = virus that infects bacteria; can accidentally trap part of host DNA during infection and can release trapped DNA into new host cell

transformation (prokaryotes)

-genetic recombination -results from integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome -usually happens from a nearby cell lysing

Glutamic acid

-glutamate--> --> CB, predominante at physiological pH -Glu; E -negatively charged -acidic

structure of mature sperm

-head = contains genetic material; covered with acrosome (modified golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that help sperm fuse to and penetrate the ovum) -midpiece = generates ATP from fructose & contains many mitochondria -flagellum = promotes motility

process of transcription

-helicase and topoisomerase involved in unwinding DNA & prevent formation of supercoils -RNA polymerase II locates genes by promoter regions (TATA box) with transcription factors helping enzyme to locate/bind to region -does not require a primer and travels along DNA template in 3'-->5' direction which allows for mRNA to be transcribed in the 5'-->3' direction -RNA polymerase does not proofread -will continue along DNA coding region until reaches a stop signal -hnRNA is the primary transcript formed (mRNA is made after posttranslational modifications)

Th1 & Th2 cells

-helper T- cells Th1: secrete interferon gamma which activates macrophages and increases their ability to kill bacteria Th2: activate B- cells primarily in parasitic infections

hyperglycemia

-high blood glucose concentration -low insulin levels

anaphase I

-homologous pair separate and pulled to opposite poles of cell = disjunction

metaphase I

-homologous pairs (tetrads) align at the metaphase plate and each pair attaches to a separate spindle fiber by its kinetochore *DIFFERENCE FROM MITOSIS: homologous chromosomes are lining up across from each other NOT like the chromosomes that are lined up in mitosis which have 2 spindle fibers attached to one chromosome in order to split the sister chromatids

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

-hormone secreted from atrial cells of the heart in response to atrial stretching and an increase in circulating blood volume. ANP has been identified as a diuretic that causes sodium loss and inhibits the thirst mechanism

terpenes

-hydrocarbons composed of repeating isoprene (C5H8) units -example shown: limonene

lipids

-hydrophobic -contribute to energy storage, signaling, and structure

hypophyseal portal system

-hypothalamus secretes compounds here; hormones released from hypothalamus travel directly to anterior pituitary (hormones not found in appreciable concentrations anywhere in systemic circulation) -blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary -once hormones are released travel down pituitary stalk, bind to receptors in the anterior pituitary, stimulate the release of other hormones

hypersensitivity reactions

-immune system misidentifies a foreign antigen as dangerous when in fact it is not (peanuts, pollen, etc.); nonthreatening exposures incite an inflammatory response -some people's immune systems are hypersensitive to these antigens and become overreacted when these antigens are encountered = allergic reaction -allergies & autoimmunity

active immunity

-immunization -activation of B-cells that produce antibodies to an antigen prior to exposure to a particular pathogen -pathogen exposure may be natural or artificial; natural = antibodies generated by b- cells once individual infected VS. artificial = not true infection antigen may be received from injection/ nasal spray to activate B-cells to produce antibodies, antigen may be weakened or killed for or microbe or part of microbe's protein structure

passive immunity

-immunization -transfer of antibodies to an individual -transient b/c only antibodies passed not plasma cells that produce them

ascending Loop of Henle

-impermeable to water & ONLY permeable to salts; makes medulla salty -actively pumps salt OUT of the loop into the medulla (making medulla hypertonic) -ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Na+/K+ pump actively pumps Na+ out of loop and K+ into loop; concentration gradient created that eventually draws Na+ into loop (from the lumen to cells just outside tubule) and K+ out of loop which draws in Cl+ into loop building up its concentration gradient in the loop until it moves down this built up gradient out of the loop

implantation of blastula

-implants in endometrial lining and forms placenta -trophoblasts form chorion which contain chorionic villi & penetrate the endometrium and crease interface between fetal and maternal blood -embryo supported by yolk sac before placenta established (allantois involed in early fluid exchange between embryo and yolk) -amnion--> produced amniotic fluid; lies just inside chorion & surrounds allantois -umbillical chord--> connects developing organism to placenta

Starling forces

-in bloodstream 2 pressure gradients are essential for maintaining a proper balance of fluid volume and solute concentrations between the blood and the interstitium (cells surrounding the blood vessels) or inside and outside the vasculature -opposing but related hydrostatic and osmotic pressures

testes

-in males primitive gonads form this -2 functional components: seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells (of Leydig) -located in the scrotum

maintenance of resting potential membrane

-in order to maintain resting potential there must be a way to move Na+ & K+ against their gradients = Na+/K+ ATPase Na+/K+ ATPase --> continually pumps Na+ & K+ back to where they started to maintain respective gradients

smooth muscle

-in the respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, and digestive systems -appears nonstriated -under involuntary (autonomic) control -is uninucleated -display myogenic acitivity (contraction without neural input)

enteric nervous system

-in the wall of the alimentary canal; govern the function of the gastrointestinal system -controls peristalsis (rhythmic contractions of the gut tube) -actively upregulated by the parasympathetic nervous system and downregulated by the sympathetic nervous system

saponification

-in triacylglycerols, esters formed between the -COOH groups of the fatty acids and the -OH groups of the glycerols can be broken down under basic conditions

plasma glucose

-increased by glucagon, growth hormone, glucocorticoids, and epinephrine -decreased by insulin

divergent evolution

-independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages -2 species sharing a common ancestor became MORE DIFFERENT; homologous structures = similar structure but may or may not have different function

convergent evolution

-independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor -occurs when two species NOT sharing a recent ancestor evolve to become more similar due to analogous selection pressures--> analogous structures = have same function

veins

-inelastic thin walled structures that transport blood to the heart -able to stretch to accommodate large blood volumes but do NOT have recoil ability -compressed by surrounding skeletal muscles and have valves to maintain one- way flow -carry deoxygenated blood TO the heart

prions

-infectious proteins; nonliving -cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins (usually converting a alpha helix to beta pleated sheet) which drastically reduces the solubility and degradability of the protein -very small (subviral) particles that can cause disease under certain circumstances

histamine

-inflammatory mediator -causes inflammation inducing vasodilation and movement of fluid and cells from the bloodstream into the tissues -allows for additional immune cells (macrophages and neutrophils) to move out/leak of bloodstream and into the tissue -released by basophils, eosinophils, and mast cells

negative- pressure breathing

-inhalation -diaphragm contracts--> chest cavity and rib cage expands; interpleural space volume is the first to increase which causes a decrease in IP space pressure -pressure in the lungs is now higher than the interpleural space so the lungs will expand into the IP space to increase its pressure causes the prassure in the lungs to decrease (b/c increasing volume) = air will be sucked in from higher pressure environment to increase the pressure *driving force = lower (relatively negative) pressure in the intrapleural space compared to the lungs*

specification

-initial stage of cell specialization -cell is reversibly designated to a specific cell type

endoderm

-innermost primary germ layer -becomes much of epithelial linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts & parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder, and distal urinary tract

myelin

-insulates nerve fibers to prevent signal loss of crossing of signals; insulation prevents wires next to each other from from accidentially discharging each other -also increases conduction speed in axon -produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS

hypoglycemia

-insulin is in excess -low blood glucose concentration

posterior pituitary & the hypothalamus interaction

-interactions with the posterior pituitary occur via the axons of nerves in the hypothalamus -ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus and then travel down these axons to the posterior pituitary where they are released in the bloodstream -releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) to the bloodstream

synapsis

-intertwining/pairing of homologous chromosomes (2 sister chromatid) in prophase 1 -each synaptic pair contains 4 chromatids and is referred to as tetrad -homologous chromosomes held together by synaptonemal complex

intermediate filaments

-involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the overall integrity of the cytoskeleton -make cell structure more rigid so it is able to withstand a tremendous amount of tension -help anchor organelles -ex: keratin and desmin

DNA methylation

-involved in chromatin remodeling and regulation of gene expression levels in eukaryotic cells -methylation of genes by DNA methylases often lead to silencing of genes--> more heavily methylated heterochromatin region of DNA are the more hindering it is to transcriptional machinery

nucleic acid

-involved in storage and transmission of biological information -made up of nucleotides which are chained together in phosphodiester linkages --> phosphate group forms an ester bond to the 3' of carbon of one sugar molecule and the 5' of another carbon

skeletal muscle

-involved in support and movement, propulsion of blood in the venous system, thermoregulation -appears striated -under voluntary (somatic) control -polynucleated can be divided: red (slow- twitch) fibers = carry out oxidative phosporylation ; white (fast twitch) fibers = rely on anaerobic metabolism

absorption in small intestines

-jejunum & ileum -water soluble compounds (monosaccarides, amino acids, water- soluble vitamins, small fatty acids, water) enter the capillary bed of a villus -capillaries come together to form portal vein (drains to liver)--> H2O soluble compound pass through liver through hepatic portal circulation -fat soluble compounds (fats, cholesterol, and fat- soluble vitamins or ADEK) enter the lacteal (to lymphatic system) of a villus -lacteals come together to form thoracic duct so fat soluble compounds do NOT pass through liver before reaching the heart *BILE SALTS travel here/ mainly function here for fat absorption

fertilization

-joining of sperm and ovum (usually occurs in ampulla of fallopian tube) -sperm uses acrosomal enzymes to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida; once it contacts the oocyte's plasma membrane sperm estabilishes acrosomal apparatus and injects its pronucleus -1st sperm penetrates--> causes release of Ca+ which prevents additional sperm from penetrating & increases metabolic rate creating a diploid zygote (cortical reaction)

prokaryotic cells

-lack membrane bound nucleus and organelles -single circular molecule of DNA in the nucleoid region of cell -single celled organisms -carry out ETC using the cell membrane -have smaller ribosomes than eukaryotic ribosomes

organelles and prokaryotes

-lack mitochondria --> cell membrane used for ETC -have ribosomes structurally different than eukaryotes -contain primitive cytoskeleton -flagella --> work through rotation; move in response to chemical signals (chemotaxis) -lack nucleus but have circular DNA; DNA aquired from external sources may be carried on smaller circular structures (plasmids--> carry DNA that is not necessary for survival but may confer an advantage such as antibiotic resistance)

smooth ER

-lacks ribosomes -utilized primarily for lipid synthesis and breakdown (such as phospholipids for the membrane) -also involved in detoxification of certain drugs and poisons -involved in production of steroid hormones

bacterial growth curve

-lag phase: bacteria adapt to new local conditions -exponential/log phase: growth increases as they adapt and colony number increases exponentially -stationary phase; growth slows as resources are reduced and reproduction slows -death phase: bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support the number of bacteria; resources in environment have been depleted

integumantary system

-largest organ of the body -nonspecific immune defense--> barrier protecting us from the elements and invasion of pathogens -3 major layers: hypodermis (subcutaneous layer), dermis, and epidermis

Mendel's First law

-law of segregation--> disjunction accounts for this -disjunction = each chromosome of paternal origin separates (or disjoins) from its homologue of maternal origin and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell -distribution of homologous chromosomes to the two intermediate daughter cells is random with respect to parental origin (anaphase 1

left side vs. right side of the heart

-left is more muscular than right dies because the systemic circulation has a much higher resistance and pressure

memory B- cells

-lie in wait for second exposure to a pathogen and can then mount a more rapid and vigorous immune response (secondary response)

sphingolipids

-lipid (fatty acid) with a sphingosine backbone -fatty acid bonded to the amine group of sphingosine *terminal group of sphingosine can be further modified resulting in derivatives (glycosphingolipids and sphingomyelins)

plasma

-liquid portion of blood -aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, blood proteins, respiratory gases, hormones -can be further refined via the removal of clotting factors into serum

adrenal gland

-located on top of the kidneys -consists of a cortex (secretes corticosteroids) and a medulla

centrosome

-located outside nucleus -responsible for correct division of the DNA -microtuble organizing center

axon

-long apendage in neuron which action potential travels and terminates in close proximity to a target structure

Fatty acids

-long chains of carboxylic acids -R-COOH

interphase

-longest part of the cell cycle -G1, S, G2 -individual chromosomes are not visible with light microscope because in condensed form (chromatin; most as euchromatin so the DNA can be available for the DNA polymerase)

euchromatin

-looser and appears light under a microscope -transcription machinery can access the genes of interest so genes are active

inbreeding depression

-loss of genetic variation may cause reduced fitness of the population

monocistronic

-mRNA in eukaryotes -each mRNA molecule translates one protein product; have specific mRNA molecule for each of their proteins; alternative splicing allows for multiple proteins from one mRNA molecule (introns AND exons can be removed**) *prokaryotes mRNA is polycistronic = starts translation at different locations in RNA can result in different proteins

microtubules

-made hollow polymers of tubulin proteins -provide primary pathways along which motor proteins like kinesin and dynein carry vessicles; facilitate intracellular transport -make up the cilia and flagella -make up mitotic spindle

peptide hormones

-made up of amino acids (ex. insulin) -derived from larger polypeptides (precursor proteins) that are cleaved during posttranslational modification, then sent to the Golgi for more modifications that activate hormone and direct it to the correct location in the cell -charged and polar--> so cannot pass through a plasma membrane so need an extracellular receptor -effects are usually rapid but short lived b/c act through transient 2nd messengers -water soluable = can travel freely in bloodstream, do not require a special carrier (ex. insulin)

cartilage

-made up of firm, elastic matrix (chondrin) secreted by chondrocytes -usually found in areas that require more flexibility or cushioning -avascular & not innervated FETAL: -fetal skeletons made of mostly cartilage -fetal life--> bone forms from cartilage through endochondral ossification -some bones (especially skull) form directly from undifferentiated tissue (mesenchyme) in intramembraneous ossification

cilia

-made up of microtubules -projections from a cell that are primarily involved in movement of materials along the surface of the cell -relatively small -ex) in respiratory tract and aid in moving mucus

