Brit 1-1000

[Toni Morrison]

[![Photograph:Toni Morrison, 1993.]] - Toni Morrison, 1993. American writer [Toni Morrison], noted for [her examination of black (particularly black female) experience]%20experience#232371.toc) within the black community and recipient of the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1993, was born this day in 1931. Toni Morrison [![Photograph:Toni Morrison, 1993.]] - Toni Morrison, 1993. American writer Toni Morrison, noted for her examination of black (particularly black female) experience within the black community and recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993, was born this day in 1931.

[W.L. Mackenzie King]

[![Photograph:W.L. Mackenzie King.]] - W.L. Mackenzie King. [W.L. Mackenzie King], born this day in 1874, served as prime minister of [Canada] (1921-26, 1926-30, 1935-48) and leader of the [Liberal Party], helping preserve the unity of the country's English and French populations. W.L. Mackenzie King [![Photograph:W.L. Mackenzie King.]] - W.L. Mackenzie King. W.L. Mackenzie King, born this day in 1874, served as prime minister of [Canada] (1921-26, 1926-30, 1935-48) and leader of the Liberal Party, helping preserve the unity of the country's English and French populations.

[Ruhollah Khomeini]

[Shiʿite] cleric [Ruhollah Khomeini]—born this day in 1900, it is believed—led the 1979 revolution that overthrew [Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi] and for the next 10 years served as Iran's ultimate political and religious authority. Ruhollah Khomeini Shiʿite cleric Ruhollah Khomeini—born this day in 1900, it is believed—led the 1979 revolution that overthrew Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and for the next 10 years served as Iran's ultimate political and religious authority.

[Walt Disney]

[Walt Disney], born in Chicago this day in 1901, pioneered animated [cartoon] films, created such beloved characters as [Mickey Mouse] and [Donald Duck], and founded what is now one of the world's largest [entertainment conglomerates]. Walt Disney Walt Disney, born in Chicago this day in 1901, pioneered animated cartoon films, created such beloved characters as Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, and founded what is now one of the world's largest entertainment conglomerates.

activated-sludge method

[][sewage-treatment] process in which [][sludge], the accumulated, bacteria-rich deposits of settling tanks and basins, is seeded into incoming waste water and the mixture agitated for several hours in the presence of an ample air supply. Suspended solids and many organic solids are absorbed or adsorbed by the sludge, while organic matter is oxidized by the microorganisms. The amounts of air and sludge used can be varied to control the level of treatment obtained. The sludge is then separated out in a settling tank.

[Margaret Sanger]

[![Photograph:Margaret Sanger, 1916.]] - Margaret Sanger, 1916. American social reformer [Margaret Sanger], born this day in 1879, abandoned [nursing] in 1912 to devote herself to the [birth-control] movement, establishing what in 1942 became the [Planned Parenthood Federation of America]. Margaret Sanger [![Photograph:Margaret Sanger, 1916.]] - Margaret Sanger, 1916. American social reformer Margaret Sanger, born this day in 1879, abandoned nursing in 1912 to devote herself to the birth-control movement, establishing what in 1942 became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Abruzzi

*also called **Abruzzo,** * *regione,* central [Italy], fronting the Adriatic Sea and comprising the *provincie* of L'Aquila, Chieti, Pescara, and Teramo. Most of the region is mountainous or hilly, except for such intermontane basins as those of L'Aquila, Sulmona, and Fucino. The Apennines, the dominant physical feature, consist of three chains trending northwest-southeast, of which the easternmost, including the Gran Sasso d'Italia (9,560 feet [2,914 m]) and Maiella groups, is the highest. From the Gran Sasso, sand and clay hills present a gradual slope eastward to the narrow Adriatic shoreline. The few small coastal harbours have little economic importance for fishing or commerce. The principal rivers (the []Tronto, []Pescara, []Sangro, and []Trigno) drain to the Adriatic, providing irrigation in their lower courses. The course of these streams is irregular, and, because of massive deforestation on the upper slopes, floods and landslides occur frequently during the spring and fall rains. The ancient Italic tribes that once inhabited the region long resisted conquest and retained their own character even after Roman rule was imposed on them. The name of the region, originally Aprutium, is believed to have come from that of one of the ancient tribes, the Praetutii. Under Lombard rule during the early Middle Ages, the Abruzzi was controlled by the duchy of Spoleto, and Molise (the region to the south) by the duchy of Benevento. The Normans established themselves in the area in the 12th century, and the region sided with the Hohenstaufens in their long struggle with the papacy. After the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in the 13th century, Abruzzi and Molise in turn came under Angevin (house of Anjou), Spanish, and Bourbon rulers. Under the last, as part of the Kingdom of Naples, they were divided into Abruzzo Ulteriore I, Abruzzo Ulteriore II, Abruzzo Citra, and Molise. As Abruzzi e Molise, they became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860 and in 1965 were divided into the separate regions of Abruzzi and Molise. The regional capital is L'Aquila. The rugged terrain of Abruzzi long hindered its economic development. Construction of a motorway from the west to the Adriatic coast at Pescara opened the region to the rest of Italy. Agriculture is mainly of local importance, except in the intensively cultivated intermontane basins. Wheat, grapes, fruit, and olives are the most widespread crops, while tobacco, sugar beets, and saffron represent the cash crops. Livestock raising has been the mainstay of much of the region; migratory herding of sheep from mountain pastures in the Abruzzi to lowland winter pastures outside of the region continues, although on a decreasing scale. Pigs are raised, and the region's smoked ham and sausages are well known. Industrial development, concentrated chiefly in the provincial capitals, is slight. The main rail artery is the Rome-Pescara line, and local rail connections are slowly losing traffic to buses and trucks. Tourism is increasing in the coastal resorts but is not yet a major economic factor. Area 4,168 square miles (10,794 square km). Pop. (2006 est.) 1,305,307.

acid dye

any bright-coloured synthetic organic compound whose molecule contains two groups of atoms—one acidic, such as a carboxylic group, and one colour-producing, such as an azo or nitro group. Acid dyes are usually applied in the form of their sodium salts, chiefly on wool but also on silk and, to a limited extent, in combination with a mordant, or fixing agent, on cotton and rayon. These dyestuffs produce bright, usually fast shades in a wide range of colours.

1801, Concordat of

agreement reached on July 15, 1801, between Napoleon Bonaparte and papal and clerical representatives in both Rome and Paris, defining the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ending the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution. The Concordat was formally promulgated on Easter day, 1802. In the agreement the First Consul (Napoleon) was given the right to nominate bishops; the bishoprics and parishes were redistributed; and the erection of seminaries was allowed. The Pope (Pius VII) condoned the actions of those who had acquired church property, and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the bishops and curés suitable salaries. The government added to it unilateral provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the Organic Articles. After having been the law of the church of France for a century, it was denounced by the French government in 1905, when by the "Separation Law" church and state were sundered.

Abbey, Edward

born January 29, 1927, Home, Pennsylvania, U.S. died March 14, 1989, Oracle, Arizona American writer whose works, set primarily in the Southwestern United States, reflect an uncompromising environmentalist philosophy. The son of a Pennsylvania farmer, Abbey earned a B.A. (1951) and an M.A. (1956) at the University of New Mexico. He subsequently worked as a park ranger and fire lookout for the National Park Service in the Southwest, developing an intimacy with the region's landscape that was to shape his writing career. Central to this experience was the perspective it afforded on the human presence in the natural environment. Abbey observed both the remnants of ancient Indian cultures and the encroachment of consumer civilization. His book *[]Desert Solitaire* (1968), considered by many to be his best, is an extended meditation on the sublime and forbidding wilderness of southeastern Utah and the human incursions into it. He husbanded his extensive knowledge of the region, admitting "I have written much about a good many places. But the best places of all I have never mentioned." Abbey's novel *[]The Monkey Wrench Gang* (1975) recounts the exploits of a band of guerrilla environmentalists; both it and *Desert Solitaire* became handbooks of the environmental movement. The strain of cynicism that runs through much of Abbey's writing is leavened by a bracing prose style and mischievous wit. His advice was unorthodox: "This is what you shall do: Love the earth and sun and animals. Stand up for the stupid and crazy. Take your hat off to no man." And his opinions pithy: "Anarchism is not a romantic fable but the hardheaded realization, based on five thousand years of experience, that we cannot entrust the management of our lives to kings, priests, politicians, generals, and county commissioners." His appreciation for the natural and distrust of machines and the modern state resonated through the 1960s, '70s, and beyond. After his death, he was buried as he had requested: in a sleeping bag, without embalming fluid or casket. His body was surreptitiously interred in an unmarked desert grave somewhere in Arizona.

Abajo Mountains

volcanic segment of the [Colorado Plateau], in San Juan county, southeastern [Utah], U.S. Abajo Peak (11,362 feet [3,463 metres]) is the highest point in the mountains, which comprise eight summits and are embraced by the Manti-LaSal National Forest. The heavily forested range is locally called the Blue Mountains for its appearance. Mining and lumbering are the main economic activities of the region. Sport hunting and hiking draw many visitors to the range.

Acre

westernmost *estado* (state) of [Brazil]. Acre covers the southwesternmost part of Brazil's Hiléia (Hylea), the forest zone of the [Amazon River] basin. Bounded north by [Amazonas] state, it has western and southern frontiers with Peru and southeastern with Bolivia. The capital is [Rio Branco] on the Rio Acre in the eastern part of the state. The state's name is derived from that of the Rio Acre, which seems to be of Indian origin. Covered by tropical rainforest, Acre produces the highest-quality rubber in Brazil. Portuguese explorers, making their way through the immense Amazon forest from the Atlantic estuary of the Amazon River, did not reach Acre before the middle decades of the 18th century, when there were no settled inhabitants but only roving bands of Indians. Under the Brazilian Empire, more expeditions began to penetrate the territory in the 1850s and '60s; and although the whole area was ceded by Brazil to Bolivia in 1867 (by the Treaty of Ayacucho), the rubber boom of the following decades attracted more and more immigrants from northeastern Brazil. In 1899, during a local revolution, an independent Republic of Acre was proclaimed by Luís Gálvez Rodríguez, a Spanish adventurer, but this regime was short-lived. After further vicissitudes, negotiations sponsored by Brazil's foreign minister culminated in 1903 in the Treaty of Petropólis, whereby Acre was reincorporated with Brazil. The frontier with Peru was agreed upon in 1909. Organized at first as a territory, Acre achieved statehood in 1962. With an average elevation of 600 feet (183 metres) above sea level, the land slopes gently down toward the Amazonian Plain from the higher ground in the west and south. An average annual temperature of 77 °F (25 °C) and an annual rainfall of 79-98 inches (2,000-2,500 mm) makes the climate warm and humid. The forest is traversed by headstreams of two of the Amazon's major tributaries, the [Juruá] and the [Purus]. The principal trees of the forest are [][rubber] and Brazil nut. The fauna include peccaries (piglike animals), red deer, capybaras (rodents with no tail and partly webbed feet), agoutis (short-haired, short-eared rodents), and tapirs (large, hoofed quadrupeds). The local Indian tribes are few and small, yet a large proportion of the state is set aside for Indian reservations and parks. Most of Acre's population consists of immigrants, or descendants of immigrants, from northeastern Brazil, the decided majority of them Afro-Brazilian. Many people still live on the rivers and tracks that give access to the raw materials of the forests, but the majority dwell in urban areas. The largest city is Rio Branco, which contains about two-fifths of the state's population. Other major towns are Cruzeiro do Sul, Sena Madureira, Tarauacá, and Feijó. The common language is Portuguese, the predominant religion Roman Catholicism. Amoebic dysentery, malaria, and leprosy are the major endemic diseases.

acquittal

in criminal law, acknowledgment by the court of the innocence of the defendant or defendants. Such a judgment may be made by a jury in a trial or by a judge who rules that there is insufficient evidence either for conviction or for further proceedings. An acquittal removes all guilt in law. An acquittal "in fact" occurs when a jury finds the defendant not guilty. An acquittal "in law" occurs through the mere operation of law. For instance, if the principal in a case is acquitted, an accessory also is deemed acquitted in law. Acquittal has other meanings. In the []Middle Ages it was an obligation of an intermediate lord to protect his tenants against interference from his own overlord. The term is also used in contract law to signify a discharge or release from an obligation.

abatement

in law, the interruption of a legal proceeding upon the pleading by a defendant of a matter that prevents the plaintiff from going forward with the suit at that time or in that form. Pleas in abatement raise such matters as objections to the place, mode, or time of the plaintiff's claim. At one time, abatement of proceedings in [equity] differed from abatement in law in that the former merely suspended the action, subject to revival when the defect was cured, whereas the latter terminated it, though the plaintiff could start the action anew. The latter is now the more common usage. The term *abatement* is also used in law to mean the removal or control of an annoyance.

Abenteuerroman

*German"adventure novel"* in German literature, a form of the [picaresque novel]. The *Abenteuerroman* is an entertaining story recounting the adventures of the hero, but it often incorporates a serious aspect. An example of the genre is the 17th-century *Der Abentheurliche Simplicissimus* (*Adventurous Simplicissimus*) by [H.J.C. von Grimmelshausen]. The *Abenteuerroman* is related to the [Bildungsroman], a genre in which the subject is the formative years of the main character.

Academy, Gallery of the

*Italian **Galleria Dell'accademia,** * museum of art in Florence chiefly famous for its several sculptures by Michelangelo, notably his "David." It also has a collection of 15th- and 16th-century paintings and many 13th-16th-century Tuscan paintings. It was founded in 1784 by the grand duke Pietro Leopoldo and was subsequently enlarged.

Abominable Snowman

*Tibetan **Yeti** * mythical monster supposed to inhabit the Himalayas at about the level of the snow line. Though reports of actual sightings of such a creature are rare, certain mysterious markings in the snow have traditionally been attributed to it. Those not caused by lumps of snow or stones falling from higher regions and bouncing across the lower slopes have probably been produced by bears. At certain gaits bears place the hindfoot partly over the imprint of the forefoot, thus making a very large imprint that looks deceptively like an enormous human footprint positioned in the opposite direction.

Abū al-Ghāzī Bahādur

*also spelled **Abulghazi Bahadur** * born August 24, 1603, Urgench, khanate of Khiva [now Urganch, Uzbekistan] died 1663, Khiva khan (ruler) of Khiva and one of the most prominent historians in Chagatai Turkish literature. The son of ʿArab Muḥammad Khan, Abū al-Ghāzī spent most of his early life in Urgench. When his father died and a dynastic struggle arose among Abū al-Ghāzī and his brothers for the succession to the throne, he was compelled to flee to the Ṣafavid court of Iran in the city of Isfahan, where he lived in exile from 1629 to 1639. While in exile he studied history, examining Persian and Arabic historical sources. In 1644/45, Abū al-Ghāzī finally succeeded to the throne of Khiva, reigning for about 20 years, carrying on intermittent wars with the Turkmens, the Uzbeks of Bukhara, the Kalmyks, Russia, and Iran.

Abū Nuwās

*also spelled **Abū Nuʾās** , in full **Abū Nuwās Al-ḥasan Ibn Hāniʾ Al-ḥakamī** * born *c.* 747, -762, Ahvāz, Iran died *c.* 813, -815, Baghdad important poet of the early ʿAbbāsid period (750-835). Abū Nuwās, of mixed Arab and Persian heritage, studied in Basra and al-Kūfah, first under the poet []Wālibah ibn al-Ḥubāb, later under [Khalaf al-Aḥmar]. He also studied the Qurʾān (Islāmic sacred scripture), Ḥadīth (traditions relating to the life and utterances of the Prophet), and grammar and is said to have spent a year with the Bedouins in the desert to acquire their traditional purity of language.

Achinsk

*also spelled **Ačinsk,** * city, Krasnoyarsk *kray* (region), south-central Russia. It lies along the Chulym River, which is a tributary of the Ob. It was founded in 1621 and chartered in 1782. Important as a river-road transfer point until rail lines were constructed, it gained economic importance when an alumina plant was put into production in 1969 and when a petroleum refinery began operation at Kritovo, 15 miles (24 km) west of Achinsk, in the late 1970s. The nearby Kansk-Achinsk coal basin has also been developed. The city has clothing, furniture, and brick factories. Pop. (1993 est.) 121,700.

Abildgaard, Nicolai Abraham

*also spelled **Nikolaj-abraham Abilgaard** * born Sept. 11, 1743, Copenhagen, Den. died June 4, 1809, Frederiksdal the most renowned Danish painter of the late 18th century and one of the early Neoclassicists. During 1772-77 Abildgaard studied in Rome, where he was primarily influenced by antique sculpture and Roman wall paintings. His style was classical, though with a romantic trend, and he had a remarkable sense of colour. Many of his paintings are melodramatic interpretations of episodes from ancient literature. He taught at the Danish Royal Academy of Fine Arts, of which he became director in 1789. Bertel Thorvaldsen, the prominent Danish sculptor, was his pupil.

Adam De La Halle,

*byname **Adam Le Bossu, or Adam The Hunchback** * born *c.* 1250, , Arras, France died *c.* 1306, , Naples [now in Italy] [![Photograph:Adam de la Halle, detail from a manuscript, 1278; in the Municipal Library of Arras, France (MS. ...]] - Adam de la Halle, detail from a manuscript, 1278; in the Municipal Library of Arras, France (MS. ... poet, musician, and innovator of the earliest French secular theatre.

Abdülaziz

*in full **Abdülaziz Oglu Mahmud Ii** * born Feb. 9, 1830, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] died June 4, 1876, Constantinople [![Photograph:Abdülaziz, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 19th century; in the Topkapı ...]] - Abdülaziz, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 19th century; in the Topkapı ... Ottoman sultan (1861-76) who continued the westernizing reforms that had been initiated by his predecessors until 1871, after which his reign took an absolutist turn.

Adam, Adolphe

*in full **Adolphe-Charles Adam** * born July 24, 1803, Paris, France died May 3, 1856, Paris French composer whose music for the ballet *[Giselle]* (1841) is noted for its easy grace and cogency. It has retained its popularity with dancers and audiences to the present day. Adam wrote more than 70operas, of which the most popular in their day were *Le Châlet* (1834), *Le Postillon de Longjumeau* (1836), and *Giralda* (1850). In his ballets—which he composed for production in London, Berlin, and St. Petersburg, as well as Paris—he skillfully coordinated the music with choreographic demands. His works were successful during the mid-19th century, but few, other than *Giselle*, are regularly revived.

Acheson, Dean

*in full **Dean Gooderham Acheson** * born April 11, 1893, Middletown, Connecticut, U.S. died October 12, 1971, Sandy Spring, Maryland [![Photograph:Dean Acheson.]] - Dean Acheson. U.S. secretary of state (1949-53) and adviser to four presidents, who became the principal creator of U.S. foreign policy in the [][Cold War] period following World War II; he helped to create the Western alliance in opposition to the Soviet Union and other communist nations.

Adams, Douglas

*in full **Douglas Noël Adams** * born March 11, 1952, Cambridge, England died May 11, 2001, Santa Barbara, California, U.S. British comic writer whose works satirize contemporary life through a luckless protagonist who deals ineptly with societal forces beyond his control. Adams is best known for the mock science-fiction series known collectively as *[]The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*. Adams received an M.A. (1974) in English literature from Cambridge University, where he wrote comedy sketches for the performing arts society. He was an editor for the television series *Dr. Who* and wrote scripts for the British Broadcasting Corporation from 1978 to 1980.

Abbas, Ferhat

*in full **Ferhat Mekki Abbas** * born Aug. 24, 1899, Chahna, near Constantine, Alg. died Dec. 24, 1985, Algiers [![Photograph:Ferhat Abbas]] - Ferhat Abbas politician and leader of the national independence movement who served as the first president of the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic.

Abramov, Fyodor

*in full **Fyodor Aleksandrovich Abramov** * born Feb. 29, 1920, Verkola, Russia, U.S.S.R. died May 14, 1983, Leningrad [now St. Petersburg] Russian writer, academic, and literary critic whose work, which frequently ran afoul of the official Soviet party line, focused on the difficulties and discrimination faced by Russian peasants. Of peasant ancestry, Abramov studied at Leningrad State University, interrupting his schooling to serve as a soldier in World War II. In 1951 he finished his studies at the university, then taught there until 1960, when he became a full-time writer.

Abbott, George

*in full **George Francis Abbott** * born June 25, 1887, Forestville, N.Y., U.S. died Jan. 31, 1995, Miami Beach, Fla. [![Photograph:George Abbott.]] - George Abbott. American theatrical director, producer, playwright, actor, and motion-picture director who staged some of the most popular Broadway productions from the 1920s to the '60s.

Adalbert, Saint

*original name **Vojtěch** * born 956, Libice?, Bohemia [now in Czech Republic] died April 23, 997, near Gdańsk, Pol.; canonized 999; feast day, April 23 first bishop of Prague to be of Czech origin. Descended from the Slavník princes of Bohemia, he was trained in theology at Magdeburg (Germany). At his confirmation he received his name from St. Adalbert, first archbishop of Magdeburg. As bishop (elected 982), Adalbert promoted the political aims of Boleslav II, prince of Bohemia, by extending the influence of the church beyond the borders of the Czech kingdom. He tried to improve the standards of church life but found little understanding among his countrymen for his lofty ideals.

Abramovitz, Max

American architect (b. May 23, 1908, Chicago, Ill.—d. Sept. 12, 2004, Pound Ridge, N.Y.), partnered with Wallace K. Harrison to influence the development of modernist architecture and helped shape the Manhattan skyline with his designs for a number of midtown buildings. He collaborated on such high-profile projects as the United Nations complex in New York City and the Central Intelligence Agency headquarters in Langley, Va., but he was best known for his work on Philharmonic Hall (later Avery Fisher Hall) at Lincoln Center, New York City.

Abzug, Bella (Bella Savitzky)

American lawyer and politician (b. July 24, 1920, New York, N.Y.--d. March 31, 1998, New York), variously identified as "Battling Bella" and "Mother Courage," was a quintessential progressive known for her groundbreaking roles as peace activist, feminist, environmentalist, and early advocate for gay rights. Abzug was the daughter of Russian- Jewish immigrants. She earned degrees from Hunter College of the City University of New York (B.A., 1942) and Columbia University Law School, New York City (LL.B., 1947). It was during her years as an attorney (1947-70), when few women were practicing law, that she began wearing her signature wide-brimmed hats to ensure that her clients and colleagues did not assume she was a secretary. She acted as chief defense attorney for Willie McGee, an African-American man convicted and eventually executed for raping a white woman in Mississippi, defended victims of Sen. Joseph McCarthy's anticommunist witch-hunts, and helped draft legislation for the 1954 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. To fight the U.S. government's plans to resume nuclear-weapons testing, she founded the Women Strike for Peace in 1961, and to protest the Vietnam War, she led the Democratic Party's "Dump Johnson" movement and supported Sen. Eugene McCarthy in his 1968 bid for the presidency. Along with Gloria Steinem and Betty Friedan, Abzug was in the forefront of the feminist movement and was an early advocate for equal rights for women, abortion rights, and child-care legislation. She successfully ran for Congress in 1970 from Manhattan's 19th district with the slogan "This woman's place is in the House--the House of Representatives." On her first day in Congress (Jan. 21, 1971), she introduced a motion calling for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam, and she later used a little-known procedural tactic to force Pres. Richard Nixon's administration to release the top-secret Pentagon Papers. She was also the first member of Congress to call for Nixon's impeachment. After serving three terms in the House, she lost a Senate race to Daniel P. Moynihan in 1977. Firmly committed to women's empowerment, she founded several organizations, including the National Women's Political Caucus and the International Women's Environment and Development Association, and she participated in the UN's Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995. Her book *Bella!* was published in 1972, and *Gender Gap: Bella Abzug's Guide to Political Power for American Women,* co-written with Mim Kelber, appeared in 1984.