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

-made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord -connects the CNS to the rest of the body -can be subdivided into the somatic and automatic nervous systems

Proteins

-made up of one or more long chains of amino acids -4 levels of structure -major role in signaling -serve as enzymes

microfilaments

-made up of solid polymerized rods of actin -play a role in cytokinesis--> forms the cleavage furrow by interacting with actin -provide structural protection -can cause muscle contraction through interconnections with myosin

filtration function of kidneys

-main site of filteration: glomerulus -renal artery--> afferent arterioles--> glomerulus --as blood passes through, pushes out fluid and small molecules/ions as filtrate (lets the rest of the blood with large molecules (proteins, RBC, WBC, platelets, etc) keep moving through to the efferent arterioles) -fluid is "caught" in the bowman's capsule -STARLING FORCES: hydrostatic pressure ("pushing"; force of fluid on the walls of the capilaries) is greater than the hydrostatic force in Bowman's space so fluid is pushed out of glomerulus VS. oncotic pressure ("pulling" of proteins/ molecules due to pressure differential; molecules cannot leave capillaries b/c too big with creates less water as is leaves via concetration differences (osmosis) so as water leaves pressure of proteins on outside of capillaries becomes larger and draws water in as concentration gradient is reversed) in bowmans capsule is so low b/c not many particles in the space so not much push back -HP(in glomerulus) - HP(in bowmans)- OP(in bowmans) ---> POSITIVE so favors movement OUT of glomerulus *movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at bowman's capsule*

phospholipids

-major component of the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells -glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group (triacylglycerol structure replacing one of the fatty acid chains with a phosphate group)

aldehydes and keytones

-major intermolecular forces: dipole- dipole forces -soluble in water? YES -lipophilic? NO

alcohols

-major intermolecular forces: dipole- dipole forces, hydrogen bonding -soluble in water? YES -lipophilic? NO

carboxylic acids

-major intermolecular forces: dipole- dipole forces, hydrogen bonding -soluble in water? YES -lipophilic? NO

Amines

-major intermolecular forces: dipole- dipole forces, hydrogen bonding (not tertiary amines) -soluble in water? YES -lipophilic? NO

charge compounds

-major intermolecular forces: ionic and ion- dipole interactions -soluble in water? YES -lipophilic? NO *most polar type of compound*

Carbohydrates

-major source of energy -general formula: Cx(H2O)y ; carbon backbone, cabonyl group (C=O), and at least one hydroxyl group (-OH) -terminal carbonyl group: aldose; non- terminal carbonyl group; keytose -exist in linear or ring forms & can bond with each other to form chains

actin

-make up microfilaments -resist compression and fracture, providing protection for the cell -organized in bundles and networks -can use ATP to generate force for movement by interaction with myosin (muscle contraction)

riboenzymes

-many rRNA function this way -enzymes made of RNA molecules instead of peptides

oral cavity

-mastication (chewing) --> starts mechanical digestion of food -salivary amylase & lipase --> start chemical digestion of food -food formed into bolus and swallowed

osteocytes

-mature bone cells -reside in lacunae--> small spaces between lamellae in osteons

vital capacity (VC)

-measured by spirometer -difference between the min and max volume of air in the lungs (TLC - RV)

residual volume (RV)

-measured by spirometer -min volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely

total lung capacity (TLC)

-measured by spirometer -the max volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely -usually around 6 to 7 liters

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

-measured by spirometer -volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

tidal volume (TV)

-measured by spirometer -volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

eukaryotic cells

-membrane bound nucleus and organelles -mitotic division -may form multicellular organisms

dermis

-middle layer of the skin; contains sweat glands & hair follicles -composed of 2 layers: papillary and reticular layer -many sensory receptors located in the dermis: -Merkel cells: deep pressure and texture -free nerve endings -Meissner's corpuscles: light touch -Ruffini endings: stretch -Pacinian corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration

mesoderm

-middle primary germ layer -becomes much of the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and excretory systems -gives rise to gonads and muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems as well as adrenal cortex

amino acid derivative hormones

-modified amino acids -ex.) epinephrine & norepinephrine (water souble), triiodothyronine, and thyroxine (lipid soluble behave like steroid hormones) -hormones derived from 1 or 2 amino acids usually with a few modifications -chemistry similar to peptide hormones and some features with steroid hormones; different amino acid- derivative hormones share different features with these other hormone classes

cyclins and cyclin- dependent kinases (CDK)

-molecules responsible for cell cycle; rise and fall during cell cycle -CDK requires presence of right cyclins to be activated; curing cell cycle certain concentrations of cyclins increase/ decrease during specific stages -cyclins bind to CDK to create activated CDK complex which complex can then phosphorylate transcription factors for next stage of cell cycle

sex- linked crosses

-more common in males because they only have one X-chromosome so having only one recessive allele is sufficient for expression of that phenotype -because an egg necessarily carries an X chromosome it is the sperm that determines the sex of the child; follows that males with a sex linked trait will have daughters who are either all carriers of the trait or who express the trait (depends on the x chromosome from the mother) & male can never pass sex linked trait to his son

codominance

-more than one dominant allele exists for a given gene -ex.) blood types; AB, etc.

gastric glands

-mucosa of stomach contains this -respond to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system which is activated by the brain in response to sight, smell, and taste of food -have 3 different cell types: mucous, chief and parietal

nerve

-multiple neurons bundled together in PNS - nerves may be sensory, motor or mixed (refers to type of info they carry)

oncogenes

-mutated genes that cause cancer -primarily encode cell cycle- related proteins

modern synthesis theory

-neo-Darwinism--> added genetic inheritance and changes in gene pool to Darwin theory *populations evolve NOT individuals because it is the gene pool that is changing overtime -accounts for mutation and recombination as mechanisms of variation and considers differential reproductions to be the mechanism of reproductive success

secretion function of kidneys

-nephron secretes salt, acids, bases, and urea directly to tubule (either active or passive transport) -quantity/ identity of substance secreted are directly related to body's needs at the time -also a way for excreting wastes too large to pass through glomerulus pores *movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides bowmans capsule*

resting membrane potential

-net electric potential difference that exists across the cell membrane created by the selective permeability of ions across that membrane & the Na+/K+ ATPase -for neurons potential ~ -70 mV with the inside of neuron being negative relative to the outside -Na+ moving INTO cell at the same time K+ moves OUT of cell ("tug of war"); balance/ net effect of both Na+ & K+ equilibrium potentials

reflex arcs

-neural circuits that control reflexive behavior -2 types: monosynaptic and polysynaptic -use the ability of interneurons in the spinal chord to relay information to the source of the stimulus which simultaneously routing it to the brain -ex.) step on a nail, sensory neurons send pain signal up spinal cord, connect with interneurons which relay pain impulses up to brain--> instead of waiting for brain to send out signal interneurons in spinal cord send signal directly to muscle of leg to withdraw foot; original sensory info still makes it brain but by the the time it gets there muscles have responded to pain b/c of reflex arc!!

Chemoreceptors (ventilation)

-neurons in ventilation center contain these -respond to carbon dioxide concentrations, increasing the respiratory rate when there are high concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercarbia or hypercapnia--> as partial pressure of CO2 = chemoreceptors will cause respiratory rate to rise)

neurotransmitters & enzymatic reactions

-neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft because constant signaling is not desirable -can be broken down by an enzyme -ex.) breakdown of acetylcholine (ACh) by acetylcholinesterase

reuptake carriers

-neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft because constant signaling is not desirable -can be brought back into the presynaptic neuron by reuptake carriers -ex.) reuptake of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine all use reuptake carriers; an autoreceptor will signal the presynaptic cell to stop releasing seratonin and start the reuptake process

telophase 1

-nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus -each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere -cells are now haploid (n=23) -cells divide into new daughter cells by cytokinesis; between cell divisions may be a short rest period called interkinesis during which chromosomes partially uncoil

inversion mutations

-occur when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome

frameshift mutations

-occur when nucleotides are inserted or deleted from the genome -because mRNA is transcribed from DNA is always read in 3- letter sequences (codons) insertion or deletion of nucleotides can shift the reading frame if number of nucleotides added or deleted is not a multiple of 3--> can change amino acid sequence or premature truncation of protein

crossing over

-occurs between tetrads formed from synapsis -points of crossing over = chiasma -chromatids of homologous chromosomes may break at point of contact called the chiasma and exchange equivalent pieces of DNA -can be characterized by number of crossover events that occur in one strand of DNA -*occur between HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES NOT between sister chromatids of the same chromosome -chromatids are left with altered but structurally complete set of genes

menopause

-occurs when ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone -usually between the ages of 45 and 55 -menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise -physical and physiological changes accompanying menopause include flushing, hot flashes, bloating, headaches, and irritability

sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system

-often act in opposition to each other (antagonistic)

single stranded DNA binding proteins

-once opened unpaired DNA strands are very sticky (free purines/pyrimidines seek out other molecules to hydrogen bond) -these are proteins that are required to hold these strands apart -will bind to the unraveled strand preventing both the reassociation of the DNA strands and the degradation of the DNA by nucleases

oogenesis

-one haploid ovum and a variable number of polar bodies are formed from an oogonium 1. at birth all oogonia have already undergone replication and are considered primary oocytes (arrested in prophase 1; 2n); no unending supply 2. ovulated egg each month is a secondary oocyte (arrested in metaphase II; haploid) 3. if the oocyte is fertilized, it will complete meiosis II becoming a true oovum 4. uneven cytokinesis producing a cell containing very little cytoplasm and organelles (polar body)

pyrimidines

-one- ring structures -C, T, and U

selective transcription

-only the genes needed for a particular cell type are transcribed - allows for cells w/ same genes to develop into different cell types w/ highly specialized functions

voltage- gated sodium channels

-open in response to changes in membrane potential -closed: before the cell reaches threshold and after inactivation has been reversed -open: from threshold until about +35 mV -inactive: from about +35 mV to the resting potential

Jacob- Monod Model

-operons contain structural genes, an operator site, a promotor site & a regulator gene *more upstream as you go down the list* -structural gene = codes for the protein of interest -operator site = a nontranscribable region of DNA that is capable of binding a repressor protein -promotor site = provides a place for RNA polymerase to bind -regulator gene = codes for protein known as repressor

placenta

-organ where nutrient, gas and waste exchanges occur -no actual mixing of fetal and maternal blood -placenta uses proximity of the embryonic and maternal bloodstreams facilitating diffusion between them -O2 and CO2 exchanged passively through concentration gradients -placenta barrier serves as immune protection from many pathogens and antibodies are transferred from mother to child -serves endocrine functions secreting estrogen, progesterone, and hCG

pulmonary arteries

-originates from the right ventricle of the heart -deoxygenated blood with a high carbon dioxide concentration is brought to the lungs via these

electrical conduction of the heart

-originates in an electrical impulse generated by and traveling through a pathway formed by 4 electrically excitable structures -starts as the sinoatrial (SA) node (upper right of heart) and goes to the atrioventricular node (AV) (middle of heart); from the AV node electrical conduction goes to the bundle of His before traveling through the Purkinje fibers (down middle and branches to both sides at bottom of heart) -depolarization wave spreads from SA node (60-100 signals/ min) causes both atria to contract simultaneously... *allows for cardiac muscle to contract without any neurological input -sympathetic = speed up heart rate and contractility parasympathetic = slows heart rate

epidermis

-outer layer of skin -composed of 5 layers (strata): stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

ectoderm

-outermost primary germ layer -becomes epidermis, hair, nails, and epithelia of nose, mouth and anal canal as well as nervous system (including adrenal medulla) and lens of the eye

pulmonary veins

-oxygenated blood with a low CO2 concentration leaves the lungs via these

tumor suppressor genes

-p53 or Rb (retinoblastoma!!) -encode proteins that inhibit the cell cycle or participate in the DNA repair process -function to stop tumor progression or called antioncogenes -mutated tumor suppressors can no longer slow the cell cycle

proofreading

-part of DNA polymerase -when complementary strands have incorrect paired bases the hydrogen bonds between them are unstable and is detected when passed through polymerase -incorrect base is excised & can be replaced with correct one

long bones

-particularly found in the appendicular skeleton -characterized by long cylindrical shafts or diaphyses, that flare at ends to form metaphyses and that terminate in rounded head or epiphyses

first messenger

-peptide hormone that binds to extracellular receptors and triggers the transmission of a second signal (second messenger)

thymosin

-peptide hormone that promotes T- cell development -secreted by thymic cells

Granulocytes

-play a role in nonspecific immunity -neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils -contain granules which contain a variety of compounds toxic to invading microbes and are released through exocytosis

lung membranes

-pleura forms a closed sack from which the lung expands (partially deflated balloon and press your fist into it) -lungs do not fill passively and require skeletal muscle to generate negative pressure for expansion -interpleural space--> contains thin layer of fluid to lubricate two pleura layers

non- conservative missense mutations

-point mutation -occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid with dissimilar functional properties to the amino acid coded for by the original codon -(all things equal) this type of mutation could be expected to have a significant impact on the functionality of the protein

conservative missense mutations

-point mutation -when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid that has similar functional properties (polarity, size) as the amino acid coded by the original codon

nucleotide mutations

-point mutations--> substituting of one nucleotide for another; can result in: silent mutations = no effect on protein product; most commonly occurs when changed nucleotide is transcribed to be the third nucleotide in codon b/c degeneracy (wobble) in genetic code missense mutations = substitution of one amino acid for another nonsense mutations = substitution of a stop codon for an amino acid -frameshift mutations--> moving the 3- letter transcriptional reading frame (mRNA always transcribed as 3 letter codon sequence) which leads to changes for all downstream amino acids; can be categorized as insertion or deletion

chiasma

-point of crossing over of two genes -the farther apart 2 genes are the most likely it is that there will be a chiasma between them

polarity in terms of solubility

-polar molecule dissolve in polar solvents (usually aqueous in physiological environments) ---> water- soluable, hydrophilic, lipophobic -nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents (usually lipids in physiological environments) -->nonpolar, non- water- soluable, hydrophobic, lipophilic