[Mark Twain]

American writer [Mark Twain], born this day in 1835, won worldwide acclaim for his stories of youthful adventures, especially *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer*, *Life on the Mississippi*, and *The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn*. Mark Twain American writer Mark Twain, born this day in 1835, won worldwide acclaim for his stories of youthful adventures, especially *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer*, *Life on the Mississippi*, and *The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn*.

aardwolf (Proteles cristatus)

[![Photograph:Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus).]] - Aardwolf (*Proteles cristatus*). insectivorous [carnivore] that resembles a small striped [][hyena]. The shy, mainly nocturnal aardwolf lives on the arid plains of Africa. There are two geographically separate populations, one centred in South Africa and the other in East Africa. The aardwolf, whose name in Afrikaans means "earth wolf," is yellowish with vertical black stripes and a bushy, black-tipped tail. Standing less than half a metre high at the shoulder, it varies in length from 55 to 80 cm (22 to 31 inches) exclusive of the 20- to 30-cm tail. Weight is from 8 to 12 kg (18 to 26 pounds). Like the hyena, it has a long, coarse ridge of erectile hairs along the length of the back, sturdy shoulders, and longer front than hind legs. The aardwolf, however, is less of a runner and has five toes on the front feet instead of four. The skull is not as robust, but the sharp canine teeth and strong jaws characteristic of hyenas are retained and wielded in aggressive interactions. The cheek teeth, however, are mere pegs adequate for crunching its insect diet, which consists almost exclusively of harvester [][termites]. When the aardwolf smells termites or hears the rustle of thousands of them in the grass with its sensitive, pointed ears, it laps them up with its sticky tongue. Although aardwolves forage alone, they live in breeding pairs that defend a territory marked by secretions from the anal glands. When attacked they may fight, and a musky-smelling fluid is emitted. Shelters can be holes, crevices, and abandoned porcupine and aardvark burrows, where usually two or three cubs are born during the rainy months, when termites are most active. Cubs are weaned by four months and have left their parents' territory by the time the next litter is born. The aardwolf is most often classified in the family Hyaenidae, but some authorities place it in a family of its own called Protelidae.

[Barack Obama, Jr.]

[![Photograph:Barack Obama, 2004.]] - Barack Obama, 2004. Born this day in 1961 was Illinois Democrat [Barack Obama, Jr.], a lawyer and politician who in 2004 defeated Republican Alan Keyes in the first U.S. Senate race in which the two main candidates were African Americans. Barack Obama, Jr. [![Photograph:Barack Obama, 2004.]] - Barack Obama, 2004. Born this day in 1961 was Illinois Democrat Barack Obama, Jr., a lawyer and politician who in 2004 defeated Republican Alan Keyes in the first U.S. Senate race in which the two main candidates were African Americans.

[Hirohito]

[![Photograph:Hirohito, 1982.]] - Hirohito, 1982. Japanese Emperor [Hirohito], who was born this day in 1901 in Tokyo, ruled his country from 1926 to 1989, a reign that included both [Japan]'s military defeat in [World War II] and its postwar economic triumphs. [Hirohito] [![Photograph:Hirohito, 1982.]] - Hirohito, 1982. Japanese Emperor [Hirohito], who was born this day in 1901 in Tokyo, ruled his country from 1926 to 1989, a reign that included both Japan's military defeat in World War II and its postwar economic triumphs.

[Igor Stravinsky]

[![Photograph:Igor Stravinsky, 1920.]] - Igor Stravinsky, *c.* 1920. Composer [Igor Stravinsky], whose work had a revolutionary impact on the musical world just before and after World War I and whose compositions remain a touchstone of modernism, was born in Russia this day in 1882. [Igor Stravinsky] [![Photograph:Igor Stravinsky, 1920.]] - Igor Stravinsky, *c.* 1920. Composer [Igor Stravinsky], whose work had a revolutionary impact on the musical world just before and after World War I and whose compositions remain a touchstone of modernism, was born in Russia this day in 1882.

[John Updike]

[![Photograph:John Updike.]] - John Updike. American writer [John Updike], whose novels, short stories, and poems are known for their realistic but subtle depiction of "American, Protestant, small-town, middle-class" life, was born this day in 1932. John Updike [![Photograph:John Updike.]] - John Updike. American writer John Updike, whose novels, short stories, and poems are known for their realistic but subtle depiction of "American, Protestant, small-town, middle-class" life, was born this day in 1932.

Abstract Expressionism

broad movement in American painting that began in the late 1940s and became a dominant trend in Western painting during the 1950s. The most prominent American Abstract Expressionist painters were [][Jackson Pollock], [][Willem de Kooning], [][Franz Kline], and [][Mark Rothko]. Others included []Clyfford Still, [][Philip Guston], [][Helen Frankenthaler], [][Barnett Newman], [][Adolph Gottlieb], [][Robert Motherwell], Lee Krasner, Bradley Walker Tomlin, William Baziotes, [][Ad Reinhardt], Richard Pousette-Dart, Elaine de Kooning, and [][Jack Tworkov]. Most of these artists worked, lived, or exhibited in [][New York City]. Although it is the accepted designation, Abstract Expressionism is not an accurate description of the body of work created by these artists. Indeed, the movement comprised many different painterly styles varying in both technique and quality of expression. Despite this variety, Abstract Expressionist paintings share several broad characteristics. They are basically abstract—*i.e.,* they depict forms not drawn from the visible world. They emphasize free, spontaneous, and personal emotional expression, and they exercise considerable freedom of technique and execution to attain this goal, with a particular emphasis laid on the exploitation of the variable physical character of paint to evoke expressive qualities (*e.g.,* sensuousness, dynamism, violence, mystery, lyricism). They show similar emphasis on the unstudied and intuitive application of that paint in a form of psychic improvisation akin to the automatism of the Surrealists, with a similar intent of expressing the force of the creative unconscious in art. They display the abandonment of conventionally structured composition built up out of discrete and segregable elements and their replacement with a single unified, undifferentiated field, network, or other image that exists in unstructured space. And finally, the paintings fill large canvases to give these aforementioned visual effects both monumentality and engrossing power. [![Photograph:The Liver Is the Cock's Comb, oil on canvas by Arshile Gorky, 1944; in ...]] - *The Liver Is the Cock's Comb*, oil on canvas by Arshile Gorky, 1944; in ... The early Abstract Expressionists had two notable forerunners: [][Arshile Gorky], who painted suggestive biomorphic shapes using a free, delicately linear, and liquid paint application; and [][Hans Hofmann], who used dynamic and strongly textured brushwork in abstract but conventionally composed works. Another important influence on nascent Abstract Expressionism was the arrival on American shores in the late 1930s and early '40s of a host of Surrealists and other important European avant-garde artists who were fleeing Nazi-dominated Europe. Such artists greatly stimulated the native New York City painters and gave them a more intimate view of the vanguard of European painting. The Abstract Expressionist movement itself is generally regarded as having begun with the paintings done by Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning in the late 1940s and early '50s. In spite of the diversity of the Abstract Expressionist movement, three general approaches can be distinguished. One, [][Action painting] (*q.v.*), is characterized by a loose, rapid, dynamic, or forceful handling of paint in sweeping or slashing brushstrokes and in techniques partially dictated by chance, such as dripping or spilling the paint directly onto the canvas. Pollock first practiced Action painting by dripping commercial paints on raw canvas to build up complex and tangled skeins of paint into exciting and suggestive linear patterns. De Kooning used extremely vigorous and expressive brushstrokes to build up richly coloured and textured images. Kline used powerful, sweeping black strokes on a white canvas to create starkly monumental forms.

achene

dry, one-seeded fruit lacking special seams that split to release the seed. The seed coat is attached to the thin, dry ovary wall (husk) by a short stalk, so that the seed is easily freed from the husk, as in buckwheat. The fruits of many plants in the buttercup family and the rose family are achenes.

51 Pegasi

fifth-magnitude [star] located 50 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Pegasus, the first sunlike star confirmed to possess a planet. 51 Pegasi, which has physical properties (luminosity and temperature, for example) very similar to those of the [Sun], became the focus of attention in 1995 when astronomers announced the detection of a [][planet] orbiting it. The extrasolar planet is not visible from Earth, but its presence was deduced from the wobble that its gravity induces in the parent star's motion in a 4.2-day cycle. It has a mass at least half that of [Jupiter] and orbits surprisingly close to the star—much closer than [Mercury] orbits the Sun. [John Donald Fernie]

Abhinavagupta

flourished 1014, Kashmir, India philosopher, ascetic and aesthetician, and outstanding representative of the "recognition" (*[][pratyabhijñā]*) school of Kashmiri Śaivite [monism]. This school conceived of the god Śiva (the manifestation of ultimate reality), the individual soul, and the universe as essentially one; *pratyabhijñā* refers to the way of realizing this identity. Abhinavagupta was a prolific writer on philosophy and aesthetics. Among his most notable philosophic works are the *Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-vimarśinī* and the more detailed *Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-vivṛti-vimarśinī,* both commentaries on *Īśvara-pratyabhijñā* ("Recognition of God"), by Utpala, an earlier philosopher of the *pratyabhijñā* school.

abettor

in law, a person who becomes equally guilty in the crime of another by knowingly and voluntarily aiding the criminal during the act itself. An abettor is one kind of [accomplice] (*q.v.*), the other being an accessory, who aids the criminal prior to or after the crime.

accompaniment

in music, auxiliary part or parts of a composition designed to support the principal part or to throw it into relief. In secular medieval music and in much folk and non-European music, instrumental accompaniments for singers consist of unison or octave duplications of the melody (sometimes with slight differences, creating heterophony, the simultaneous performance of variant versions of the same melody), of novel rhythmic features, or of a drone (sustained note or notes) played on wind or stringed instruments. In 16th-century European music, solo songs were sung with simple lute accompaniments, both chordal and contrapuntal (using interwoven melodic lines); notable examples include the songs of the English composer John Dowland and the French *airs de cour* (courtly songs or airs). The beginning of the 17th century saw the introduction of the [][thorough bass], or basso continuo, a type of harmonic accompaniment improvised at the harpsichord or organ and based on chords that the composer indicated by figures. By the 18th century, thorough bass accompaniments designed to support either a soloist, as in the sonatas and solo cantatas of J.S. Bach, or an instrumental ensemble, as in the operas of the Italian composer Alessandro Scarlatti, demanded from the performer a high degree of ornamental and contrapuntal invention. The accompaniment thus assumed a role as important as that of the soloist. The term [][obbligato] accompaniment came to be applied to accompaniments of this type, as opposed to []ad libitum accompaniment, the unessential ornamentation or the optional reduplication of a part, performed on a secondary instrument. Obbligato accompaniments were sometimes written out, among them one originally improvised by Bach for a movement of his *Sonata in B Minor* for flute and harpsichord. In the second half of the 18th century the obbligato accompaniment assumed a primary role, gaining increased complexity and musical substance while the solo instrument was reduced to the role of an ad libitum accompaniment. Thus, Mozart followed the example of a contemporary composer, Johann Schobert, in writing four sonatas for harpsichord accompanied by the violin. The influence of the obbligato style of the late 18th century is suggested in Beethoven's statement "I came into the world with obbligato accompaniment." Obbligato style persisted into the 19th century in both solo and concerted works of the Romantic composers, in which accompaniments became even more elaborate and expressive. The expressive resources of the piano allowed the accompaniments of Schubert to illustrate pictorial or psychological aspects of the texts of his lieder ("songs"). His example was followed in the lieder of Schumann, Brahms, and Hugo Wolf. Piano accompaniments in works for string or wind instruments acquired the status of a concerted part. Orchestral accompaniment was greatly developed in the Romantic concerto and in songs and song cycles with orchestra by numerous composers from Hector Berlioz (1803-69) to Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Benjamin Britten (1913-76).

Aaronic priesthood

in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the lesser of the two categories of priests, concerned principally with church finances and administration. *See* [Mormon].

Abigail

in the Old Testament, the wife of Nabal of southern Judah, on whose death she became one of the first wives of David (1 Samuel 25) and the mother of his son Chileab. The name Abigail was also borne by David's sister (1 Chronicles 2:16), who was the mother of Amasa, commander of the army of Absalom. From the former (self-styled "handmaid"; 1 Samuel 25:25) is derived the colloquial use of the word for a waiting woman.

a posteriori knowledge

knowledge derived from experience, as opposed to [a priori knowledge] (*q.v.*).

Abaza language

language spoken primarily in the western part of the Caucasus Mountains and in northeastern Turkey. Abaza is related to Abkhaz, Adyghian, Kabardian (Circassian), and Ubykh, which constitute the Abkhazo-Adyghian, or Northwest Caucasian, language group. These languages are noted for the great number of distinctive consonants and the limited number of distinctive vowels in their sound systems. Abaza, like [Abkhaz], has no grammatical cases. Abaza is written as well as spoken.

Acanthaceae

one of 23 families in the mint order of flowering plants (Lamiales), containing approximately 230 genera and nearly 3,500 species distributed predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The greater part of the Acanthaceae family are herbs or shrubs, but climbers (vines) and trees occur as well. The range of habitats extends from marshes to extremely dry situations, but most of these plants are found in damp tropical forests. The family is characterized by simple leaves arranged in opposite pairs on the twigs, []cystoliths (enlarged cells containing crystals of calcium carbonate) in streaks or protuberances in the vegetative parts, and bilaterally symmetrical, bisexual flowers that are usually crowded together in clusters and individually enclosed by leaflike bracts, often coloured and large. Sepals and petals number five or four each and are fused into tubular structures called the calyx and corolla. There are usually four or two stamens that arise from the corolla tissues and extend beyond the mouth of the flower; often there are one to three sterile stamens (staminodes). The pistil is superior (i.e., positioned above the attachment point of the other flower parts) and consists of two fused ovule-bearing segments (carpels) enclosing two chambers (locules), each of which has two to many ovules in two rows along the central axis of the ovary. Seeds are borne on hooks on the placenta. [![Photograph:Jacobinia magnifica]] - *Jacobinia magnifica* [![Photograph:Zebra plant (Aphelandra squarrosa)]] - Zebra plant (*Aphelandra squarrosa*) The group is mainly of horticultural interest and includes such ornamentals as bear's-breech (*[]Acanthus mollis*), []clock vine (*Thunbergia*), [][shrimp plant] (*Justicia brandegeeana*; formerly known as *Beloperone guttata*), and []caricature plant (*Graptophyllum pictum*). The largest genera include *[]Justicia* (about 600 species; *see* [photograph]; now comprising former segregate genera such as *Jacobinia* and *Beloperone*), *[]Stobilanthes* (250), *[]Barleria* (230), *[]Aphelandra* (200; *see* [photograph]), *Thunbergia* (90), *[]Dicliptera* (150), *[]Hypoestes* (50), *[]Blepharis* (80), *[]Dyschoriste* (65), *[]Lepidagathis* (100), and *[]Hygrophila* (25).

acatalasia

rare hereditary metabolic disorder caused by lack of the organic catalyst or enzyme called [][catalase]. Although a deficiency of catalase activity is noted in many tissues of the body, including the red blood cells, bone marrow, liver, and skin, only about half of the affected persons have symptoms, which consist of recurrent infections of the gums and associated oral structures that may lead to gangrenous lesions. Such lesions are rare after puberty. The disorder has been most frequently reported in Japanese and Korean populations; its estimated frequency in Japan is approximately 2 in 100,000. Treatment includes surgery, tooth extraction, and antimicrobial therapy.

Acheron

river in Thesprotía in Epirus, Greece, that was thought in ancient times to go to Hades because it flowed through dark gorges and went underground in several places; an oracle of the dead was located on its bank. In Greek mythology it is a river in Hades, and the name sometimes refers to the lower world generally. Several other rivers in Greece are also called Acheron, which traditionally means River of Woe.

actinium series

set of unstable heavy nuclei constituting one of the four [radioactive series] (*q.v.*).

acrolith

statue, especially ancient Greek, in which the trunk of the figure was of wood and the head, hands, and feet of marble. The wood was either gilded or covered by real or metal drapery. Acroliths are known from the descriptions of Pausanias, a 2nd-century-AD Greek geographer and traveller, who mentions, for example, Phidias' acrolith of Athena at Plataea. This form of sculpture was practiced at least as late as the 4th century BC.

Abertillery

town, [Blaenau Gwent] county borough, historic county of [Monmouthshire] (Sir Fynwy), Wales, in the valley of the River Ebbw. Coal mining was its main economic interest from about 1850 until the last mines closed in the 1980s. Nantyglo, to the north, was the site of famous ironworks. Some light manufacturing has been introduced to Abertillery since the 1930s, mostly with government assistance, and the town is a commercial centre. Pop. (2001) 11,887.

Abbevillian industry

prehistoric stone-tool tradition generally considered to represent the oldest occurrence in Europe of a bifacial (hand-ax) technology. The Abbevillian industry dates from an imprecisely determined part of the Middle Pleistocene, somewhat less than 700,000 years ago. It was recovered from high terrace sediments of the lower Somme valley, in a suburb of Abbeville, Fr. The distinctive stone tools include massive core-tools (hand-axes), bifacially flaked, with deep flake scars and sinuous or jagged edges, along with thick, usually unretouched, flakes. The assemblage is usually considered closely related to the [][Acheulian industry] and may, in fact, represent merely a variant or temporal expression of it. *See also* [Acheulian industry].

Human Spaceflight Launches and Returns, 2006

Country Flight Crew^1^ Dates^2^

Abdullah, Crown Prince

Crown Prince Abdullah, the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, emerged as a key political decision maker concerning Arab regional and international affairs in 2002. Following the 1995 stroke that afflicted his half brother, King Fahd, Prince Abdullah began running the daily affairs of the country. Though Abdullah was perceived as committed to preserving Arab interests, his goal was also to maintain good relations with the West, especially the U.S. Even before the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks by militant Islamists in the U.S., strains had appeared in Saudi-U.S. relations—the Saudis accused the new U.S. administration of Pres. George W. Bush of not being evenhanded in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. In 2001 Abdullah twice declined U.S. presidential invitations to visit Washington, D.C. The events of September 11 increased these strains, primarily because most of the suspects in the attack were Saudi nationals. Though Abdullah condemned these acts, Saudi-U.S. relations reached a low ebb in the first half of 2002. In a move to improve relations, Abdullah launched his proposal for an Saudi peace initiative. It was adopted during the Arab summit meeting held in Beirut, Leb., on March 27-28, 2002, as an Arab peace initiative. The plan called upon Israel to withdraw from the Palestinian and Syrian lands that it had occupied since 1967 and in return promised a full Arab normalization of relations with the Jewish state. He accepted a Saudi-Iraqi rapprochement, however, and publicly refused to support any attack on Iraq or the use of Saudi military facilities for such an act. The rift in Saudi-U.S. relations had mended by year's end after intensive diplomatic efforts. ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAziz was born in 1923. He was one of King Abd al-ʿAziz's 37 sons. As a result of his support of Crown Prince Faysal during Faysal's power struggle with King Saud, Abdullah was rewarded in 1962 with command of the National Guard, a force nearly as powerful as the Saudi army. He was appointed second deputy minister in 1975 by King Khalid after Faysal's assassination and was named crown prince and first deputy prime minister in 1982 by King Fahd. Abdullah, who continued to command the National Guard, served as regent in 1996 for a short period. Abdullah was perceived by many as a man of integrity and as part of the "reformers" camp that supported gradual change in Saudi Arabia. In early 2002 he placed the institution responsible for the education of females—which had been overseen by the Saudi religious establishment—under the control of the central government as part of the Ministry of Education, which was responsible for the education of both male and female students. In August he backed the Justice Ministry's decision to license lawyers in a bid to regulate the Islamic justice system. In addition, he seemed to favour reducing state subsidies to private enterprises and moving toward an economic privatization program. In September he called on the religious establishment to be less rigid and open up in order to better serve the populace. Mahmoud Haddad

Adamkus, Valdas V.

In 1997 Valdas Adamkus retired from his post at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) after nearly 30 years--the longest tenure of any senior executive at the agency--with the expressed intention of working on his golf game. Soon afterward, however, it seemed that golf would have to wait, because in February 1998 the unassuming 71-year-old career bureaucrat, a citizen of the United States for the past half century, became a European head of state. A month earlier after a closely contested election, he had won a five-year term as president of his native country, Lithuania, where he had only recently regained citizenship. His candidacy had generated considerable controversy; opponents painted him as an interloping American-made carpetbagger, whereas supporters viewed him as a prodigal son, long an exile in a foreign land, completing his odyssey back home. His absence during the Soviet era may have helped Adamkus gain his victory. "I don't carry any political baggage," he declared. "I don't represent any old systems." His winning margin during the election, decided by a runoff, was less than 1%, only a few thousand votes, but it was enough to defeat Arturas Paulauskas, who was backed by the popular outgoing president, Algirdas Brazauskas, a former communist. As president, Adamkus announced his intention to give up his U.S. passport but not his ties to the West. In fact, he worked to strengthen those bonds by continuing in force the two main objectives of Lithuanian foreign policy: eventual membership in NATO, in order to improve national security, and in the European Union, to improve the economy. All the while, Adamkus was careful not to alienate his nation from Russia and its Baltic neighbours; he met with Polish and Ukrainian leaders in May and with the other presidents of Eastern and Central Europe in June. Adamkus was born with the surname Adamkavecius in Kaunas, Lith., on Nov. 3, 1926. During World War II he fought with Lithuanian insurrectionists against Soviet rule, published an underground newspaper during the Nazi occupation, and then resumed the fight against the returning Soviet army before fleeing in 1944 to Germany, where he attended the University of Munich. In 1949 he immigrated with his family to the United States, settling in a Lithuanian-American community in Chicago, where in 1960 he graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology with a degree in civil engineering. Adamkus was active in émigré politics in the 1950s and 1960s, promoting Lithuanian independence and cultural heritage and achieving high positions in such organizations as the liberal Santara-Sviesa ("Accord-Light"), the Lithuanian Community in America, and the American Lithuanian Council. Adamkus began his career with the EPA upon its inception in 1970, and in 1971 he was picked to be the deputy regional administrator of Region V, in the Midwest. Ten years later he was appointed to the position of regional administrator. Adamkus distinguished himself by improving the water quality of the Great Lakes with a model program that gained international repute, by crafting groundbreaking agreements with Native American tribes, and by refusing to participate in an EPA cover-up regarding the unlawful emission of chemical toxins. Most far-reaching perhaps was his work in helping to address and solve environmental protection issues in Eastern Europe by supplying consultation and infrastructure. TOM MICHAEL

Abbott, George Francis

U.S. theatrical director, producer, playwright, actor, and motion-picture director (b. June 25, 1887, Forestville, N.Y.--d. Jan. 31, 1995, Miami Beach, Fla.), as the dean of Broadway showmen, brought a no-nonsense approach, a flair for establishing pacing and humour, and an exceptional ability to maintain action effectively to the staging of some of the most popular Broadway musicals and farces that appeared from the 1920s to the '60s. His more than 120 productions over an eight-decade career bore his unmistakable touch, often as a play doctor. From 1948 through 1962 Abbott's shows garnered a remarkable 40 Tony awards, including five for him. (He received a special lifetime achievement Tony award in 1976.) After graduating (1911) from the University of Rochester, N.Y., Abbott studied drama at Harvard University before making his acting debut in *The Misleading Lady* (1913). He performed until the 1920s, when he turned to playwriting. Abbott scored a huge success with *Broadway* (1926) and followed that with such plaudit-gathering melodramas as *Chicago* (1926), *Four Walls* (1927), and *Coquette* (1927). He established a reputation as a master of farce with *Twentieth Century* (1932), *Three Men on a Horse* (1935), and *Boy Meets Girl* (1935). Among his directorial efforts were *Jumbo* (1935), *On Your Toes* (1936), *The Boys from Syracuse* (1938), *Pal Joey* (1940), *On the Town* (1944), *Where's Charley?* (1948), *Call Me Madam* (1950), *A Tree Grows in Brooklyn* (1951), *The Pajama Game* (1954), *Damn Yankees* (1955), *Fiorello!* (1959), and *A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum* (1962). He also collaborated on the screenplay for *All Quiet on the Western Front* (1930) and directed the film versions of *The Pajama Game* (1957) and *Damn Yankees* (1958). Abbott's autobiography, *Mister Abbott*, appeared in 1963. At 100 years of age he directed a revival of *Broadway,* and he collaborated on a Broadway revival of *Damn Yankees* shortly before his death at the age of 107.