3' Poly-A Tail

-polyadenosyl tail (adenine bases) added to the 3' end of mRNA transcript protects the message against rapid degradation

G2 stage

-postsynthetic gap -cell has 2x's amount of DNA than when cell was in G1 phase -cell passes another quality control checkpoint -cell checks to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to divide between 2 daughter cells & to make sure DNA has been replicated correctly to avoid passing error on

G1 stage

-presynthetic gap -cells create organelles for energy and protein production -also increase the cell's size -restriction point which DNA is checked for quality

jejunum and ileum of small intestine

-primarily involved in absorption in the small intestine -small intestines lined with villi (covered in microvilli) increasing SA for absorption; villi contain capillary bed (absorption of H2O soluble nutrients) and a lacteal (vessel of lymphatic system; takes up fats for transport to lymphatic system) *duodenum --> primarily involved in chemical digestion

oocytes

-primary and secondary depending on stage -surrounded by zona pellucida (an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain compounds necessary for sperm binding) and outside of the zona pellucida corona radiata (layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

posttranslational processing

-protein folding facilitated by chaperone proteins -cleavage events (cleavage of inactive peptide or signal sequence to achieve protein active form) -proteins with quaternary structures will have subunits come together -phosphorylation = phosphate group added to activate or deactivate proteins -carboxylation = carboxylic acid groups added usually serving as calcium binding sites -glycosylation = oligosaccharide added as proteins pass through ER & Golgi to determine cellular destination -prenylation = addition of lipid groups to certain membrane bound enzymes

Gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH)

-prior to puberty the hypothalamus restricts GnRH, but during puberty from hypothalamus triggering the anterior pituitary gland to synthesize and release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (functions of hormones depend on the sex

bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland

-produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal

ovaries

-produce ova in the follicles (multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, and protect immature eggs or ova) -located in the pelvic cavity -produce estrogen and progesterone

calcitonin

-produced by C- cells or parafollicular cells in the thyroid -DECREASES plasma calcium levels in 3 ways: 1. promoting/ increased calcium excretion from kidneys 2. decreased calcium absorption from the gut 3. promoting/ increased storage of calcium in the bone -high levels of calcium stimulate secretion of calcitonin from C- cells; "calciTONin TONES down calcium levels in blood"

testosterone

-produced by interstitial cells in testes triggered by LH; increased dramatically during puberty -responsible for the maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics (facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice, and changes in growth patterns) -hormone exerts negative feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary so that production is limited to appropriate levels

bile

-produced in liver and travels down to bile ducts where it can be stored in gal bladder or secreted into duodenum (bile salts work in ileum) -major components: bile salts (emulsify fats; works in the ileum), pigments (especially bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin) and cholesterol

apoptosis

-programmed cell death -cell divides into many apoptotic belbs that can subsequently be absorbed and digested by other cells -occurs as various times of development -can be used for sculpting certain anatomical structures such as removing the webbing between digits and digestive tract (anus)

cholesterol and cell membrane affect

-promotes fluidity of the cell membrane -low temps--> phospholipids still cluster but cholesterol inserts itself between some of them; this allows distance between phospholipids to INCREASE allowing for more room to move so INCREASE fluidity -high temps--> phospholipids far apart but cholesterol inserts between some of them; this DECREASES the distance between phospholipids which means they have less room to "move" so DECREASE fluidity **allows cell membrane to maintain/ remain at a relatively stable level of fluidity as temps fluctuate

vertebral column

-protects the spinal chord -transmits nerves at the space between adjacent vertebrae

capsid

-protein coat surrounding a virus -if lipid envelope is present, will surround capsid; sensitive to heat, detergents and thus enveloped viruses are easier to kill

nuclear pores

-protein complexes that cross nuclear membrane and allow selective transport of larger molecules (bigger than ions or fluids) to cross nuclear membrane from cytosol to nucleus

hemoglobin

-protein composed of 4 cooperative subunits (each has a heme group) which carries oxygen in the blood -binding of O2 to heme group's central iron causes change in oxidation state of iron (oxidation reduction reaction)

histone deacetylases

-proteins that function to remove acetyl groups from histones which results in a closed chromatin conformation and overall decrease in gene expression levels in the cell -this chromatin remodeling can lead to gene silencing

cytoskeleton

-provides structure to the cell and helps it to maintain its shape (stability and rigidity) -provides conduit for the transport of materials around the cell -3 major components: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments

semilunar valves

-pulmonary on the right (between right ventricle and pulmonary artery) - aortic on the left (between left ventricle and the aorta) DISTOLE: SL closed = blood fills ventricles

guanine

-purine -pairs with cytosine

cytosine

-pyrimidine -pairs with Guanine

thymine

-pyrimidine -pairs with adenine

uracil

-pyrimidine -pairs with adenine

distal convoluted tubule

-reabsorption -responds to aldosterone = promotes Na+ reabsorption which H2O will follow (concentrating urine & decreasing volume) -also site of waste secretion like PCT -increase Ca+ reabsorption in response to PTH

centromeres

-region of DNA found in the center of chromosomes -high GC-content helps sister chromatids remain connected

excretory system

-regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid- base balance, and removal of nitrogenous wastes *kidneys play essential role in these functions* -gets rid of water soluble wastes VS. digestive system (feces) gets rid of non- water soluble wastes

thermoregulation

-regulation of body temp -large surface area of interaction between the alveolis and capillaries allows respiratory system to assist in the regulation of body temperature by vasodilation and vasocontriction of capillary beds

insulin

-released by the pancreas (beta cells) -antagonistic to glucagon = secreted when blood glucose levels are HIGH -induces muscle and liver cells to take up glucose and store it as glycogen for later use -also stimulates anabolic processes such as fat and protein synthesis since glucose levels high

pineal gland

-releases melatonin which helps regulate circadian rhythms

gene duplication

-relevant genes can be duplicated in series on the same chromosome yielding many copies in a row of the same genetic information -can also be duplicated in parallel by opening the gene with helicases and permitting DNA replication only of that gene

RNase H

-removes RNA primers in eukaryotes

purpose of nose and mouth in breathing

-removing dirt and particulate matter from the air before it reaches the lungs -warming and humidifying the air before it reaches the lungs

Structure of sarcomere

-repeating units of actin and myosin Z- line = boundaries of each sarcomere; "end letter of alphabet" I - line = contains only thin filaments (actin); "I is a thin letter" M - line = located in middle of sarcomere H - zone = contains only thick filaments (myosin); "H is a thick letter" A- band = contains the thick filaments in their entirety; only part of the sarcomere that maintains a constant size during contraction; "All of the thick"

gene mapping

-represents the relative distance between genes on a chromosome by analyzing relative frequencies; can be made using recombination frequencies as the scale -1 map unit = 1% chance of recombination occurring between the 2 genes

tropic hormones

-require an intermediary to act -have major effects on other endocrine tissues -target cells to release other hormones

missense mutation

-type of point mutation; expressed mutation -occur when change in nucleotide results in substituting one amino acid for another in the final protein

enhancers

-response elements outside the normal promotor regions can be recognized by specific transcription factors to enhance transcription levels; several response elements grouped together = ENHANCER -allows for the control of one's gene expression by multiple signals -can be far from the gene they regulate

transfer RNA (tRNA)

-responsible for converting the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids and peptides -contains a folded strand of RNA that includes a 3 nucleotide anticodon; anticodon recognizes and pairs with appropriate codon on an mRNA molecule while in the ribosome

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

-resulting zygote produced from fertilization will develop into a blastocyst that will implant into the uterine lining and secrete hCG -analog of LH meaning it is very similar chemically and can stimulate LH receptors which maintains the corpus luteum

salivary amylase and lipase

-salivary amylase = capable of hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars (maltose and dextrins) *carb digestion initiated in the mouth but completed in small intestine by pancreatic amylase* -lipase = capable of hydrolysis of lipids -produced in salivary glands, functions in mouth, CARB BREAKDOWN

second messenger

-second signal that is triggered by the first messenger

interstitial cells of Leydig

-secret testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens) -functional component of the testes

progesterone

-secreted by corpus luteum (remnant follicle that remains after ovulation) in response to LH -involved in development and maintenance of the endometrium (but not the initial thickening that is estrogen driven)

enteropeptidase

-secreted by duodenum -activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases initiating an activation cascade produced in intestinal glands, function in duodenum, PROTEIN BREAKDOWN

secretin

-secreted by the duodenum -stimulates the release of pancreatic juices into the digestive tract and slows motility (allows for increased time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme) -regulates pH of stomach by reducing HCl secretion from parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from pancreas

glucagon

-secreted by the pancreas during times of fasting (alpha cells) -glucose low--> secretion of glucagon stimulates degradation of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and production of new glucose via gluconeogenesis -when blood glucose levels high --> glucagon release is inhibited *glucoGON levels high when glucose is GONE*

oxytocin

-secreted by the posterior pituitary; produced in hypothalamus -secreted during childbirth -hormone that promotes uterine contractions during labor as well as milk ejection during lactation (may be involved in bonding) -unusual: has a POSITIVE feedback loop --> release of oxytocin promotes uterine contraction with promotes more oxytocin release which promotes stronger uterine contractions; has a definitive ending (childbirth)

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

-secreted by the posterior pituitary; produced in the hypothalamus -increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the nephron in the kidneys, which increases the blood volume and decreases blood osmolarity -secreted in response to low blood volume (low blood pressure) or increased plasma osmolarity (increased concentrations of solutes within the blood)

synovial fluid

-secreted from a layer of soft tissue (synovium) -lubricates the movement of structures in the joint

estrogen

-secreted in response to FSH -result in development and maintenance of female reproductive system and the female secondary characteristics (boobs, wide hips, changes in fat distribution) -involved in the initial thickening of the lining of the uterus (endometrium) each month in preparation for the implantation of a zygote -serves as both negative and positive feedback to GnRH, LH and FSH (depending on threshold--> very high concentration = positive; normal levels = negative)

ADH (antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin)

-secreted in response to low blood volume (sensed by baroreceptors) or increased blood osmolarity (as sensed by osmoreceptors) -action at level of the collecting duct where it increases permeability of the duct to water = net effect is a greater reabsorption of water from the filtrate in the nephron and results in a greater retention of water which results in increased blood volume and higher blood pressure

pyloric gland

-secretory cell that lines the stomach; gastric gland -contain G- cells that secrete gastrin (a peptide hormone)

mucous cells

-secretory cell that lines the stomach; gastric gland -produce bicarbonate- rich mucous to protect the muscular wall of stomach from harsh acidic environment

parietal cells

-secretory cell that lines the stomach; gastric gland -secrete hydrochloric acid (H+ ions) & intrinsic factor which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption

chief cells

-secretory cell that lines the stomach; gastric gland -secrete pepsinogen (protease activated by acidic environment of the stomach; cleaved to pepsin in the stomach which is activated by acidic environments and cleaves peptide bonds )

autoimmune disorders

-self- antigen (proteins & carbs present on surface of every body cell) is recognized as foreign -immune system attacks normal cells

spinal chord structure

-sensory neurons transmit info about pain, temp, and vibration up to the brain and have cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia toward the back of the spinal chord -motor neurons run from the brain along the opposite side of the spinal cord and in the ventral root to control movements of skeletal muscle and glandular secretions

cell membrane

-separates cell from extracellular environment and mediating communication of the cell with surroundings -composed of phospholipid bilayer (hydrophobic tails face in; hydrophilic heads face towards aqueous environments) -very small and nonpolar molecules can diffuse easily through membrane and large polar molecules must be transported

cytokinesis

-separation of cytoplasm and organelles so each daughter has sufficient supplies to survive on their own

primary structure of protein

-sequence of amino acids itself

oligopeptides

-sequences of relatively few amino acids - generally 2- 20 amino acids

Endoplasmic Reticulum

-series of interconnected membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope -contains a double membrane folded with many invaginations -divided into the rough and smooth ER

outer membrane of mitochondria

-serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner enviornment of the mitochondrion

replisome (replication complex)