A Leftist Surge in Latin America

by []Paul Knox [![Photograph:Presidents (fromtop) Fidel Castro (Cuba), Hugo Chávez (Venezuela), Luiz Inácio Lula ...]] - Presidents (fromtop) Fidel Castro (Cuba), Hugo Chávez (Venezuela), Luiz Inácio Lula ... The visit of [Venezuelan] Pres. [][Hugo Chávez] (*see* Biographies) to New York City in September 2005 provided a dramatic illustration of the growing power of populist leaders in [Latin America]. Having positioned himself as a champion of the poor throughout the region, Chávez sought to take the same message to the United States. He proposed to provide cheap home heating oil at a deep discount to poor Americans during the coming winter through the American subsidiary of Venezuela's state-owned petroleum company. The gesture turned the tables on the U.S., historically a major contributor of foreign aid to Latin America. With energy prices soaring and Chávez sitting atop some of the world's largest oil reserves, few doubted that he would be able to honour the pledge. [![Map/Still]] Though Chávez was the most outspoken of Latin America's left-wing leaders, eclipsing even Cuba's Fidel Castro in political theatrics, he had plenty of company. (*See* [Map].) Since Chávez came to power in 1999, leaders with solid left-of-centre credentials had been elected in Brazil (Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002), Argentina (Néstor Kirchner in 2003) and Uruguay ([Tabaré Vázquez] [*see* Biographies] in 2005). Leftist candidates had also mounted strong campaigns in Mexico ([Andrés Manuel López Obrador] [*see* Biographies]) and Bolivia (Evo Morales). All rejected the political and economic formulas of U.S.-supported leaders in the region, and most of them were backed by well-organized social movements demanding greater popular participation in state affairs and policies more favourable to the poor and Indians. In the early years of the 21st century, Latin America was experiencing more grassroots ferment than at any other time since the 1970s, when radical political experiments were snuffed out by military coups d'état. The leftist surge was rooted in reaction to the so-called []Washington consensus, a set of economic policies adopted in most Latin American countries during the 1990s at the behest of the U.S. government, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and foreign bankers—often as a condition for relief of crippling debts. The prescriptions included tax increases, tight curbs on public spending, trade liberalization, and the sale of state-held assets to private interests. For a time the market-oriented policies provided stability, but delivering sustained increases in prosperity proved difficult. Farmers and small manufacturers found themselves unable to compete with foreign-made goods. Privatized utilities sharply increased rates for services such as electricity, water, and telephones. Some Latin Americans prospered by producing for export markets or selling their skills to foreign firms, but stark income disparities remained and in some countries widened. In the absence of effective judicial reform, corruption often accompanied the market opening. Alarmingly, in a region with a history of shocking abuses under military rule, a poll taken for the United Nations Development Programme found a decline in support for democracy from 61% in 1996 to 57% in 2002.

Accra

capital and largest city of [Ghana], on the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean). The city lies partly on a cliff, 25 to 40 feet (8 to 12 metres) high, and spreads northward over the undulating Accra plains. The area's susceptibility to faulting is the cause of occasional earthquakes. When the Portuguese first settled on the coast of what is now Ghana in 1482, the present site of Accra was occupied by several villages of the [][Ga] tribe, ruled from a parent settlement, []Ayaso (Ayawaso), located about 15 miles (24 km) north. Between 1650 and 1680 the Europeans built three fortified trading posts—Fort James (English), Fort Crevecoeur (Dutch), and Christiansborg Castle (Danish)—along the coast in the locality. While these European posts were being constructed, Ayaso was destroyed in a tribal war, and its population, together with that of the other major Ga towns on the Accra plains, was drawn to the coast by the prospect of profitable trade with the Europeans. As a result, three coastal villages—Osu (Christiansborg), Dutch Accra (later called Ussher Town), and James Town—sprang up, becoming the nuclei of what was to be Accra. The name Accra itself is a corruption of the Akan word *nkran*. It refers to the black ants that abound in the vicinity. It came to be applied to the inhabitants of this part of the Accra plains. Accra grew into a prosperous trading centre. The Danes and the Dutch left the region in 1850 and 1872, respectively, and in 1877 Accra became the capital of the British Gold Coast colony. In 1898 a municipal council was formed to improve the town. By the 1930s Accra was systematically laid out. Accra is the administrative, economic, and educational centre of Ghana. The city contains the head offices of all of the large banks and trading firms, the insurance agencies, the electricity corporation, the general post office, the large open markets to which most of the food supply comes, and the Accra Central Library.

Abū Shahrayn

mound in southern Iraq, site of the ancient Sumerian city of [Eridu] (*q.v.*).

ʿAbbāsid Dynasty

second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim Empire of the Caliphate. It overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in AD 750 and reigned as the [ʿAbbāsid caliphate] until destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258. The name is derived from that of the uncle of the Prophet Muḥammad, al-ʿAbbās (died *c.* 653), of the Hāshimite clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. From *c.* 718, members of his family worked to gain control of the empire, and by skillful propaganda won much support, especially from Shīʿī Arabs and Persians in Khorāsān. Open revolt in 747, under the leadership of [][Abū Muslim], led to the defeat of Marwān II, the last Umayyad caliph, at the [Battle of the Great Zāb River] (750) in Mesopotamia and to the proclamation of the first ʿAbbāsid caliph, [][Abū al-ʿAbbās as-Saffāḥ]. Under the ʿAbbāsids the caliphate entered a new phase. Instead of focussing, as the Umayyads had done, on the West—on North Africa, the Mediterranean, and southern Europe—the caliphate now turned eastward. The capital was moved to the new city of [][Baghdad], and events in Persia and Transoxania were closely watched. For the first time the caliphate was not coterminous with Islām; in Egypt, North Africa, Spain, and elsewhere, local dynasties claimed caliphal status. With the rise of the ʿAbbāsids the base for influence in the empire became international, emphasizing membership in the community of believers rather than Arab nationality. Since much support for the ʿAbbāsids came from Persian converts, it was natural for the ʿAbbāsids to take over much of the Persian (Sāsānian) tradition of government. Support by pious Muslims likewise led the ʿAbbāsids to acknowledge publicly the embryonic []Islāmic law and to profess to base their rule on the religion of Islām. Between 750 and 833 the ʿAbbāsids raised the prestige and power of the empire, promoting commerce, industry, arts, and science, particularly during the reigns of al-Manṣūr, Hārūn ar-Rashīd, and al-Maʾmūn. Their temporal power, however, began to decline when al-[][Muʿtaṣim] introduced non-Muslim Berber, Slav, and especially Turkish mercenary forces into his personal army. Although these troops were converted to Islām, the base of imperial unity through religion was gone, and some of the new army officers quickly learned to control the caliphate through assassination of any caliph who would not accede to their demands. The power of the army officers had already weakened through internal rivalries when the Iranian [][Būyids] entered Baghdad in 945, demanding of al-[]Mustakfī (944-946) that they be recognized as the sole rulers of the territory they controlled. This event initiated a century-long period in which much of the empire was ruled by local secular dynasties. In 1055 the ʿAbbāsids were overpowered by the [][Seljuqs], who took what temporal power may have been left to the caliph but respected his position as religious leader, restoring the authority of the caliphate, especially during the reigns of al-Mustarshid (1118-35), al-Muqtafī, and an-Nāṣir. Soon after, in 1258, the dynasty fell during a Mongol siege of Baghdad.

Achebe, Chinua

*in full **Albert Chinualumogu Achebe** * born Nov. 16, 1930, Ogidi, Nigeria prominent Igbo (Ibo) novelist acclaimed for his unsentimental depictions of the social and psychological disorientation accompanying the imposition of Western customs and values upon traditional African society. His particular concern was with emergent Africa at its moments of crisis; his novels range in subject matter from the first contact of an African village with the white man to the educated African's attempt to create a firm moral order out of the changing values in a large city. Educated in English at the University of Ibadan, Achebe taught for a short time before joining the staff of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation in Lagos, where he served as director of external broadcasting during 1961-66. In 1967 he cofounded a publishing company at Enugu with the poet [Christopher Okigbo], who died shortly thereafter in the Nigerian civil war. In 1969 Achebe toured the United States with his fellow writers [Gabriel Okara] and [Cyprian Ekwensi], lecturing at universities. Upon his return to Nigeria he was appointed research fellow at the University of Nigeria and became professor of English, a position he held from 1976 until 1981 (professor emeritus from 1985). He was director (from 1970) of two Nigerian publishers, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. and Nwankwo-Ifejika Ltd. After an automobile accident in Nigeria in 1990 that left him partially paralyzed, he moved to the United States, where he taught at Bard College in New York. *[Things Fall Apart]* (1958), Achebe's first novel, concerns traditional Igbo life at the time of the advent of missionaries and colonial government in his homeland. His principal character cannot accept the new order, even though the old has already collapsed. In *[No Longer at Ease]* (1960) he portrayed a newly appointed civil servant, recently returned from university study in England, who is unable to sustain the moral values he believes to be correct in the face of the obligations and temptations of his new position.

Adams, Douglas Noël

British novelist (b. March 11, 1952, Cambridge, Eng.—d. May 11, 2001, Santa Barbara, Calif.), was the creator of the satiric science-fiction whimsy *The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy,* which first saw life as a radio series and then became a book, a television series, a play, record albums, comic books, and a computer game, gaining cult status along the way. The book and its sequels feature British suburbanite Arthur Dent, who—after being rescued by Ford Prefect, a visitor from the planet Betelgeuse, just before Earth is destroyed to clear the way for a hyperspace freeway—encounters such characters as the two-headed alien Zaphod Beeblebrox and learns that the secret of the universe is the number 42. More than 14 million copies of the books were sold worldwide. Adams was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, earning an M.A. in English literature in 1974. At Cambridge he wrote comedy sketches for the Footlights revue, and following graduation he occasionally worked on writing projects while making his living at a series of odd jobs, including serving as a bodyguard for the Qatari royal family. From 1978 to 1980 Adams wrote scripts for the BBC and worked as a script editor for the *Dr. Who* TV series. In 1978 *The Hitchhiker's Guide,* the culmination of an idea he had had while hitchhiking in Europe in 1971, began on BBC radio. It quickly gained a huge following, and a stage version was produced in 1979. Adams turned it into a novel that same year, and it became a TV series in 1981. The first book was joined by four sequels—*The Restaurant at the End of the Universe* (1980), *Life, the Universe and Everything* (1982), *So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish* (1985), and *Mostly Harmless* (1992)—to become what Adams called his five-part trilogy. Adams also wrote such books as *The Meaning of Liff* (with John Lloyd; 1983) and two detective-story satires—*Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency* (1987) and *The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul* (1988)—as well as the nonfiction *Last Chance to See* (with Mark Carwardine; 1990), which reflected his interest in ecology and his concerns about endangered species. He also formed (1996) a multimedia company, the Digital Village, and shortly before his death finished writing the script for a Hollywood film version of *The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.* The day before Adams died, his main character achieved immortality when asteroid 18610 was named Arthurdent.

[Nathaniel Currier]

Lithographer [Nathaniel Currier], who died this day in 1888, and his partner James Merritt Ives published more than 7,000 prints between 1840 and 1890, which were among the most popular wall hangings in 19th-century America. Nathaniel Currier Lithographer Nathaniel Currier, who died this day in 1888, and his partner James Merritt Ives published more than 7,000 prints between 1840 and 1890, which were among the most popular wall hangings in 19th-century America.

abecedarius

a type of [acrostic] in which the first letter of each line of a [poem] or the first letter of the first word of each [stanza] taken in order forms the alphabet. Examples of these are some of the [][Psalms] (in Hebrew), such as Psalms 25 and 34, where successive verses begin with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in order. The word is from the late Latin for "alphabetical" and is derived from the names of the letters *a, b, c,* and *d.*

a priori knowledge

in Western philosophy since the time of Immanuel Kant, knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to [][a posteriori knowledge], which derives from experience alone. The Latin phrases *a* *priori* ("from what is before") and *a posteriori* ("from what is after") were used in philosophy originally to distinguish between arguments from causes and arguments from effects. The first recorded occurrence of the phrases is in the writings of the 14th-century logician [][Albert of Saxony]. Here, an argument a priori is said to be "from causes to the effect" and an argument a posteriori to be "from effects to causes." Similar definitions were given by many later philosophers down to and including G.W. Leibniz, and the expressions still occur sometimes with these meanings in nonphilosophical contexts. It should be remembered that medieval logicians used the word "cause" in a syllogistic sense corresponding to Aristotle's *aitia* and did not necessarily mean by *prius* something earlier in time. This point is brought out by the use of the phrase *demonstratio propter quid* ("demonstration on account of what") as an equivalent for *demonstratio a priori* and of *demonstratio quia* ("demonstration that, or because") as an equivalent for *demonstratio a* *posteriori.* Hence the reference is obviously to Aristotle's distinction between knowledge of the ground or explanation of something and knowledge of the mere fact. Latent in this distinction for [][Kant] is the antithesis between necessary, deductive truth and probable, inductive truth. The former applies to a priori judgments, which are arrived at independently of experience and hold universally; the latter applies to a posteriori judgments, which are contingent on experience and therefore must acknowledge possible exceptions. In his *[Critique of Pure Reason]* Kant used these distinctions, in part, to explain the special case of mathematical knowledge, which he regarded as the fundamental example of a priori knowledge. Although the use of a priori to distinguish knowledge such as that which we have in mathematics is comparatively recent, the interest of philosophers in that kind of knowledge is almost as old as philosophy itself. No one finds it puzzling that one can acquire information by looking, feeling, or listening, but philosophers who have taken seriously the possibility of learning by mere thinking have often considered that this requires some special explanation. [][Plato] maintained in his *Meno* and in his *Phaedo* that the learning of geometrical truths was only the recollection of knowledge possessed in a previous existence when we could contemplate the eternal ideas, or forms, directly. [][Augustine] and his medieval followers, sympathizing with Plato's intentions but unable to accept the details of his theory, declared that the ideas were in the mind of God, who from time to time gave intellectual illumination to men. [][René Descartes], going further in the same direction, held that all the ideas required for a priori knowledge were innate in each human mind. For Kant the puzzle was to explain the possibility of a priori judgments that were also synthetic (*i.e.,* not merely explicative of concepts), and the solution that he proposed was the doctrine that space, time, and the categories (*e.g.,* causality), about which we were able to make such judgments, were forms imposed by the mind on the stuff of experience.

Acarina

subclass of the arthropod class Arachnida that includes the [mite] and [tick] (*qq.v.*).

Absurd, Theatre of the

dramatic works of certain European and American dramatists of the 1950s and early '60s who agreed with the Existentialist philosopher [][Albert Camus's] assessment, in his essay "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942), that the human situation is essentially []absurd, devoid of purpose. The term is also loosely applied to those dramatists and the production of those works. Though no formal Absurdist movement existed as such, dramatists as diverse as Samuel [][Beckett], Eugène [][Ionesco], Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Harold Pinter, and a few others shared a pessimistic vision of humanity struggling vainly to find a purpose and to control its fate. Humankind in this view is left feeling hopeless, bewildered, and anxious. The ideas that inform the plays also dictate their structure. Absurdist playwrights, therefore, did away with most of the logical structures of traditional theatre. There is little dramatic action as conventionally understood; however frantically the characters perform, their busyness serves to underscore the fact that nothing happens to change their existence. In Beckett's *[Waiting for Godot]* (1953), plot is eliminated, and a timeless, circular quality emerges as two lost creatures, usually played as tramps, spend their days waiting—but without any certainty of whom they are waiting for or of whether he, or it, will ever come. Language in an Absurdist play is often dislocated, full of cliches, puns, repetitions, and non sequiturs. The characters in Ionesco's *[The Bald Soprano]* (1950) sit and talk, repeating the obvious until it sounds like nonsense, thus revealing the inadequacies of verbal communication. The ridiculous, purposeless behaviour and talk give the plays a sometimes dazzling comic surface, but there is an underlying serious message of metaphysical distress. This reflects the influence of comic tradition drawn from such sources as commedia dell'arte, vaudeville, and music hall combined with such theatre arts as mime and acrobatics. At the same time, the impact of ideas as expressed by the Surrealist, Existentialist, and Expressionist schools and the writings of Franz Kafka is evident. Originally shocking in its flouting of theatrical convention while popular for its apt expression of the preoccupations of the mid-20th century, the Theatre of the Absurd declined somewhat by the mid-1960s; some of its innovations had been absorbed into the mainstream of theatre even while serving to inspire further experiments. Some of the chief authors of the Absurd have sought new directions in their art, while others continue to work in the same vein.

aconite

any member of two genera of perennial herbs of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae): *Aconitum,* consisting of summer-flowering poisonous plants (*see* [monkshood]), and *Eranthis,* consisting of spring-flowering ornamentals (*see* [winter aconite]).

acclimatization

any of the numerous gradual, long-term responses of an organism to changes in its environment. Such responses are more or less habitual and reversible should environmental conditions revert to an earlier state. The numerous sudden changes that evoke rapid and short-term responses via the nervous and hormonal systems are not examples of acclimatization. An individual organism can regulate its internal processes rapidly to sustain itself within the usual range of environmental changes that it encounters hourly or daily. But this rapid regulation, or [][homeostasis], is limited in its operation to a small range of environmental variations. Homeostatic regulation usually cannot meet effectively large environmental changes such as those that would allow a plant or animal living in the warmth of summer to function in the cold of winter. As summer wanes, organisms change their substance and their habits in seeming anticipation of the coming winter. This gradual adjustment to conditions is acclimatization. In contrast to changes that occur during growth and development, acclimatization, as defined above, refers to an adaptive change that is reversible when conditions return to their former condition. Acclimatization does not leave a lasting impression upon the genetic mechanisms of the acclimatized organism. The adaptation of populations to change that effects evolution by the selection of genetic capability is a different process from the acclimatization of an individual. In dealing with acclimatization, the influence of climate upon life can be treated under headings of adjustments to temperature, humidity, salinity, light, pressure, and certain chemical substances in the environment. Because organisms do not have unlimited combinations of adaptations, they may use a similar process to adapt to changes of different origins. For example, in acclimatization to the low pressure of oxygen ([][hypoxia]) in high mountains, animals, including man, improve the capacity of blood to transport oxygen by increasing the number of red blood cells ([][polycythemia]); in the chronic disease [][emphysema], the inadequate supply of oxygen to the lungs is to some degree compensated for by a similar polycythemia.

[Ravi Shankar]

Indian musician [Ravi Shankar]—a [sitar] virtuoso and composer who founded the National Orchestra of India and who was influential in stimulating Western appreciation of classical [Hindustani music]—was born this day in 1920. Ravi Shankar Indian musician Ravi Shankar—a sitar virtuoso and composer who founded the National Orchestra of India and who was influential in stimulating Western appreciation of classical Hindustani music—was born this day in 1920.

Abadi, Agha Hasan

Indian-born Pakistani financier who founded the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (b. May 14, 1922--d. Aug. 5, 1995).

Achilles Tatius

flourished 2nd century AD, Alexandria author of *[]Leucippe and Cleitophon,* one of the Greek prose [][romances] that influenced the development of the novel centuries later. Nothing certain is known of Achilles' life. Some Byzantine sources called him a *rhetor* ("teacher of rhetoric"). In the *Suda* lexicon of the 10th century AD, he is described as a Christian and—dubiously—as a bishop. His real profession is uncertain. The romance, a typical adventure story of love triumphant over innumerable obstacles—shipwrecks, tortures, abductions and attacks by pirates—is related in the first person by Cleitophon himself, whom Achilles claims to have met in Sidon. The work's style is typical of Atticism, with its purity of diction, short unconnected sentences, parallel clauses, detailed descriptions, and frequent declamations and disquisitions, often in antithetical form (*e.g.,* on love for women and pederasty). Achilles shows great ingenuity in inventing coups de theatre (Leucippe apparently dies three times but always reappears), but his characterization is poor, and plot is relegated to the background by irrelevant interruptions. Nevertheless, the work's popularity was demonstrated by its appearance in a number of Egyptian papyri, of which at least one has been dated as early as the 2nd century AD. The romance was admired by Byzantine critics and was widely translated in the Renaissance. (*See also* [Hellenistic romance].) Additional Reading {#273753.toc} ------------------ English translations appear in Susan A. Stephens and John J. Winkler (eds.), *Ancient Greek Novels: The Fragments: Introduction, Text, Translation, and Commentary* (1995); and B.P. Reardon (ed.), *Collected Ancient Greek Novels* (1989). Useful commentary and analysis are included in Ebbe Vilborg, *Achilles Tatius: Leucippe and Clitophon: A Commentary* (1902, reissued 1962); and Shadi Bartsch, *Decoding the Ancient Novel: The Reader and the Role of Description in Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius* (1989). Achilles is discussed also in Tomas Hägg, *The Novel in Antiquity*, rev. trans. (1983, reissued 1991; originally published in Swedish, 1980); and Gareth Schmeling (ed.), *The Novel in the Ancient World*, rev. ed. (2003).

aberration

in optical systems, such as lenses and curved mirrors, the deviation of light rays through lenses, causing images of objects to be blurred. In an ideal system, every point on the object will focus to a point of zero size on the image. Practically, however, each image point occupies a volume of finite size and unsymmetrical shape, causing some blurring of the whole image. Unlike a plane mirror, which yields images free of aberrations, a [][lens] is an imperfect image producer, becoming ideal only for rays passing through its centre parallel to the optical axis (a line through the centre, perpendicular to the lens surfaces). The equations developed for object-image relations in a lens having spherical surfaces are only approximate and deal only with paraxial rays—*i.e.,* rays making only small angles with the optical axis. When light of only a single wavelength is present, there are five aberrations to be considered, called spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, curvature of field, and distortion. A sixth aberration found in lenses (but not mirrors)—namely, chromatic aberration—results when light is not monochromatic (not of one wavelength). [![Art]] In [spherical aberration], rays of light from a point on the optical axis of a lens having spherical surfaces do not all meet at the same image point. Rays passing through the lens close to its centre are focused farther away than rays passing through a circular zone near its rim. For every cone of rays from an axial object point meeting the lens, there is a cone of rays that converges to form an image point, the cone being different in length according to the diameter of the circular zone. Wherever a plane at right angles to the optical axis is made to intersect a cone, the rays will form a circular cross section. The area of the cross section varies with distance along the optical axis, the smallest size known as the []circle of least confusion. The image most free of spherical aberration is found at this distance. [![Art]] [Coma], so called because a point image is blurred into a comet shape, is produced when rays from an off-axis object point are imaged by different zones of the lens. In spherical aberration, the images of an on-axis object point that fall on a plane at right angles to the optical axis are circular in shape, of varying size, and superimposed about a common centre; in coma, the images of an off-axis object point are circular in shape, of varying size, but displaced with respect to each other. The accompanying [diagram] shows an exaggerated case of two images, one resulting from a central cone of rays and the other from a cone passing through the rim. The usual way for reducing coma is to employ a diaphragm to eliminate the outer cones of rays. [![Art]] [Astigmatism], unlike spherical aberration and coma, results from the failure of a single zone of a lens to focus the image of an off-axis point at a single point. As shown in the three-dimensional [schematic] the two planes at right angles to one another passing through the optical axis are the meridian plane and the sagittal plane, the meridian plane being the one containing the off-axis object point. Rays not in the meridian plane, called []skew rays, are focused farther away from the lens than those lying in the plane. In either case the rays do not meet in a point focus but as lines perpendicular to each other. Intermediate between these two positions the images are elliptical in shape. [![Art]] [![Art]] [Curvature of field] and [distortion] refer to the location of image points with respect to one another. Even though the former three aberrations may be corrected for in the design of a lens, these two aberrations could remain. In curvature of field, the image of a plane object perpendicular to the optical axis will lie on a paraboloidal surface called the [Petzval surface] (after József Petzval, a Hungarian mathematician). Flat image fields are desirable in photography in order to match the film plane and projection when the enlarging paper or projection screen lie on a flat surface. Distortion refers to deformation of an image. There are two kinds of distortion, either of which may be present in a lens: []barrel distortion, in which magnification decreases with distance from the axis, and []pincushion distortion, in which magnification increases with distance from the axis. [![Art]] The last aberration, [chromatic aberration], is the failure of a lens to focus all colours in the same plane. Because the refractive index is least at the red end of the spectrum, the focal length of a lens in air will be greater for red and green than for blue and violet. Magnification is affected by chromatic aberration, being different along the optical axis and perpendicular to it. The first is called longitudinal chromatic aberration, and the second, lateral chromatic aberration.

acetophenone

(C~6~H~5~COCH~3~), an organic compound used as an ingredient in perfumes and as a chemical intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, resins, flavouring agents, and a form of tear gas. It also has been used as a drug to induce sleep. The compound can be synthesized from benzene and acetyl chloride, but it is prepared commercially by the air oxidation of ethylbenzene.

Abqaiq

*Arabic **Buqayq,** * town, eastern Saudi Arabia, about 25 miles (40 km) west of the Persian Gulf. It is situated in the southern end of the Abqaiq oil field, one of the largest and most productive in the kingdom. Abqaiq grew rapidly following the discovery of the field in 1940. By 1950 the town was the southern terminus of the Tapline (Trans-Arabian Pipeline), a 1,068-mile- (1,718-kilometre-) long pipeline to Ṣaydā (Sidon), Lebanon; the following year Abqaiq was linked to Riyadh and Ad-Dammām by rail. The town's facilities include pumping stations, gas-oil separator plants, and pipelines.

Abuná River

*Spanish **Río Abuná,** Portuguese **Rio Abunã,** * a headwater of the Amazon, east of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes. The navigable river flows for about 200 miles (320 km) northeast through rain forests, forming Bolivia's northern border with Brazil. It joins the Río Madeira, a tributary of the Amazon, at Manoa, Bolivia. Rubber, Brazil nuts, quinine, and other forest products are the principal items of commerce in the sparsely inhabited Abuná region.