-set of specialized proteins that assist the DNA polymerases

binary fisson

-simple form of asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotes -circular chromosome attaches to the cell wall and replicates wile cell continues to grow in size; eventually plasma membrane and cell wall begin to grow inward along midline of cell to produce 2 daughter cells -proceeds very rapidly

superinfection

-simultaneous infection -infection with one strain of phage generally makes the bacterium less susceptible to this -may be a possible benefit of bacterium having bacteriophages integrated in to lysogenic cycle

archea

-single celled organisms that are visually similar to bacteria but contain genes and several metabolic pathways that are more similar to eukaryotes than bacteria -extremophiles = most commonly isolated in harsh/ extreme enviornments; often use alternative sources of energy (chemosynthesis) -circular DNA molecule (binary fission replication), no nuclei, no membrane bound organelles

positive sense

-single stranded RNA viruses -genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by the ribosomes of the host cell (just like mRNA)

negative sense

-single stranded RNA viruses -require synthesis of an RNA strand complementary to the negative- sense RNA strand which can then be used as a template for protein synthesis -must carry an RNA replicase in virion to ensure complementary strand gets synthesized

monosynaptic reflex arc

-single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it -ex.) knee- jerk reflex-->when patellar tendon stretch info travels up sensory (afferent, presynaptic) neuron to spinal cord where interfaces with motor (efferent, postsynaptic) neuron that contracts the quad muscle = extension of leg to lessen tension -simple a feedback look and response to potential injury; reflex serves to protect muscles in example -the sensory (afferent, presynaptic) neuron fires directly onto the motor (efferent, postsynaptic) neuron

Mitochondrion

-site of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation; provide cell energy -semiautonomous: contain their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus vis binary fission -also capable of killing cell (apoptosis) by releasing enzymes from the ETC

equilibrium potential of sodium

-slow leak of Na+ into the cell causes a buildup of electrical potential ~ 60 mV (positive because Na+ moving INTO cell) *Na+ wants to go into the cell because the cell is more negative (electrical gradient) and has a lower concentration of Na+ insides (chemical gradient)*

heterochromatin

-small % of chromatin that remains compacted during interphase -appears dark under light microscopy -transcriptionally silent -methylated cytosine and guanine nucleotides--> decreases transcription

nodes of Ranvier

-small breaks in the myelin sheath at certain intervals along the axon with exposed areas of axon membrane -critical for rapid signal conduction; permit saltatory conduction (propagation of action potentials along the axon)

plasmids

-small circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the bacterial chromosome -contain genes that impart some benefit on the bacteria -can also carry antibiotic resistance virulence factors (traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is) -subset = episomes which are capable of integrating into the bacterium genome

viroids

-small plant pathogens consisting of a very short circular single stranded RNA that can turn off genes -binds to large # of RNA sequences that will silence genes which prevents synthesis of necessary proteins and can cause metabolic & structural derangements & potentially cell death

telomere

-solution to DNA replication not being able to extend all the way to the end of the chromosome which will result in losing sequences/ into in each round of replication -simple repeating unit (TTAGGG) at end of DNA -some of sequence is lost in each round of replication and can be replaced by the enzyme telomerase -high GC- content creates strong attraction to prevent chromosome from unraveling

reabsorption function of kidneys

-some compounds can be taken back up after they are filtered or secreted -certain substances almost always reabsorbed: glucose, amino acids, vitamins -hormones can alter amount of water reabsorbed to maintain blood pressure: ADH(vasopressin) or aldosterone *movement of solutes from filtrate to blood*

types of stimulus processing

-some stimuli happen at spinal chord level (ex. reflexes --> hit knee, sensory info goes to spinal chord, motor signal sent to quad causing jerk) -some stimuli require input from the brainstem of cerebral cortex

inner membrane space

-space between the inner and outer membrane of the mitochondria -protons pumped from the mitochondrial matrix TO the inner membrane space

mitochondrial matrix

-space inside the inner membrane -protons pumped FROM the matrix TO the inner membrane space, creating a proton- motive force (gradient)

neurons

-specialized cells capable of transmitting electrical impulses and then translating them into chemical signals -not physically connected to each other -communicate via electrical & chemical signals: electric: ion exchange and generation of membrane potentials down length of axon chemical: neurotransmitter release from presynaptic cell and binding of these neurotransmitters to the post synaptic cell

baroreceptors

-specialized neurons that detect changes in the mechanical forces on the wall of the vessel -regulate BP -When blood pressure it too low, baroreceptors stimulate Sympathetic Nervous System causing vasoconstriction which increases BP -blood pressure too high, neurologically sympathetic impulses could decrease permitting the relaxation of vasculature (drop in pressure)

ejaculation

-sperm travel through vas deferens into the ejaculatory duct at posterior edge of prostate gland then to the urethra and out through the penis

telophase

-spindle apparatus disappears -nucleus membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes -nucleoi reappear -chromosomes uncoil to chromatin form -2 new nuclei have a complete copy of the genome identical to the original genome and each other

identical (monozygotic) twins

-splitting of a zygote into two -can be classified by the placental structures they share (mono- vs. diamniotic, mono- vs. dichorionic)

golgi apparatus

-stacked membrane bound sacs -materials from the ER are transferred here in vesicles; golgi may modify products by addition of various groups or through signal sequences (direct delivery of product to specific cell location) -then modified products are sorted and transferred to the correct cellular location -can be a secretory vesicle which merges with cell membrane and contents released (exocytosis)

glucocorticoids

-steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels -increase blood glucose concentrations, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit the immune system, and participate in the stress response -release stimulated by ACTH--> CRF from the hypothalamus promotes release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary which promotes the release of glucocortinoids from the adrenal cortex -2 most tested: cortisol and cortisone

gallbladder

-stores and concentrates bile -release of CCK--> gallbladder contracts and pushes bile eventually emptying into duodenum

bladder

-stores urine -muscular lining (detrusor muscle) will contract under parasympathetic control -bladder is full = stretch receptors convey to nervous system; fires parasympathetic neurons to fire

lagging strand

-strand that is copied in a direction opposite the direction of the replication fork -polarity is 5' to 3' and DNA polymerase reads 3' to 5' --> SO Okazaki fragments are produced

rough ER

-studded with ribosomes which permit the translation of proteins destined for secretion directly into its lumen

inborn errors of metabolism

-subclass of deleterious mutations -defects in genes required for metabolism -children with these mutations require early intervention to prevent permanent damage from buildup of metabolites in pathways

autonomic nervous system

-subdivision of PNS (automatic); 2 subdivisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system -regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, & glandular secretions -manages involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands; helps regulate body temp *functions AND regulates are AUTOMATIC or independent of conscious control*

somatic nervous system

-subdivision of PNS (voluntary) -consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles -sensory neurons --> transmit info along AFFERENT fibers; motor neurons --> transmit info along EFFERENT fibers

nucleolus

-subsection of nucleus -where rRNA is synthesized -darker spot on nucleus

tertogens

-substances that can interfere with development causing defects or even death of developing embryo -include alcohol, certain prescription drugs, viruses, bacteria, and environmental chemicals

glial cells (neuroglia)

-support neurons -play both structural and supportive roles -other cells in the nervous system

connective tissue

-supports the body and provides the framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their functions -main contributors to the stroma or support structure -holding the body & its organs together -most cells in these tissues produce and secrete materials (such as collagen and elastin) to for the extracellular matrix

Somatostatin

-suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin -secreted by the pancreas (delta cells) when blood glucose and amino acid concentrations are high

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

-synthesized in nucleolus and functions as an integral part of the ribosomal machinery used during protein assembly in the cytoplasm -helps catalyze the formation of peptide bonds -important in splicing out its own introns within nucleus

anterior pituitary

-synthesizes and secretes seven different products FLAT (tropic hormones) PEG (direct hormones) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Prolactin Endorphins Growth hormones (GH)

meiosis 1

-takes place in gametocytes or germ cells (diploid cells found in gonads) to from 4 sex cells or gametes (haploid produced in gonad) -genetic diversity -REDUCTIONAL DIVISION: chromosome number is halved to 23 chromosomes instead of 46 (ploidy changes) ; daughter cells have haploid number of chromosomes (23=n)

effector

-term for the postsynaptic cell if a neuron signals a gland or muscle rather than another neuron

3 binding sites in ribosome for tRNA

-the A site (aminoacyl) -the P site (peptidyl) -the E site (exit)

recombination frequencies

-the likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over -roughly proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome -tightly linked genes have recombination frequencies close to 0% and weakly linked genes are approaching 50% (expected from independent assortment)

parallel evolution

-the process whereby related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental selection pressures -2 species sharing a common ancestor evolve in similar ways due to analogous selection pressure

simple twitch

-the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus -consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period -latent period = time between reach threshold & onset of contraction; during this time that action potential spread along the muscle and allows for Ca+ to be released from SR -relaxation period = acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine in neuromuscular junction

leading strand

-the strand in the replication fork that is copied in a continuous fashion in the same direction as the advancing replication fork -this parental strand will be read 3' to 5' and its compliment will be synthesized from 5' to 3'

base excision repair

-thermal energy can cause cytosine deamination (loss of amino group)& converts cytosine to uracil 1. effected base recognized & removed by glycosylase enzyme leaving behind an apurinic/ apyrimidinic (AP) site 2. AP site is recognized by AP endonuclease that removes damaged sequence from the DNA 3. DNA polymerase and DNA ligase can then fill in gap and seal the strand

inner membrane of mitochondrion

-thrown into numerous folds (cristae) in order to increase surface area for the ETC -contains the molecules and enzyme necessary for the ETC

thyroid hormones

-thyroxine and triiodothyronine -slower onset but longer duration(like steroid hormones but actually considered amino- acid derivative hormones) -bind intracellularly

isolation

-took two populations of same species and separated them geographically for a long period of time different evolutionary pressures would lead to different adaptive changes--> when enough time passes changes would be sufficient to lead to isolation -progeny of these populations could no longer freely interbreed -can occur either prezygotically or postzygotically

histone acetylases

-transcription factors that bind to the DNA can recruit these other coactivators -these proteins are involved in chromatin remodeling because they acetylate lysine residues found in the amino acid terminal tail regions of the histone proteins

inner vs outer medulla

-transitioning from inner to outer medulla = diluting segment is "thicker" meaning cells contain large amounts of mitochondria to absorb high concentration of salts -H2O however is stuck in the nephron making the filtrate hypotonic compared to the interstitium--> only portion of the nephron that can produce urine more dilute than blood; provides a mechanism for eliminating excess water during periods of over-hydration

potassium leak channels

-transmembrane channel that facilitates the outward movement of potassium -allows for the slow leak of K+ OUT of the cell

endosomes

-transport, package and sort cell material -capable of transporting materials to the trans- golgi, cell membrane, or the lysosomal pathway for degradation

atrioventricular valves

-tricuspid on the right (between right atrium on top and right ventricle) -mitral on the left (between left atrium on top and left ventricle) SYSTOLE: ventricular contraction = AV valves closed

homologues

-two copies of each chromosome so each person will inherit two alleles for all genes (except for male sex chromosomes) -contain same set of genes

purines

-two- ring structures -A and G

silent mutations

-type of point mutation -when the change in nucleotide has no effect on the final protein synthesized from the gene -codes for the same amino acid as the original codon -commonly occurs when the changed nucleotide is transcribed to be the third nucleotide in a codon because there is a degeneracy (wobble) in the genetic code

splicing

-type of posttrancriptional process -REMOVE noncoding sequences (introns) and ligates coding sequences (exons) together -accomplished by spliceosomes; small nuclear RNA (snRNA) + small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP) couple together in spliceosome -snRNA/snSNP recognize 5' and 3' splice sites of intron; noncoding sequences are sliced out and degraded in nucleus

diabetes mellitus

-underproduction, insufficient secretion, or insensitivity to insulin -characterized by hyperglycemia (excess glucose in blood)

anaerobes

-use fermentation or some other form of metabolism that does NOT require oxygen

Mineralocorticoids

-used in salt & water homeostasis -most profound affect on kidneys -most noteworthy: aldosterone

ribonucleic acid

-uses A,G,C,U -involved in gene expression -single- stranded -located in nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria -less stable than DNA due to extra -OH group

expressivity

-varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes; varying phenotypic manifestations of a given genotype -if constant = all individuals with given genotype will express the same phenotype -if variable = individuals with same genotype will have different phenotypes; can be a range of phenotypes that can present in individuals with same allele mutation

Meiosis II

-very similar to mitosis in that sister chromatids rather than homologues prophase II: nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate fo opposite poles, spindle apparatus forms metaphase II: chromosomes line up on metaphase plate anaphase II: centromeres divide separating the sister chromatids by pulling apart of spindle fibers telophase II: nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus, cytokinesis follows *4 haploid daughter cells are produced per gametocyte

bacteriophages

-viruses that specifically target bacteria -inject their genetic material; do not actually enter the bacteria cell -tail sheath which injects genetic material into bacterium -tail fibers which allow bacteriophage to attach to host cell

waxes

-vitamin A: terpene derivative -vitamin D: cholesterol derivative -Vitamin E and K: lipids

repolarization

-voltage- gated Na+ channels inactivated when Vm approaches +35 mV HOWEVER positive membrane potential opens voltage gated K+ channels - K+ driven out of cell by by electrochemical gradient/ channel which restores the negative membrane potential

gas exchange in the alveolus

-when blood initially arrives at the alveolus it has a relatively low partial pressure of O2 and high partial pressure to CO2, facilitating the transfer of each down its concentration gradient -O2 in the alveoli flows down its partial pressure gradient from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries where it can bind to hemoglobin for transport -meanwhile, CO2 flows down its partial pressure gradient from the capillaries into the alveoli for expiration *no energy required* deoygenated blood in capillaries--> right ventricle--> pumlonary arteriole--> CO2 into alveolus --> oxygenated blood--> pulmonary venule --> oxygenated blood to left atrium

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

-when gene frequencies of a population are not changing evolution is not occurring and gene pool is stable -5 criteria: 1. population is very large (no genetic drift) 2. no mutations that affect the gene pool 3. mating between individuals in the population is random (no sexual selection: mating due to preference over certain characteristics) 4. no migration of individuals into or out of the population 5. genes in the population are equally successful at reproducing

biocarbonate buffer system

-when pH decreases = respiration rate increases to blow off CO2; shift left to reduce H+ concentration -when pH increases = respiration rate decreases to trap CO2; shift right increases the H+ concentration

negative feedback

-when the final hormone (or product) in the pathway inhibits hormones (or enzymes) earlier in the pathway -this feedback maintains homeostasis and prevents wasting energy by restricting production of substances that are already present in sufficient quantities

sarcoplasmic reticulum

-wraps around myofibrils -basic function of storing Ca+ at a lower concentration than outside the cell -in contract with T- tubules

process of translation

1. INITIATION: small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA (prokaryotes--> binds to Shine-Dalgarno Seq.; eukaryotes--> 5' cap); charged initiator tRNA binds to start codon through base pairing with anticodon in P site; large subunit then binds to small subunit assisted by initiation factors 2. ELONGATION: moves 5'->3' on mRNA & synthesizes protein N to C terminus & is repeated for each amino acid addition; A site holds incoming aminoacyl- tRNA complex, P site holds tRNA that carries growing peptide chain; peptide bond formed as polypeptide is passed from tRNA in P site to tRNA in A site (*requires a peptidyl transferase; GTP used for energy during bond formation); E site now inactivated/ uncharged as tRNA passes transitently before exiting ribosome; NOTE: elongation factors assist by locating/ recruiting aminoacyl-tRNA along with GTP while helping to remove GDP once energy has been used 3. TERMINATION: stop codon moves into A site a protein called release factor binds to termination codon causing a water molecule to be added to polypeptide chain; addition of H2O allows peptidyl transferase & termination factors to hydrolyze the completed polypeptide chain from final tRNA; polypeptide chain released from P site and ribosomal subunits dissociate

stages of spermatogenesis

1. Spermatogonia 2. after replicating genetic material (S stage) --> Primary spermatocyte (diploid) 3. first mitotic division --> Secondary spermatocyte (haploid) 4. after undergoing meiosis II --> Spermatid (haploid) 5. spermatid undergo maturation to become mature --> Spermatozoa

factors affecting membrane fluidity

1. Temperature low temps --> phospholipids cluster together; do not have as much energy to move around; DECREASE distance between them so DECREASE fluidity high temps--> phospholipids have more energy so INCREASE distance to move around which leads to an INCREASE in fluidity 2. cholesterol: -low temps--> phospholipids still cluster but cholesterol inserts itself between some of them; this allows distance between phospholipids to INCREASE allowing for more room to move so INCREASE fluidity -high temps--> phospholipids far apart but cholesterol inserts between some of them; this DECREASES the distance between phospholipids which means they have less room to "move" so DECREASE fluidity **allows cell membrane to maintain/ remain at a relatively stable level of fluidity as temps fluctuate 3. saturated and unsaturated fats saturated (no double bonds)--> can stack better so distance between phospholipids DECREASE and fluidity DECREASES unsaturated (double bonds)--> do not stack as neatly/ close together so increases distance between phospholipids when present so INCREASE distance between them allowing for an INCREASE in fluidity

path of air to lungs

1. air enters through external nares of the nose & passes through nasal cavity where mucous membrane/ nasal hairs (vibrissae) filter it 2. passes to pharynx then the larynx 3. trachea and then into one of the two mainstream bronchi 4. finally into the lungs where bronchi divide into smaller structures (bronchioles) which divide further into alveoli where gas exchange occurs 5. network of capillaries surround each alveolus to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide

cell theory

1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. cells arise ONLY from preexisting cells 4. cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA which is passed on from parent to daughter cell

How would our respiratory systems adjust if we moved to higher altitudes where less oxygen is available?

1. breathe more rapidly 2. binding dynamics of hemoglobin to oxygen would be altered to facilitate the unloading of O2 at the tissues

Process of DNA replication

1. helicase unwinds DNA by breaking H- bonds 2. DNA topimerase removes positive supercoils by working ahead of helicase 3. single stranded binding protein keeps the 2 "sticky" DNA strands apart 4. primase synthesizes/ lays down RNA primer 5. DNA polymerase begin synthesizing daughter strands 6. RNase removes RNA primers 7. DNA ligase seals ends of DNA molecules together; "glues" fragments 8. telomerase creates the telomeres at end of DNA

viral life cycle

1. infection--> virus has to bind to specific receptors on host cell so can only infect a specific set of cells; inject virion into the host cell 2. translation & progeny assembly--> must occur in order for virus to reproduce; DNA viruses' genetic material go to nucleus (transcribed to mRNA) & RNA viruses' genetic material stays in cytoplasm(+ sense translated directly to proteins by ribosomes & - sense translated using complementary RNA strand with reverse transcriptase and then can be made into proteins); once replicated can be packaged within a capsid with viral genome in original form 3. progeny release--> can be done by initiating cell death to spill viral progeny or host cell my lyse or virus can leave cell by fusing with plasma membrane (extrusion) and keeps the host cell alive to continue using the host cell

antibodies secreted in body fluids

1. once bound to antigen may attract other leukocytes to phagocytize those antigens immediately (opsonization) 2. antibodies may cause pathogens to clump together (agglutinate) forming large insoluble complexes that can be phagocytized 3. antibodies can block the ability of a pathogen to invade tissues essentially neutralizing it

immune function of respiratory system

1. small nose hairs, lysozyme (able to breakdown walls of gram + bacteria), mucociliary escalator (mucus traps particles/ invaders and sends it up respiratory tract to oral cavity 2. macrophages (engulf & digest pathogens & signal rest of immune system of invader) 3. mast cells--> antibodies on surface when triggered can promote the release of inflammatory chemicals

process of release of a neurotransmitter

1. when action potential reaches nerve terminal voltage gated Ca+ channels open allowing Ca+ to flow INTO the cell (influx); sudden increase in intracellular Ca+ triggers fusion of membrane bound vesicles filled with neurotransmitter with the presynaptic membrane, resulting in exocytosis of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft 2. once released they diffuse across the cleft & bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane (may be ligand- gated ion channels or G- protein coupled receptors) which allows the message to be passed from one neuron to the next

nucleosome

200 base pairs of DNA wrapped around a histone protein complex

codon

3 bases -code for ONE amino acid

how fetal circulation differs from its adult version

3 shunts: foramen ovale: connects the right atrium to the left atrium bypassing the lungs ductus arteriosus: connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta bypassing the lungs ductus venosus: connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava bypassing the liver

chromosome breakdown in humans

46 chromosomes 23 homologous pairs (homologues) -we inherit 23 chromosomes from each parent

glomerulus (lengthy but good review)

A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the kidney -Glomerular capillaries have small pores in their walls, just like a very fine mesh sieve. Most capillary beds are sandwiched between arterioles and venules (the small vessels delivering blood to and collecting blood from capillary beds), and the hydrostatic pressure drops as blood travels through the capillary bed into the venules and veins.The glomerulus, on the other hand, is sandwiched between two arterioles - afferent arterioles deliver blood to the glomerulus, while efferent arterioles carry it away.Constriction of efferent arterioles as blood exits the glomerulus provides resistance to blood flow, preventing a pressure drop, which could not be achieved if blood were to flow into venules, which do not really constrict. The two arterioles change in size to increase or decrease blood pressure in the glomerulus. In addition, efferent arterioles are smaller in diameter than afferent arterioles. As a result, pressurized blood enters the glomerulus through a relatively wide tube, but is forced to exit through a narrower tube. Together, these unique features plus the fact that your heart is supplying your kidneys with over a liter of blood per minute (around 20% of its output) maintain a high glomerular capillary pressure and the filtration function of the kidney, regardless of fluctuations in blood flow

dihybrid cross

A cross between two individuals, concentrating on two definable traits -larger punnett square -*9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio*; note the 3:1 ratio still holds true for each trait reflecting Mendel's second law (inheritance of one gene is independent of the inheritance of another)

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow in response to low oxygen levels in the blood

leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature. -as sperm are formed, passed here where their flagella gain mobility and are then stored until ejaculation

T- cell

ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -a killer T- cell: destroys an infected cell in which is detects the presence of antigens -other T-cells: (like helper & regulatory T-cells) coordinate immune response -cell mediated (cytotoxic) immunity: coordinate immune system to directly kill a cell

b- cell

ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -antigens stimulate this cell to divide and produce antibodies the neutralize invaders or tag them for killing -humoral immunity: dissolved antibodies work in the blood rather than within a specific cells

pancreas

An organ in the abdominal cavity with two roles. 1. exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct 2. endocrine role: to secrete insulin(beta cells), somatostatin (gamma cells), and glucagon (alpha cells) into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels --> small clusters of hormone producing cells = islet of Langerhans found throughout the pancreas which contain 3 types of cells alpha, beta, and gamma

Gap junctions

At electrical synapses, unlike chemical synapses, there is a direct physical connection between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron. This connection takes the form of a channel called a gap junction, which allows current—ions—to flow directly from one cell into another.

functions of the excretory system

BLOOD PRESSURE: aldosterone, ADH & vasoconstriction/dilation -aldosterone--> secreted by adrenal cortex; responses to decreased BP--> decreased blood pressure stimulates renin release from juxtaglomerlar cells in kidney, renin then cleaves angiotensinogen (liver protein) to form angiotensin I, peptide is then metabolized by angiotensin- converting enzyme in the lung to form angiotensin II = promotes aldosterone release; alters ability of distal convuluted tubule & collecting duct to reabsorbed Na+ (more Na+, more H2O reabsorbed) ; *causes both salt and water reabsorption and does NOT change blood osmolarity* -ADH (vasopressin)--> synthesized by hypothalamus & released by anterior pituitary; responses to high blood osmolarity--> alters permeability of collecting duct allowing more H2O to be absorbed *only governs water reabsorbtion & thus results in lower blood osmolarity* -vasoconstriction or dilation--> constriction of afferent arterioles = decrease pressure of blood entering glomeruli (adjacent to juxtaglomerular cells --> leads to secondary release of renin to help raise BP) OSMOREGULATION: -osmotic pressure = "sucking" pressure drawing H2O into vasculature by dissolved particles -oncotic pressure = pressure attributed to proteins specifically -kidneys control osmolarity by modulating reabsorption of H2O/ filtering & secreting particles --> when osmolarity low excess water excreted & more solutes reabsorbed; when osmolarity high more H2O reabsorbed & solute secretion increases pH BALANCE: CO2(g) + H2O --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3- -kidneys able to selectively increase/decrease H= or HCO3- reabsorption -blood pH too low --> excrete more H+ & reabsorb more HCO3- (to neutralize excess [H+]) -blood pH too high --> reabsorb more H+ & excrete HCO3- (to increase [H+])

analogous structures

Body parts that SHARE a common function, but not structure -evolved independently to carry out same function

maternal health

Can affect development, including diabetes (increased fetal size and hypoglycemia after birth) and folic acid deficiency (neural tube defects)

genes

DNA coding regions -DNA sequences that code for heritable traits that can be passed from one generation to the next -alternative forms = alleles -organized into chromosomes

regulation of chromatin structure

DNA is packaged in the nucleus as chromatin which requires chromatin remodeling to allow transcription factors and the transcriptional machinery easier access to the DNA

sense strand

DNA strand NOT used as the template for mRNA in transcription so the mRNA is identical to this sense strand except for the T in the DNA are U in the mRNA

5'--> 3' breakdown

DNA--> DNA = replication; new DNA synthesized in 5'--> 3' direction (DNA polymerase reads in the 3'--> 5' direction) DNA --> RNA = transcription; new RNA synthesized in 5'-->3' direction (template is read 3'-->5') RNA--> protein = translation; mRNA read 5'--> 3'

transcription

DNA--> mRNA -creates a single strand of mRNA from template DNA strand; new mRNA strand is BOTH antiparallel & complementary to DNA template strand *NOTE: mRNA is identical to the coding strand (DNA strand not used as a template)

Evolution vs. Natural selection

Evolution = change over time Natural selection= mechanism for the change *evolution is NOT equivalent to natural selection*

summation and tetanus

FREQUENCY SUMMATION: -addition of multiple simple twitches before the muscle has an opportunity to fully relax -muscle fiber exposed to multiple prolonged stimulation = no time to relax -contractions combine & become stronger and more prolonged TETANUS: -simple twitches that occur so frequently as to not let the muscle relax at all -a more prolonged and stronger contraction -prolonged tetanus --> leads to muscle fatigue

FSH and LH in females

FSH - stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles LH - causes ovulation *hormones also stimulate the production of estrogens and progesterone

FSH and LH in males

FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis LH causes the interstitial cells to produce testosterone