Abkhaz

*also called **Abkhazian,** Abkhaz **Apswa,** * any member of a Caucasian people living chiefly in the Abkhazia republic in northwesternmost Georgia. The Bzyb Abkhaz, who have a distinct dialect, are found around the Bzyb River; the Abzhui Abkhaz, on whose dialect the literary language is based, live near the Kodori River; and the Zamurzakan Abkhaz are found in the southeast. The []Abaza people, who speak a similar language, dwell north of the main Caucasus mountain chain around the sources of the Kuban and Zelenchuk rivers in Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia. []Abaza and [Abkhaz] are so similar that many linguists consider them to be dialects of a single language. The traditional economy of the Abkhaz is based on cattle breeding, agriculture, viticulture, and beekeeping. In religion they are chiefly Sunnīte Muslims and Eastern Orthodox Christians.

Abū Qīr Bay

*also called **Abukir Bay** , or **Aboukir Bay** * semicircular inlet of the Mediterranean Sea, lying between Abū Qīr Point (southwest) and the mouth of the Rosetta Branch (northeast) of the Nile River delta, in Lower Egypt. The bay was the scene of the Battle of the Nile (1798), in which an English fleet under Rear Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson defeated the Napoleonic fleet. A natural-gas field, developed offshore in the late 1970s, provides energy for industries around Alexandria.

Abū Jirāb

*also spelled **Abu Gurab** * ancient Egyptian site, about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Abū Ṣīr, between Ṣaqqārah and Giza; it is known as the location of two 5th-dynasty (*c*. 2465-*c*. 2325 BC) sun temples. The first part of the []5th dynasty is recognized as a period of unusually strong emphasis on the worship of the sun god Re, contemporary inscriptions recording that six sun temples were built. Only those of King Userkaf and King [][Neuserre], however, have been found and excavated, the latter one being better preserved because it was built entirely of stone. The temple of King Neuserre originally consisted of a large unroofed platform surrounded by storerooms, cult chambers, and an altar. In the rear, resting on a rectangular podium, was a squat obelisk, about 56 feet (18 m) high and perhaps signifying radiating sunbeams. A long, covered passage approached the platform and was decorated with some of the most beautifully sculptured and painted scenes remaining from the Old Kingdom.

Acaraí Mountains

*also spelled **Acarahy,** or **Akarai,** Portuguese **Serra Acaraí** * low range on the border of Brazil (Pará state) and southern Guyana. The mountains, which rise to about 2,000 feet (600 metres) above sea level, run in an east-west direction for about 80 miles (130 km) and form part of the northern watershed of the Amazon Basin. The whole area is covered with dense tropical rain forest and was first mapped, by satellite, in the late 1970s.

Adamawa Plateau

*also spelled **Adamaoua Plateau,** * volcanic upland in west-central Africa. Though chiefly in north-central Cameroon, part of the plateau, known as the Gotel Mountains, is in southeastern Nigeria. The plateau is the source of the [][Benue River]. Its highest elevations are more than 8,700 feet (2,650 m) above sea level. Many craters and small lakes attest to the region's volcanic origin. Vegetation is chiefly savanna, with some tropical woodlands; the economy is based on pastoralism, with subsistence agriculture, and there are also some cattle ranches. Some tin deposits are exploited, and exploitation of bauxite deposits began in 1976-77. The region is named for Modibbo Adama (d. 1847/48), the founder of a Fulani emirate.

Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī

*in full **Abū Al-faraj ʿalī Ibn Al-ḥusayn Al-qurashī Al-iṣbahānī** , also called **Al-iṣfahānī** * born 897, Isfahan, Iran died November 20, 967, Baghdad literary scholar who composed an encyclopaedic and fundamental work on Arabic song, composers, poets, and musicians. Abū al-Faraj was a descendant of Marwān II, the last Umayyad caliph of Syria. Despite the enmity of this family and the ʿAlids, he was a Shīʿite Muslim, upholding the rights of the descendants of the Prophet Muḥammad's son-in-law ʿAlī to the caliphate. He spent most of his life in Baghdad where he enjoyed the patronage of the Būyid *amīr*s.

[Jackie Robinson]

> Above anything else, I hate to lose.\ > Jackie Robinson [Jackie Robinson]—the first African American [baseball] player in the U.S. major leagues in the 20th century and the league's Rookie of the Year in 1947 and Most Valuable Player in 1949—was born this day in 1919. [Jackie Robinson] > Above anything else, I hate to lose.\ > Jackie Robinson [Jackie Robinson]—the first African American [baseball] player in the U.S. major leagues in the 20th century and the league's Rookie of the Year in 1947 and Most Valuable Player in 1949—was born this day in 1919.

[Grant Wood]

> All the really good ideas I'd ever had came to me while I was milking > a cow. So I went back to Iowa.\ > Grant Wood, *Wood, Hard-Bitten,* *Art Digest*, February 1, 1936 Painter [Grant Wood], born this day in 1892 in Iowa, was a major exponent of Midwestern Regionalism, and his *American Gothic*, a portrait of sober, hardworking rural Midwesterners, is one of the most iconic American artworks. Grant Wood > All the really good ideas I'd ever had came to me while I was milking > a cow. So I went back to Iowa.\ > Grant Wood, *Wood, Hard-Bitten,* *Art Digest*, February 1, 1936 Painter Grant Wood, born this day in 1892 in Iowa, was a major exponent of Midwestern Regionalism, and his *American Gothic*, a portrait of sober, hardworking rural Midwesterners, is one of the most iconic American artworks.

[James Madison]

> As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty > to exercise it, different opinions will be formed.\ > James Madison, *The Federalist*, No. 10, 1787 Born this day in 1751, [James Madison], the fourth [U.S. president] and an architect of the [U.S. Constitution] and its ratification, collaborated in the publication of the [Federalist papers] and sponsored the [Bill of Rights]. [James Madison] > As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty > to exercise it, different opinions will be formed.\ > James Madison, *The Federalist*, No. 10, 1787 Born this day in 1751, [James Madison], the fourth U.S. president and an architect of the [U.S. Constitution] and its ratification, collaborated in the publication of the [Federalist papers] and sponsored the Bill of Rights.

[Indira Gandhi]

> Even if I die in the service of this nation, I would be proud of it. > Every drop of my blood, I am sure, will contribute to the growth of > this nation and make it strong and dynamic.\ > Indira Gandhi, 1984 [Indira Gandhi], born this day in 1917, was the daughter of the first prime minister of [India], [Jawaharlal Nehru], and served four terms as prime minister before being assassinated by Sikh extremists while in office in 1984. [Indira Gandhi] > Even if I die in the service of this nation, I would be proud of it. > Every drop of my blood, I am sure, will contribute to the growth of > this nation and make it strong and dynamic.\ > Indira Gandhi, 1984 [Indira Gandhi], born this day in 1917, was the daughter of the first prime minister of [India], [Jawaharlal Nehru], and served four terms as prime minister before being assassinated by Sikh extremists while in office in 1984.

[Jane Austen]

> Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance.\ > Jane Austen, *Pride and Prejudice* [![Photograph:Jane Austen.]] - Jane Austen. English writer [Jane Austen], born this day in 1775, gave the [novel] its distinctly modern character through her treatment of ordinary people in everyday life and created comedies of contemporary middle-class manners in [England]. [Jane Austen] > Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance.\ > Jane Austen, *Pride and Prejudice*

[Nadia Comăneci]

> Hard work has made it easy. That is my secret. That is why I win.\ > Nadia Comăneci Born this day in 1961, Romanian [Nadia Comăneci] (who later defected to the U.S.) was the first [gymnast] to be awarded a perfect 10 in [Olympic] competition, scoring seven of them at the [1976 Summer Games] in Montreal. [Nadia Comăneci] > Hard work has made it easy. That is my secret. That is why I win.\ > Nadia Comăneci Born this day in 1961, Romanian [Nadia Comăneci] (who later defected to the U.S.) was the first [gymnast] to be awarded a perfect 10 in [Olympic] competition, scoring seven of them at the [1976 Summer Games] in Montreal.

[John L. Sullivan]

> I can lick any man in the house!\ > John L. Sullivan American prizefighter [John L. Sullivan], born this day in 1858, was one of the most popular heavyweight champions and a symbol of the bareknuckle era of [boxing] that effectively ended with his knockout of Jake Kilrain in 1889. John L. Sullivan > I can lick any man in the house!\ > John L. Sullivan American prizefighter John L. Sullivan, born this day in 1858, was one of the most popular heavyweight champions and a symbol of the bareknuckle era of [boxing] that effectively ended with his knockout of Jake Kilrain in 1889.

[James Joyce]

> I will tell you what I will do and what I will not do. I will not > serve that in which I no longer believe, whether it call itself my > home, my fatherland, or my church: and I will try to express myself in > some mode of life or art as freely as I can and as wholly as I can, > using for my defence the only arms I allow myself to use—silence, > exile and cunning.\ > James Joyce, *A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man* (1916) Irish novelist [James Joyce], born this day in 1882, was noted for his experimental use of language and his exploration of new literary methods in such large works of fiction as *Ulysses* (1922) and *Finnegans Wake* (1939). [James Joyce] > I will tell you what I will do and what I will not do. I will not > serve that in which I no longer believe, whether it call itself my > home, my fatherland, or my church: and I will try to express myself in > some mode of life or art as freely as I can and as wholly as I can, > using for my defence the only arms I allow myself to use—silence, > exile and cunning.\ > James Joyce, *A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man* (1916) Irish novelist [James Joyce], born this day in 1882, was noted for his experimental use of language and his exploration of new literary methods in such large works of fiction as *Ulysses* (1922) and *Finnegans Wake* (1939).

[Elvis Presley]

> I'm not kidding myself. My voice alone is just an ordinary voice. What > people come to see is how I use it. If I stand still while I'm > singing, I'm dead. Man, I might as well go back to driving a truck.\ > Elvis Presley American popular singer and film star [Elvis Presley], born this day in 1935, was widely known as the "King of [Rock and Roll]" and was one of that genre's dominant performers from the mid-1950s until his death in 1977. [Elvis Presley] > I'm not kidding myself. My voice alone is just an ordinary voice. What > people come to see is how I use it. If I stand still while I'm > singing, I'm dead. Man, I might as well go back to driving a truck.\ > Elvis Presley American popular singer and film star [Elvis Presley], born this day in 1935, was widely known as the "King of Rock and Roll" and was one of that genre's dominant performers from the mid-1950s until his death in 1977.

[John Coltrane]

> If there's any such thing as a perfect man, I think John Coltrane was > one. And I think that kind of perfection has to come from a greater > force than there is here on earth.\ > Elvin Jones [John Coltrane], born this day in 1926, was an American [jazz] saxophonist, bandleader, and composer who exerted as strong an influence on jazz in the 1960s and '70s as [Charlie Parker] did in the 1940s and '50s. [John Coltrane] > If there's any such thing as a perfect man, I think John Coltrane was > one. And I think that kind of perfection has to come from a greater > force than there is here on earth.\ > Elvin Jones [John Coltrane], born this day in 1926, was an American [jazz] saxophonist, bandleader, and composer who exerted as strong an influence on jazz in the 1960s and '70s as [Charlie Parker] did in the 1940s and '50s.

[Jimmy Carter]

> People underestimate the potential of a former president.\ > Jimmy Carter, 1991 Born this day in 1924, [Jimmy Carter] served as the 39th [U.S. president] (1977-81) during a turbulent time at home and abroad, and he later received the [Nobel Prize] for Peace in 2002 for his humanitarian work. [Jimmy Carter] > People underestimate the potential of a former president.\ > Jimmy Carter, 1991 Born this day in 1924, [Jimmy Carter] served as the 39th U.S. president (1977-81) during a turbulent time at home and abroad, and he later received the [Nobel Prize] for Peace in 2002 for his humanitarian work.

[Robert Frost]

> Poetry is a way of taking life by the throat.\ > Robert Frost American poet [Robert Frost], much admired for his depictions of New England rural life, his command of American colloquial speech, and his realistic verse portraying ordinary people, was born this day in 1874. [Robert Frost] > Poetry is a way of taking life by the throat.\ > Robert Frost American poet [Robert Frost], much admired for his depictions of New England rural life, his command of American colloquial speech, and his realistic verse portraying ordinary people, was born this day in 1874.