6 products secreted by the stomach

HCl --> kills microbes, denatures proteins, and converts pepsinogen to pepsin pepsinogen --> cleaved to pepsin in the stomach; an enzyme that partially digests proteins mucus--> protects mucosa bicarbonate--> protects mucosa water--> dissolves and dilutes ingested materials intrinsic factor--> required for normal absorption of B12

horizontal vs vertical segments of the nephron

HORIZONTAL: -bowmans capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule -primarily focused on the identity of the particles in the urine *keep what the body needs and lose what it doesnt* VERTICAL: -loop of Henle, collecting duct -primarily focused on the volume and concentration of urine *concentrate the urine to conserve water*

homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene

ghrelin

Hormone released by the stomach and pancreas that heightens the sensation of hunger

stages of ventilation

INHALATION: diaphragm flattens (contracts) and chest wall expands = intrathoracic volume (volume of chest cavity) increases & intrapleural space volume increases while its pressure decreases EXHALATION: diaphragm relaxes and elastic recoil of lungs and musculature occurs --> chest cavity decreases in volume = increase in pressure in the interpleural space which is now higher than the pressure in the lungs (atmospheric) therefore air is pushed out of lungs (this can be sped up by internal intercostal muscles)

basophils

INNATE IMMUE SYSTEM CELL -granulocyte cell -used in allergic reactions

eosinophils

INNATE IMMUE SYSTEM CELL -granulocyte cell -used in allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections -release histamine, causing an inflammatory response

neutrophils

INNATE IMMUE SYSTEM CELL -granulocyte cell ingest bacteria, particularly opsonized bacteria (those marked with antibodies from b-cells) -short lived cell life -can follow bacteria using chemotaxis

granulocytes

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -3 cell types with tiny granules in their interiors (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) -participate in inflammatory response

MHC class I

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -MHC binds to a pathogenic peptide (antigen) and carries it to cell surface where it can be recognized by cells of the adaptive immune system -all nucleated cells in body -displays endogenous antigen (binds antigens from INSIDE cell) to cytotoxic T- cells (CD8+ cells) -any protein produced within a cell can be loaded on MHC- 1 and presented on the surface of the cell; allows immune system to monitor health of the cells and detect if the cells have been infected with a virus/ pathogen; only infected cells would be expected to present an unfamiliar/ nonself protein on surface

MHC class II

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -MHC binds to a pathogenic peptide (antigen) and carries it to cell surface where it can be recognized by cells of the adaptive immune system -present in professional antigen presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic, B- cells, & certain activated epithelial cells)--> cells pick up pathogens from environment, process them, & present them on MHC- II (MHC-II - antigen complex) -displays exogenous antigen (proteins from OUTSIDE the cell) to helper T- cells (CD4+ cells)

natural killer cell

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -attack cells not presenting MHC molecules including virally infected cells and cancer cells -destroys the body's own cells that have become infected with pathogens

macrophages

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -ingest pathogens & present them on major histocompatibility complexes (MHC II) molecules -phagocytizes through endocytosis, digests using enzymes, presents pieces of invader to other cells using protein MHC -secrete cytokines (chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area) -microgilia (CNS), langerhans cells (skin), osteoclasts (bone)

dendritic cell

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -presents antigens (fragments of protein or other molecules from pathogens or cancer cells) to adaptive immune cells inducing the cells to attack bearers of the displayed antigens -found in skin

Mast cell

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELL -releases histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation -closely related to basophils

cortex of the kidney

Kidney's outermost layer -medulla sits within this layer

4 basic tenants of Mendel's First law

LAW OF SEGREGATION -genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) -an organism has two alleles for each gene one inherited from each parent -the two alleles segregate during meiosis resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for any inherited trait -if two alleles of an organism are different one will be fully expressed and the other will be silent. the expressed allele = dominant and the silent allele = recessive (unless codominance or incomplete dominance) *allow for greater genetic diversity*

functional groups and increasing polarity

LESS POLAR hydrocarbons aldehydes and ketones amines (primary and secondary) alcohols carboxylic acids charged molecules MORE POLAR

difference between Liver, pancreas, and kidneys

LIVER -Detoxification -metabolism/ anabolism -storage of nutrients (carbs, fats; proteins--> not stored but processed as albumin and sent into the blood stream until going back to the liver to be broken down or converted) -bild production (enters duodenum but bile salts actually used in the ileum and jejunum) PANCREAS -exocrine: amylase, lipase, typsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, HCO3- (neutralizes chyme from duodenum which has just been broken down using HCl) KIDNEYS -filters the blood and regulates blood volume and osmolarity

ependymal cells

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

how can the DNA polymerase discriminate between the template and the incorrectly paired daughter strand if each are DNA?

METHYLATION -the template strand existed in the cell longer period of time and is therefore more heavily methylated

Bacterial Extracellular Pathogen Infections

Macrophages, MHCII presentation, cytokines attract more cells, mast cells. Travels to lymph node where it is presented to B cells, they proliferate and travel through the bloodstream to the affected tissue. Dendritic cells are also presenting the antigen to T-cells, activating a T-cell response with CD4 T cells. -antibodies travel through bloodstream to to affected tissue where they tag the bacteria for destruction

other cells of the epidermis layer

Melanocytes--> melanin producing cells; melanin protects the skin from DNA samage caused by UV radiation, melanin passed to keratinocytes -langerhan cells--> special macrophages that serve as antigen- presenting cells in the skin

degeneracy of the genetic code

More than one codon codes for an amino acid, making third codon position a wobble one (because for amino acids encoded by multiple codons the first two bases are usually the same) -evolutionary protection against mutations in coding region; usually tend to be silent mutations (no effect on amino acid expression or polypeptide sequence)

do all cells have the same relative distribution of organelles?

NO -form will follow function

does increasing the intensity of a stimulus increase the potential difference in neuron?

NO increased intensity of a stimulus does NOT result in an increased potential difference of the action potential but rather an increased frequency of firing -this is because all action potentials within the same type of neuron have the same potential difference during depolarization

How is the kidney capable of altering the osmolarity in the interstitium?

NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE: -osmolarity of the cortex is approximately the same as that of blood & remains at level -deeper in medulla osmolarity of interstitium can change Osmolarity of interstitium = ISOTONIC -if the concentration is the same in the tubule and in the interstitium there is not driving force (or gradient) and water will be lost in the urine because it will NOT move out of the tube to be reabsorbed by the vasa recta *trying to EXCRETE water* Osmolarity of the interstitium = HYPERTONIC -water will move out of the tubule into the interstitium to be reabsorbed into the blood by the vasa recta -due to concentration gradient (driving force) *trying to CONSERVE water*

bone matrix

Organic components: collagen, glycoproteins, other peptides inorganic components: hydroxyapatite (calcium, phosphate, hydroxide ions which harden together) strong bones need uniform distribution of both components: -OSTEONS: organized in concentric rings (lamellae) around a central Haversian or Volkmann's canal; between laminar rings are small spaces = lacunae and are connected with canaliculi to allow for nutrient and waste transfer btw osteocytes and canals

endocrine hormones and bone metabolism

PARATHYROID HORMONE: -released by parathyroid glands in respones to low blood calcium -promotes resorption of bone (promote osteoclast activity) --> increasing concentration of calcium & phosphate in blood VITAMIN D: -activated by parathyroid hormone -promotes resorption of bone (promote osteoclast activity)--> leading to increased turnover and subsequently the production of stronger bones CALCITONIN: -released by parafollicular cells of thyroid -in response to HIGH blood calcium -promotes bone formation, lowering blood calcium, reduced osteoclast activity (promote osteoblast activity)

parent generation vs filial generation

PARENT: -represented by "P" FILIAL: -offspring generation -represented by F1, F2, etc.

oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

PH: allosteric affect -increased CO2 production cause bicarbonate rxn to shift right (increase [H+] so increase pH)--> H+ binds to hemoglobin reducing its affinity for O2 *SHIFT RIGHT = high PaCO2, low pH, high [H+], high temp, high [2,3-BPG] (side product of glycolysis in RBC) = DECREASED AFFINITY FOR O2* -allowing for more unloading of O2 to the tissues

pharynx & larynx

PHARYNX -lies above the larynx; behind nasal cavity, back of the mouth -common pathway for both air destined for the lungs and food destined for the esophagus LARYNX: -lies below the pharynx -pathway for air ONLY -to keep food out opening (glottis) covered by epiglottic during swallowing

vessels entering and leaving the liver

PORTAL VEIN: nutrient rich blood ENTERS the liver from intestines PROPER HEPATIC ARTERY: rich O2 blood ENTERS the liver HEPATIC VEIN: O2 and nutrient poor blood LEAVES the liver to go through the heart and the intestines until returning to the liver again to start the process over COMMON HEPATIC DUCT: bile LEAVES the liver --> can either leave to CYSTIC DUCT entering the gallbladder for storage OR can leave through BILE DUCT entering into the duodenum

Heterozygote Monohybrid cross for a trait with COMPLETE dominance

Pp x Pp 1:2:1 ratio of genotypes 3:1 ratio of phenotypes

brush border enzymes

Present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers -brush border disaccharidases can further break down maltose but do not break down starch

adenine

Purine -pairs with thymine in DNA; pairs with uracil in RNA

red vs. white fibers

RED: -slow twitch -high myoglobin content --> oxygen carrier (VERY high affinity that uses iron in a heme group to bind oxygen in MUSCLES; monomeric protein -derive their energy aerobically -many mitochondria to carry out oxidative phosphorylation -muscles contract that conract slowly but can sustain activity = predominately red WHITE: -fast twitch -contain less myoglobin -muscles that contract rapidly but fatigue fast = predominately white

umbilical arteries and veins

REVERSED FROM NORMAL DEFINITION -arteries: carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta veins: carry oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus

translation

RNA--> protein -occurs in cytoplasm -mRNA leaves through nuclear pores & finds a ribosome to begin process -codon of the mRNA is recognized by a complementary anticodon on a tRNA; anticodon allows tRNA to pair with the codon in the mRNA -orientation of interaction is antiparallel

pathway of blood in the kidney

Renal Artery -> branches out (filtration, secretion, reabsorption) --> renal vein (reabsorbed nutrients goes back into the blood) OR ureter (urine or waste products enters the bladder for excretion)

Pathway of sperm through male reproductive system

SEVE(N) UP Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens (=ductus deferens) Ejaculatory duct (Nothing) Urethra Penis

thermoregulation (skin)

SWEATING: -cooling mechanism controlled by autonomic nervous system; absorbs heat from the body through evaporation of H2O from sweat (The sweat sits on the surface of the skin and is evaporated by the body heat. As the water is evaporated by heat released from the body, the body cools off.) and vasodilation (brings more blood to skin accelerating evaporation of sweat) -sweat glands innervated by postganglionic cholinergic sympathetic neurons (utilize acetylcholine) & promote secretion of water WARMING: -piloerection = arrector pili muscles around hair follicles contract causing hairs to stand on end (trapping a layer of warmed air around the skin); vasoconstriction, shivering, and insulation provided by fat *skin also prevents dehydration and salt loss from body--> skin relatively impermeable to H2O so prevents loss and entrance of water*

homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry -arising from the same source even if they now have DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

vasa recta

The capillaries that surround the tubules of the nephron. The vasa recta reclaims reabsorbed substances, such as water and sodium ions.

Eukarya

The domain that includes all eukaryotic organisms.

stop codons

UAA UGA UAG *no charged tRNA codes for these, & therefore protein is released from ribosome AUG = start codon

virons

Viral progeny produced after virus steals host cell machinery -individual virus particles

Viral (Intracellular Pathogen) Infections

Virally infected cell will begin to produce interferons, these reduce the permeability of nearby cells, reduce the rate of transcription and translation in these cells, and cause systemic symptoms. They present intracellular proteins on their surface in conjunction with MHCI in a virally infected cell. CD8 will recognize the MHCI and antigen complex as foreign and will inject toxins into the cell to promote apoptosis. -in event virus downregulates production and presentation of MHC- I molecules natural killer cells will recognize the absence of MHC-1 and will accordingly cause apoptosis of cell

miRNA

a class of functional RNA that regulates the amount of protein produced by a eukaryotic gene

monohybrid cross

a cross in which only one characteristic is tracked parent/ P generation = individuals being crossed filial/ F generation = offspring

steroids (very general)

a large class of nonpolar hormones derived from cholesterol -ex) cortisol

metastasis

a migration to distant tissues by the bloodstream or the lymphatic system

corpus luteum

a remnant of follicle after ovulation that secretes the hormone progesterone

totipotent cells

able to differentiate into all cell types, including the three germ layers and placental structures

pluripotent cells

able to differentiate into all three of the germ layers and their derivatives

multipotent cells

able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types

Histone acetylation

acetylation of histone proteins decreases the positive charge on lysine residues and weakens the interaction of the histone with DNA resulting in an open chromatin conformation that allows for easier access of the transcriptional machinery to the DNA -acetylation achieved by histone acetylases -can lead to increase in gene expression

gene pool

all of the alleles that exist within a species -mutations introduce new genes into the gene pool

DNA topoisomerase

alleviates torsional stress and reduces the risk of strand breakage from supercoiling of the DNA from the helicase -does this by introducing negative supercoils -working ahead of the helicase, nicking one or both strands, allowing relaxation of the torsional pressure than resealing the cut strands

postzygotic mechanisms

allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring -occurs after the zygote is formed -ex.) mules are example of postzygotic hybrid sterility (even though donkey and horse can produce viable mule offspring, mule is sterile)

cytosol

allows for the diffusion of molecules throughout the cell & suspends organelles; dense aqueous solution that compromises liquid found inside the cell CYTOPLASM = defined as everything within a living cell (everything but the nucleus and the external membrane)

alleles

alternative forms of a gene

obligate anaerobes

anaerobes that cannot survive in an oxygen containing environment -can only carry out anerobic metabolism

plasmin

an enzyme that dissolves the fibrin of blood clots -break down clots

kinetochores

appear at the centromere -kinetochore fibers = protein structures located at the centromeres that serve as attachment points for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus

Nerve Terminal (Synaptic Bouton/Knob)

at the end of the axon, enlarged and flattened to maximize neurotransmission to the next neuron and ensure proper release of neurotransmitters

blood pressure maintained

baroreceptor & chemoreceptor reflexes LOW BP: promotes aldosterone (increases Na+ reabsorbtion) and ADH (vasopressin; increased H2O absorption) release HIGH BLOOD OSMOLARITY: promotes ADH release HIGH BP: promotes atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) release

specific immune response

body's targeted fight against particular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria -lymphocytes --> help body learn from experience and prepare it to mount response against repeated exposure to familar pathogens

postranscritional processing

before hnRNA can leave the nucleus is must undergo 3 specific processes to allows it to interact with the ribosome and survive the conditions of the cytoplasm: 1. splicing 2. 5' cap 3. 3' poly-A tail *mRNA then leave nucleus via nuclear pores*

proto- oncogenes

before oncogenes become mutated

cell surface antibodies

binding of antigen to a B-cell causes activation of that cell resulting in proliferation and formation of plasma and memory cells -binding of antigen to antibodies on mast cell, causes degranulation (exocytosis of granule contents) allowing the release of histamine and causing an inflammatory allergic reaction

hepatic portal system

blood travels from gut capillary beds to liver capillary bed via hepatic portal vein

renal portal system

blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through an efferent arteriole

hypophyseal portal system

blood travels from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary

composition/quantity of urine and body state

blood volume is LOW; blood osmolarity HIGH: -beneficial for body to retain water -urine = low- volume, highly concentrated blood volume is HIGH; blood osmolarity LOW: -beneficial for body to get rid of excess H2O -urine = high- volume, low concentration

portal system

blood will pass through two capillary beds in series -3 portal systems in the body

inbreeding

breeding between genetically closely related individuals -can lead to increased manifestation of recessive mutations and other deleterious effects

incoming signals to a neuron

can either be excitatory or inhibitory Excitatory: cause depolarization of a neuron Inhibitory: cause hyperpolarization of a neuron

Y chromosome

carries little genetic information, but contains the SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene, which causes the gonads to differentiate into testes -only found in males

Islets of Langerhans

cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ -contain 3 distinct cell types: beta cells, alpha cells, and delta cells

thrombocytes (platelets)

cell fragments from megakaryocytes (cells in bone marrow) that are required for coagulation

Chemoreceptors

chemical sensors in the brain and blood vessels that identify changing levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide -can sense when osmolarity of blood is too high (dehydration); ADH and aldosterone release

neurotransmitters

chemical that transmit information between neurons -stored in membrane bound vesicles in nerve terminal

siRNA

class of double-stranded RNAs about 23 nucleotides in length that silence gene expression; act by either promoting the degradation of mRNAs with precisely complementary sequences or by inhibiting the transcription of genes containing precisely complementary sequences

ganglia

cluster of cell bodies of neurons of the same type within a nerve in the PNS

innate immunity

composed of defenses that are always active but that cannot target a specific invader and cannot maintain immunologic memory -also called nonspecific immunity

pharynx

connects mouth and posterior naval cavity to esophagus -epiglottis (folds down to cover laryngeal inlet) prevents food from entering the larynx

stratum corneum

consists of several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes forming a barrier that prevents invasion of pathogens and helps to prevent loss of fluids and salts

axial skeleton

consists of structures in the midline such as the skull, vertebral column, ribcage, and hyoid bone -central framework

appendicular skeleton

consists of the bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvis

chromosomes

contain genes in linear sequence

thoracic cavity

contains heart and lungs -structure of which is specially designed to perform breathing

merkel cells

deep pressure and texture -located in the dermis

spermatogonia

diploid stem cells in males from which 4 haploid sperm cells are produced

dsRNA

double stranded RNA

contraction of heart

elasticity of the large arteries allows vessels to maintain sufficient pressure even when relaxed -blood comes in from superior or inferior vena cava--> fills right atrium--> eventually heart contracts to push blood into the right ventricle (volume decreases, pressure increases) -contraction of atria occurs simultaneously on the left and the right

endothelial vs epithelial cells

endothelial: line the interior of blood vessels; one cell layer thick epithelial: line the outer surface of organs and inner organ cavities

G2/M checkpoint

ensures cell achieved adequate size and organelles have been replicated properly to support 2 daughter cells

helicase

enzyme responsible for unwinding the DNA generating two single- stranded template strands ahead of the polymerase

Catecholamines

epinephrine and norepinephrine -amino acid- derivative hormones; fight or flight response (sympathetic) -extremely fast onset and are short lived -bind to G coupled receptors (like peptide hormones) *think adrenaline rush* -released by adrenal medulla -epinephrine --> can increase the breakdown of glycogen to glucose (gluconeogenesis) & increases the basal metabolic rate (sympathetic response) -BOTH increase heart rate, dialate bronchii and alter blood flow to supply the systems that would be used in a sympathetic response

4 major tissue types

epithelial connective muscle nervous

cellular portion of blood

erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets

ventricles

filled by atria and contract to send blood to the lungs and systematic circulation -separted from vasculature by the semilunar values (pulmonary on right, aortic on the left)

main function of the kidneys

filter waste from the blood in order to regulate blood volume and osmolarity to do this function divided into 3 processes: filtration, secretion, reabsorption *occurs in the nephron*

alternative splicing

for some genes in eukaryotic cells the primary transcript of hnRNA may be spliced together in different ways to produce multiple variants of proteins encoded by the same original gene -an organism can make many more proteins from a limited number of genes

Messiner's corpuscles

fine touch and vibration -located in the dermis

plasma cells

form from b- cells that have been exposed to an antigen and produce antibodies

directional selection

form of natural selection in which adaptive pressure can lead to the emergence of dominance of an initially extreme phenotype -moves the average phenotype towards one extreme

disruptive selection

form of natural selection in which two extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm -moves towards two different phenotypes at the extremes and can lead to speciation (formation of new species)

speciation

formation of new species through evolution

nephron

functional unit of the kidney consists of the glomerulus and its associated tubule -1 million in each kidney -dances between cortex--> medulla--> back to cortex

parts of the stomach

fundus, body, antrum and pylorus -has a lesser and greater curvature -thrown into folds called rugae

central dogma of molecular biology

gene (unit of DNA) encodes a specific protein or RNA molecule--> through transcription and translation gene can be expressed

transposons

genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome -not limited to prokaryotes -if inserted within coding region, gene may be disrupted

main methods of cell signaling

gradients

capillaries

have walls that are one cell thick making them so narrow that red blood cells must travel through them in single- file lines -sites of gas and solute exchange; allow diffusion of gas, nutrients, and waste -interface for communication of the circulatory system with the tissues

hemizygous

having only one allele for a gene, as in a male who only has one X-linked locus

heterozygous

having two different alleles for a particular gene

distole

heart is relaxed and the semilunar values are closed and blood from the atria fills the ventricles

transcription factors

help RNA polymerase locate and bind to promotor region of the DNA, helping to establish where transcription will start

growth hormone- releasing hormone (GHRH)

hormone released from the hypothalamus which promotes the release (from the anterior pituitary) of growth hormone

thyroid- releasing hormone (TRH)

hormone released from the hypothalamus which promotes the release (from the anterior pituitary) of thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH)

corticotropin- releasing factor (CRF)

hormone released from the hypothalamus which promotes the release (from the anterior pituitary)of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus (releases CRF) -tropic hormone -promotes the synthesis and release of glucocorticoids (cortisol) from the adrenal cortex

growth hormone (GH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus (releases GHRH) -direct hormone -promotes the growth of bone and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues; raises blood glucose concentrations

luteinizing hormone (LH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus (releases GnRH hormone) -tropic hormone -promotes ovulation in females and testosterone in males

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus (releases GnRH hormone) -tropic hormone -promotes the development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus (releases TRH) -tropic hormone -promotes the synthesis and release of triiodothyronine and thyroxine from the thyroid

prolactin

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland; under INHIBITION from the hypothalamus through its release of PIF (or dopamine) -direct hormone -promotes milk production -dopamine by the hypothalamus DECREASES its secretion -high levels of estrogen, progesterone, and dopamine DROP after placenta expulsion = block on milk production removed

allele frequency

how often an allele appears in a population -tells us the representation of the allele across all chromosomes in a population -evolution results from changes in these gene frequencies in reproducing populations over time; when gene frequencies are not changing evolution is not occurring/ gene pool is stable

pregnancy

if fertilization DOES occur--> blastula produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which as an LH analog can maintain the corpus luteum (crucial during 1st trimester) -near the end of the first trimester hCG levels drop as the placenta takes over progesterone and estrogen production (high levels of estrogen and progesterone = negative feedback on GnRH secretion)

when will an action potential be triggered?

if the axon hillock receives enough excitatory input to be depolarized to the threshold value (between -55 to -40 mV) *not every stimulus will generate a response*

reciprocal induction

if two tissues both induce further differentiation in each other -occurs because induction is not always a one- way pathway -most tissues will be exposed to multiple inducers during course of development

parental strands

in DNA replication, the DNA strand that is used as a template -original DNA strand

chargaff rule

in a double stranded DNA molecule the % of A = the % of T, & the % of G equals the % of C

sigma factors

in prokaryotes, a protein that binds to RNA polymerase, allowing the complex to bind to and stimulate the transcription of a specific class of genes -initiation factors that enable the RNA polymerase to bing to promotor sequences; necessary for RNA synthesis;

sexual reproduction

increases variation allowing an increase in variability which helps species survive by allowing them to adapt quickly to changing selection pressures

sphygomanometer

instrument used to measure blood pressure -measures the gauge pressure in the systemic circulation (pressure above that of atmospheric pressure)

spirometer

instrument used to measure lung capacities and volumes -TLC, RV, VC, TV, ERV, IRV

axon hillock

integrates incoming signals from the dentrites; site where cell body transitions to the axon & action potentials are initiated -plays an important role in action potentials (or the transmission of electrical impulses down an axon) -signals coming from dentrites can either be excitatory or inhibitory; the axon hillock sums these signals and if the result is excitatory enough will initiate an action potential

RNA interference

introduction of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into a cell to inhibit gene expression -targets mRNA transcripts

outbreeding/ outcrossing

introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group -could result in variation within a gene pool and increase fitness

stratum granulosum

keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei

path of urine

kidney produces urine which dumps into the ureter at the renal pelvis (widest part of ureter; middle of the kidney)--> urine is then collected at the bladder until it is excreted through the urethra

species

largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring -formation of new species through evolution = speciation -reproductively isolated from each other by pre- or post zygotic mechanisms

vaginal cavity

lies below the cervix (lower end of the uterus) -site where sperm are deposited during intercourse -birth also occurs through here

acidemia

low blood pH

Agranulocytes

lymphocytes (specific immune response) and monocytes -play a role in immunity -lack granules

flow of genetic information from DNA to protein

mRNA synthesized in 5'--> 3' direction and complementary and antiparallel to DNA template ribosome translates mRNA in 5'--> 3' & synthesizes protein from N terminus to C terminus

myelin sheath

maintains the the electric signal within one neuron

chemotaxis

movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus -ex.) neutrophils--> sensing of certain products given off by bacteria and migration of neutrophils to follow these products back to the source (bacteria itself)

follicles

multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, and protect immature ova -located in the ovaries

stratified epithelial

multiple layers of cells

temporal summation

multiple signals are integrated during a relatively short time period (near each other in time) -a number of small excitatory signals firing at nearly the same moment could bring a postsynaptic cell to threshold enabling an action potential

saltatory conduction

myelin is such an effective insulator that the membrane is only permeable to ion movement at nodes of Ranvier -thus the signal "hops" from node to node

myofibril vs. muscle fiber

myofibril --> arrangment of many sarcomeres in a series muscle fiber (monocyte or muscle cell)--> contains many myofibrils within it arranged in parallel * a muscle is made up of parallel muscle fibers*

haploid cells

n -contain one copy of each chromosome

stabilizing selection

natural selection that keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against the extremes

free radicals

naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen -contain 1 unpaired valence electrons

synapse

nerve terminal + synaptic cleft + postsynaptic membrane -most are chemical in nature *neurotransmitters released from the axon terminal transverse the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron

nucleoside

nitrogenous base + a 5 carbon sugar -formed by covalently linking the base to a C-1' of the sugar

special case: red blood cells/ erythrocytes

no NOT contain a nucleus -exception to the rule that eukaryotes have membrane bound nucleus

absolute refractory period

no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur

incomplete dominance

no dominant alleles -heterozygotes will have intermediate phenotypes

chromosomal mutations vs. nucleotide mutations

nucleotide mutations --> mutation occurs at the level of a single nucleotide or very small number of nucleotides chromosomal mutations--> larger- scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected

phenotype

observable manifestation of genotype

point mutations

occur when one nucleotide in DNA is swapped for another -3 types: silent, missense, nonsense

gene amplification

once transcription complex formed, transcription can begin -but there are times in which expression of a particular gene needs to be amplified/ increased in response to specific hormones, growth factors, etc. -eukaryotic cells accomplish this by enhancers and gene duplication

incomplete dominance

occurs when a heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes

simple epithelial

one layer of cells

complete dominance

only one dominant and one recessive allele exist for a given gene -presence of one dominant allele will mask the recessive allele if present

pathway of the digestive tract

oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - small intestine - large intestine - rectum

first trimester

organogenesis occurs (development of heart, eyes, gonads, limbs, liver, brain)

hardy- weinberg principle/equations

p + q = 1 --> tells us about frequency of alleles in population; combined allele frequencies must equal 100% p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 --> tells us about frequency of genotypes and phenotypes in population *NOTE: p^2 + 2pq = sum of dominant phenotype *NOTE: will be twice as many alleles as individuals in population because each individual has 2 copies of each gene p = frequency of dominant allele p^2 = frequency of homozygous dominant genotype pq = frequency of heterozygous geneotype q = frequency of recessive allele q^2 = frequency of homozygous recessive genotype *equations allow you to find: relative frequency of alleles in a population AND frequency of a given genotype or phenotype in a population; TWICE as many alleles as individuals in a population (because each individual has 2 autosomal copies of each gene)

oxygen saturation

percentage of hemoglobin molecules that is bound to/carrying oxygen

systole

period during ventricular contraction when the AV values are closed and blood pumped out of the ventricles -arterial pressure less than ventricular pressure

menstrual cycle phases

periodic growth and shedding of endometrial lining 1. Follicular phase--> GnRH secretion increases in response to low levels of estrogen and progesterone & stimulates FSH and LH secretion with promotes follicle development; follicles begin to produce estrogen released stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua which causes GnRH, FSH and LH concentrations to level off 2. Ovulation --> late follicular phase follicles produces higher concentration of estrogen and eventually reaches a threshold causing positive feedback = GnRH, FSH, and LH levels spike;LH surge induces ovulation (release ovum from ovary to abdominal cavity) 3. Luteal phase --> LH promotes ruptered follicle to become the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining; estrogen concentration remains high and rising progesterone levels cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH preventing ovulation of multiple eggs 4. Menstruation--> occurs if no fertilization; corpus luteum loses stimulation from LH; as estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrial lining is sloughed off and the block on GnRH is removed so next cycle can begin

microglia

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS

mechanical digestion

physical breakdown of large food particles into smaller food particles

p53

plays major role in two major checkpoints of the cell -G1 to S & G2 to M

prezygotic mechanisms

prevent formation of the zygote completely -anything that stops reproduction before the formation of a zygote -ex.) different patterns of breeding, inability for fertilization to occur after intercourse

coagulation

process of blood clotting -results from activation cascade: when endothelial lining of blood vessel is damaged, the collagen and tissue factor (protein) underlying the endothelial cells are exposed--> results in coagulation cascade ultimately resulting in formation of clot over damaged area -platelets bind to the collagen and are stabilized by fibrin which is activated by thrombin (prothrombin activation = thrombin --> converts fibrinogen to fibrin); forms small fibers acting like a net to catch more platelets/RBC to form more stable clot

Parafollicular cells (C cells)

produce calcitonin

Oligodendrocytes

produce myelin around axons in CNS

cardiac output

product of heart rate (beats per minute) and stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per minute)

transcription factors (general)

promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle -phosphorylated by CDK's to activate them

esophagus

propels food to the stomach using peristalsis -food enters the stomach through the lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter

third trimester

rapid growth and brain development continue, and there is transfer of antibodies to the fetus

adaptive radiation

rapid rise of a number of different species from a common ancestor; favored by environmental changes or isolation of small groups of the ancestral species -benefit = allows for various species to occupy different niches (a specific environment for which a species can be specifically adapted) -rapid emergence of multiple species from a common ancestor each of which occupies its own ecological niche

antigens

red blood cells surface proteins -General definition: any specific target to which the immune system can react -ABO antigens and Rh factor -stimuli for B- cell to make antibody

gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH)

released by hypothalamus which promotes the release (from the anterior pituitary) of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

dominant allele

requires only one copy to be expressed

recessive allele

requires two copies in order to be expressed

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration -located in the dermis

Ruffini endings

respond to stretch -located in the dermins

adrenal medulla

responsible for production of the sympathetic hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine "fight or flight"); specialized nerve cells in the medulla are capable of secreting these compounds directly to the circulatory system

indeterminante cleavage

results in cells that are capable of becoming any cell in the organism

determinant cleavage

results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

inferior vena cava

returns blood from body areas below the heart

superior vena cava

returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart

breakdown of the heart

right side --> accepts deoxygenated blood returning from body and moves it to the lungs by pulmonary arteries; 1st pump = pulmonary circulation left side--> receives oxygenated blood from lungs by pulmonary veins and forces it out to body through aorta (systemic circulation)

accessory organs of digestion

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder -help provide enzymes and lubrication necessary to aid in digestion

glands

secrete hormones into the bloodstream

direct hormones

secreted and then act directly on a target tissue -have major effects on non- endocrine tissue/ directly induce physiological affect

3 kinds of nerve cells

sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons

segregation

separating of two homologous chromosomes

polypeptides

sequences of >20 amino acids

venules

small veins -capillaries join here

hormones

signaling molecules that are secreted directly into the blood stream to travel to a distant target tissue -at tissue hormones bind to receptors inducing a change in gene expression or cellular functioning -released from glands -can be classified by their target tissues: direct or tropic hormones

paracrine

signals act on cells in the local area

endocrine

signals act on distant tissues after traveling through the bloodstream

juxtacrine

signals act through direct stimulation of the adjacent cells usually through receptors on the cell

autocrine

signals that act on the same cell that released the signal

medulla of the kidney

sits within the cortex -blood from the renal artery passes through here 1st in the pathway of the renal portal system

Dude Is Just Feeling Ill Bro

small intestine nutrient absorption: -Duodenum: iron -Jejunum: folate -Ileum: B12

arterioles

small muscular arteries which control flow into capillary beds

alveoli

small sacs that interface with the pulmonary capillaries allowing gases to diffuse across a one- cell thick membrane

synaptic cleft

small space between neurons into which the terminal portion of the axon releases neurotransmitters which bring to dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron

lymph nodes

small, bean-shaped organs that remove pathogens and dead cells from lymph -provide space for cells of immune system to be exposed to possible pathogens

morula

solid mass of cells seen in early development; after several divisions embryo becomes this

bottleneck

some external event dramatically reduces the size of a population in a way that is essentially random with regard to most if not all alleles

promoter region

specialized regions of DNA that RNA polymerase attaches to to begin transcription -TATA box

semen

sperm + seminal fluid

cocci, bacilli, spirilla

spherical, rod shaped, spiral shaped bacteria

mutagens

substances, such as toxins, chemicals, or radiation, that may induce genetic mutations

action potential generation graph

sufficient depolarization across the cell membrane to threshold leads to the generation of an action potential followed by repolarization and hyperpolarization before returning to the resting membrane potential

punctuated equilibrium

suggests that changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time -considers evolution to be a very slow process with intermittent rapid bursts of evolutionary activity

Pathway of blood through the heart

superior or inferior venae cavae --> right atrium -> tricuspid valve--> right ventricle -> pulmonary artery--> lungs-> pulmonary veins--> left atrium ->mitral valve--> left ventricle -> aortic valve--> aorta--> arteries--> arterioles--> capillaries--> venules--> veins--. venae cavae--> right atrium

DNA polymerase

synthesizes daughter DNA strands in the 5' to 3' direction -as new phosphodiester bonds are made a free pyrophosphate (PPi) is released

primase

synthesizes/ lays down RNA primer for DNA to "hook" onto in order for DNA replication to begin -synthesizes a short primer (~10 nucleotides) in the 5' to 3' direction on each strand -these short RNA sequences constantly being added to lagging strand because each Okazaki fragment must start with new primer; leading strand only needs one RNA primer (in theory)

Tm

temperature at which 50% of protein is denatured

neurotransmittor receptors

tend to be either ligand- gated ion channels or G coupled protein receptors--> CHEMICAL SYNAPSES ligand- gated ion channels: postsynaptic cell will either be depolarized or hyperpolarized G protein coupled receptor: will cause either changes in the levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) or an influx of calcium

tendons vs. ligaments

tendons--> attach bone to muscle ligaments--> hold bones together at joint; attach bone to bone

stratum basale

the deepest layer of the epidermis consisting of stem cells & responsible for the proliferation of keratinocytes (predominant cells of the skin that produce keratin)

molecular clock model

the degree of difference in the genome between two species is related to the amount of time since the two species broke off from a common ancestor

chemical digestion

the enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds, such as the peptide bonds of proteins or the glycosidic bonds of starches

seminiferous tubules

the highly coiled tubes in the testes where sperm are produced -sperm nourished by Sertoli cells

gas exchange

the lung perform gas exchange with the blood by simple diffusion across concentration gradients -O2 in alveoli flows down partial pressure gradient from alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries where it can bind to hemoglobin for transport -CO2 flows down its partial pressure gradient from the capillaries to the alveoli for expiration

daughter strands

the newly made strands in DNA replication

cell specialization

the process in which cells develop in different ways to perform different tasks -3 steps: specification, determination, differentiation

relative refractory period

there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause an AP b/c the membrane is starting from a potential that is more negative than its resting value

atria

thin walled structures where blood is received from either vena cavae (deoxy. blood entering right heart) or pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood entering left heart) -atria contract to push blood into ventricles -separated from ventricles by atrioventricular valves (tricuspid on right, bicuspid on left)

diaphragm

thin, skeletal muscular partition separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities -under SOMATIC control even though breathing is under automatic control -helps create the negative pressure differential required for breathing

Hfr cells

through processes such as transformation, sex factor (plasmid) can get integrated into the host genome so when conjugation occurs entire genome replicates because contains the sex factor -donor cell will attempt to transfer whole genome but conjugation bridge usually breaks

Heterochromatin

tightly coiled DNA that appears dark under a microscope -tight coiling makes it inaccessible to the transcription machinery so these genes are inactivge

second trimester

tremendous growth occurs, movement begins, the face becomes distinctly human, and the digits elongate

how to triacylglycerols differ from fatty acids?

triacylglycerols cannot participate in hydrogen bonding, so we would expect markedly less polar behavior

pancreatic peptidases

trypsinogen chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidases A and B -released in zymogen form but once activated responsible for breaking down proteins (enteropeptidase = master switch for these enzymes to turn on) -trypsin--> converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin, activated by enteropeptidase -chymotrypsinogen--> hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds -(pro)carboxypeptidases A and B--> hydrolyzes terminal end of peptide bond at carboxy end; activated by enteropeptidase -found in pancreatic juice produced in pancreas (acinar cells) functions in duodenum, PROTEIN BREAKDOWN

T- tubules

tubular infoldings of the sarcolemma which penetrate through the cell and emerge on the other side -"projections of the cell membrane" -contain abundant ion channels that facilitate rapid transmission of action potentials that initiate muscle contraction

extracellular digestion

type of digestion that occurs in the lumen of the alimentary canal -need this because our diets do not just consist of pure glucose & fatty acids; the substances need to be extracted from our food & this extracellular digestion is the process by which these nutrients are obtained from food

intracellular digestion

type of digestion which involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy -because our diets do not just consist of pure glucose & fatty acids; the substances need to be extracted from our food & this extracellular digestion is the process by which these nutrients are obtained from food

aerotolerant anaerobes

unable to use oxygen for metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment -can survive in oxygen containing environment

supraspinal circuits

used in scenarios require input from the brain or brainstem

test cross

used to determine an unknown genotype; sometimes called back crosses -organism with unknown genotype is crossed with organism known to be homozygous recessive -if all offspring are dominant phenotype, known unknown organism genotype to be homozygous dominant -1:1 distribution of phenotypes, unknown organism genotype likely heterozygous

action potential

used to propagate signals down the axon

deoxyribonucleic acid

uses A,G,C,T -most processes operate in 5'--> 3' direction (polarity within backbone) -5' = phosphate group end -3' = -OH group end/ sugar end -long term storage of genetic info -double stranded -located in nucleus and mitochondria

punnett squares

visually represent the crossing of gametes from parents to show relative genotypic and phenotypic frequencies

differential reproduction

when mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely to pass on to the next generation -over time, those traits passed on by the more successful organisms will become more present in the gene pool -opposite is also true

prolactin

whereas most of the hormones in the anterior pituitary require a factor from the hypothalamus to be released, prolactin is the exception --> as long as the hypothalamus releases PIF (actually dopamine) no prolactin will be released -absence of PIF that allows for prolactin release -prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF)--> released by hypothalamus and causes a decrease in prolactin production (most other hormones are stimulating/ increase something) -the release of dopamine from the hypothalamus DECREASES secretion

equilibrium potential of potassium

~ -90 mV (negative due to convention; K+ is LEAVING the cell) -the potential in which each K+ pushed out due to concentration gradient will be matched by another K+ pulled back into the cell due to the electrical potential -no net movement of the ion; cell is in equilibrium with respect to K+

lymphatic system function

~ Equalization of fluid distribution (drain): because net pressure drawing fluid in at venule end is slightly less than fluid drawing out at arterial end some fluid stays in tissues and lymphatic tissues drain this fluid and return it to bloodstream; also protect against pathology--> if albumin low, oncotic pressure of blood decreased so less water driven back to bloodstream at venule end & fluid collects in tissues so lymphatics returns this to bloodstream ~ Transportation of biomolecules: transports fats (packaged in chylomicrons) from digestive system into bloodstream ~ Immunity: lymph nodes place for antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes to interact