[Harold Wilson]

> The Labour Party is like a stage-coach. If you rattle along at great > speed everybody inside is too exhilarated or too seasick to cause any > trouble. But if you stop everybody gets out and argues about where to > go next.\ > Harold Wilson [Harold Wilson], born this day in 1916 and a cabinet minister by age 31, led the [Labour Party] to victory in four of five general elections and was [prime minister] of the [United Kingdom] from 1964 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1976. [Harold Wilson] > The Labour Party is like a stage-coach. If you rattle along at great > speed everybody inside is too exhilarated or too seasick to cause any > trouble. But if you stop everybody gets out and argues about where to > go next.\ > Harold Wilson [Harold Wilson], born this day in 1916 and a cabinet minister by age 31, led the Labour Party to victory in four of five general elections and was [prime minister] of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1976.

[Betty Friedan]

> The feminine mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American > women alive.\ > Betty Friedan, *The Feminine Mystique* (1963) Born this day in 1921 was American feminist [Betty Friedan], cofounder of the [National Organization for Women] and author of *The Feminine Mystique* (1963), which studied the frustrations of modern women in traditional roles. Betty Friedan > The feminine mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American > women alive.\ > Betty Friedan, *The Feminine Mystique* (1963) Born this day in 1921 was American feminist Betty Friedan, cofounder of the National Organization for Women and author of *The Feminine Mystique* (1963), which studied the frustrations of modern women in traditional roles.

[Eleanor Roosevelt]

> The future is literally in our hands to mold as we like. But we cannot > wait until tomorrow. Tomorrow is now.\ > Eleanor Roosevelt [Eleanor Roosevelt], born this day in 1884, was a [United Nations] diplomat, a humanitarian, the wife (and distant cousin) of President [Franklin D. Roosevelt], and, in her time, one of the world's most widely admired women. [Eleanor Roosevelt] > The future is literally in our hands to mold as we like. But we cannot > wait until tomorrow. Tomorrow is now.\ > Eleanor Roosevelt [Eleanor Roosevelt], born this day in 1884, was a United Nations diplomat, a humanitarian, the wife (and distant cousin) of President [Franklin D. Roosevelt], and, in her time, one of the world's most widely admired women.

[Mark Spitz]

> There's nothing better in the world, when you're trying to be the best > in the world, than to actually say, 'I am the world record holder. I > am the best in the world.'\ > Mark Spitz, 1999 American swimmer [Mark Spitz], born this day in 1950, became the first athlete to capture seven gold medals in a single [Olympics], winning four individual and three team events at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany. Mark Spitz > There's nothing better in the world, when you're trying to be the best > in the world, than to actually say, 'I am the world record holder. I > am the best in the world.'\ > Mark Spitz, 1999 American swimmer Mark Spitz, born this day in 1950, became the first athlete to capture seven gold medals in a single Olympics, winning four individual and three team events at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany.

[Pablo Picasso]

> We all know that art is not truth. Art is a lie that makes us realize > truth.\ > Pablo Picasso [Pablo Picasso], who was born this day in 1881 in Málaga, Spain, but spent most of his life in Paris, was one of the creators of [Cubism] and is widely seen as one of the greatest and most influential [artists] in history. [Pablo Picasso] > We all know that art is not truth. Art is a lie that makes us realize > truth.\ > Pablo Picasso [Pablo Picasso], who was born this day in 1881 in Málaga, Spain, but spent most of his life in Paris, was one of the creators of Cubism and is widely seen as one of the greatest and most influential artists in history.

[Peter O'Toole]

> When the light hits me in a certain way...I'm almost attractive.\ > Peter O'Toole Irish actor [Peter O'Toole], born this day in 1932, began his career on the stage but rose to fame with his successful motion-picture portrayal of [T.E. Lawrence] in [David Lean]'s epic *Lawrence of Arabia* (1962). [Peter O'Toole] > When the light hits me in a certain way...I'm almost attractive.\ > Peter O'Toole Irish actor [Peter O'Toole], born this day in 1932, began his career on the stage but rose to fame with his successful motion-picture portrayal of [T.E. Lawrence] in [David Lean]'s epic *Lawrence of Arabia* (1962).

[Jimmy Connors]

American [tennis] star [Jimmy Connors], born this day in 1952, captured the [U.S. Open] title five times and in 1974 won three grand slam events (U.S., [Australian], and [Wimbledon]) but was barred from competing in the [French Open]. Jimmy Connors American tennis star Jimmy Connors, born this day in 1952, captured the U.S. Open title five times and in 1974 won three grand slam events (U.S., Australian, and Wimbledon) but was barred from competing in the French Open.

[Gregory Hines]

American dancer, choreographer, and actor [Gregory Hines], a major figure in the revitalization of [tap dancing] in the late 20th century who won a Tony Award for his portrayal of [Jelly Roll Morton], was born this day in 1946. Gregory Hines American dancer, choreographer, and actor Gregory Hines, a major figure in the revitalization of tap dancing in the late 20th century who won a Tony Award for his portrayal of Jelly Roll Morton, was born this day in 1946.

Abrahams, William Miller

American writer and editor whose three-decade-long editorship of the annual volumes of O. Henry Award-winning stories brought the short story a steady growth in interest and respect (b. Jan. 23, 1919, Boston, Mass.--d. June 2, 1998, Hillsborough, Calif.).

[Emil Nolde]

Born this day in 1867, [Emil Nolde] was a leading German [Expressionist] painter, printmaker, and watercolourist whose art—notably violent religious works and foreboding landscapes—was later called "decadent" by the [Nazis]. Emil Nolde Born this day in 1867, Emil Nolde was a leading German Expressionist painter, printmaker, and watercolourist whose art—notably violent religious works and foreboding landscapes—was later called "decadent" by the Nazis.

[Paul Klee]

Born this day in 1879, Swiss painter [Paul Klee], one of the foremost artists of the 20th century, used both representational and abstract approaches to produce some 9,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolours. Paul Klee Born this day in 1879, Swiss painter Paul Klee, one of the foremost artists of the 20th century, used both representational and abstract approaches to produce some 9,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolours.

[Emiliano Zapata]

Born this day in 1879, [Emiliano Zapata] was a Mexican revolutionary and champion of land reform who fought in guerrilla actions during the [Mexican Revolution] (1910-20) and was killed while occupying Mexico City. Emiliano Zapata Born this day in 1879, Emiliano Zapata was a Mexican revolutionary and champion of land reform who fought in guerrilla actions during the Mexican Revolution (1910-20) and was killed while occupying Mexico City.

[Julie Krone]

Born this day in 1963, American jockey [Julie Krone] was the first woman to win a U.S. [Triple Crown] race, capturing the [Belmont Stakes] in 1993, and in 2003 she became the first woman to win a Breeders' Cup race. Julie Krone Born this day in 1963, American jockey Julie Krone was the first woman to win a U.S. Triple Crown race, capturing the Belmont Stakes in 1993, and in 2003 she became the first woman to win a Breeders' Cup race.

Abeles, Sir (Emil Herbert) Peter

Hungarian-born Australian business executive who immigrated to Australia in 1949 and soon after cofounded Alltrans Pty Ltd., a small transport company with two trucks; by 1999 Alltrans had merged with or taken over several other firms, and the resulting multinational corporation, TNT Ltd., had transportation operations in at least 180 countries. Abeles was knighted in 1972, appointed to the board of the Australian Reserve Bank in 1984, named Australian of the Year in 1987, and made a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1991 (b. April 25, 1924, Vienna, Austria—d. June 25, 1999, Sydney, Australia).

Abdelkader

Introduction ------------ *also spelled **Abd El-kader, or Abdul-qadir,** Arabic **in full ʿabd Al-qādir Ibn Muḥyī Ad-dīn Ibn Musṭafā Al-ḥasanī Al-jazāʾirī** * born Sept. 6, 1808, Guetna, near Mascara, Alg. died May 26, 1883, Damascus, Syria *amīr* of Mascara (from 1832), the military and religious leader who founded the Algerian state and led the Algerians in their 19th-century struggle against French domination (1840-46). Early career {#95.toc} ------------

Abdel Shafi, Haidar

Palestinian nationalist born June 10, 1919, Gaza, British-occupied Palestine died Sept. 25, 2007, Gaza, Emerging Palestinian Autonomous Area was a founding member (1964-65) of the executive committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and a longtime secular voice in negotiations with Israel for Palestinian self-rule. Abdel Shafi studied medicine at the American University in Beirut and later (after completing his World War II service in the British Jordanian Army) at a hospital in Dayton, Ohio. He settled in Gaza, where he practiced medicine, worked for independence, and founded (1972) the Palestinian Red Crescent Society. Abdel Shafi led the Palestinian delegation at the 1991 Madrid Arab-Israeli peace conference, though he opposed the subsequent Oslo Accords. He was elected (1996-97) to the Palestinian Legislative Council before withdrawing his support from PLO leader Yasir Arafat, particularly over what he considered insufficient action in response to Israeli settlements in disputed territory.

[Adam Smith]

Scottish social philosopher and political economist [Adam Smith]—best known for his seminal work *The Wealth of Nations* (1776), the first comprehensive systematization of political economy—died this day in 1790 in Edinburgh. Adam Smith Scottish social philosopher and political economist Adam Smith—best known for his seminal work *The Wealth of Nations* (1776), the first comprehensive systematization of political economy—died this day in 1790 in Edinburgh.

[Albert Einstein]

[![Photograph:Albert Einstein.]] - Albert Einstein. One of the most creative intellects in human history was [Albert Einstein], who died in Princeton, New Jersey, this day in 1955 and whose advanced theories of [relativity] and [gravitation] revolutionized science and philosophy. [Albert Einstein] [![Photograph:Albert Einstein.]] - Albert Einstein. One of the most creative intellects in human history was [Albert Einstein], who died in Princeton, New Jersey, this day in 1955 and whose advanced theories of relativity and gravitation revolutionized science and philosophy.

[Aung San Suu Kyi]

[![Photograph:Aung San Suu Kyi, 1996.]] - Aung San Suu Kyi, 1996. [Myanmar] democratic and human rights activist [Aung San Suu Kyi], the daughter of [Aung San] (a martyred national hero) and Khin Kyi (a prominent diplomat), was born this day in 1945 and was awarded the [Nobel Peace Prize] in 1991. Aung San Suu Kyi [![Photograph:Aung San Suu Kyi, 1996.]] - Aung San Suu Kyi, 1996. Myanmar democratic and human rights activist Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of Aung San (a martyred national hero) and Khin Kyi (a prominent diplomat), was born this day in 1945 and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991.

[Thomas Eakins]

[![Photograph:Between Rounds, oil on canvas by Thomas Eakins, 1898-99; in the ...]] - *Between Rounds*, oil on canvas by Thomas Eakins, 1898-99; in the ... [Thomas Eakins]—who carried the tradition of 19th-century American [realism] to perhaps its highest achievement, exemplified by such works as *The Gross Clinic* (1875) and *Between Rounds* (1898-99)—was born this day in 1844. Thomas Eakins [![Photograph:Between Rounds, oil on canvas by Thomas Eakins, 1898-99; in the ...]] - *Between Rounds*, oil on canvas by Thomas Eakins, 1898-99; in the ... Thomas Eakins—who carried the tradition of 19th-century American realism to perhaps its highest achievement, exemplified by such works as *The Gross Clinic* (1875) and *Between Rounds* (1898-99)—was born this day in 1844.

[Charles Evans Hughes]

[![Photograph:Charles Evans Hughes, 1916.]] - Charles Evans Hughes, 1916. Jurist and statesman [Charles Evans Hughes], born this day in 1862, served as an associate justice of the [U.S. Supreme Court] (1910-16), U.S. secretary of state (1921-25), and 11th [chief justice] of the United States (1930-41). Charles Evans Hughes [![Photograph:Charles Evans Hughes, 1916.]] - Charles Evans Hughes, 1916. Jurist and statesman Charles Evans Hughes, born this day in 1862, served as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1910-16), U.S. secretary of state (1921-25), and 11th chief justice of the United States (1930-41).

[Charlton Heston]

[![Photograph:Charlton Heston in Ben-Hur (1959).]] - Charlton Heston in *Ben-Hur* (1959). American actor [Charlton Heston], born this day in 1924 and best known for his performances in *Ben-Hur* (for which he won an [Academy Award]) and *The Ten Commandments*, also served as president of the [National Rifle Association]. Charlton Heston [![Photograph:Charlton Heston in Ben-Hur (1959).]] - Charlton Heston in *Ben-Hur* (1959). American actor Charlton Heston, born this day in 1924 and best known for his performances in *Ben-Hur* (for which he won an Academy Award) and *The Ten Commandments*, also served as president of the National Rifle Association.

[Desmond Tutu]

[![Photograph:Desmond Tutu, 2005.]] - Desmond Tutu, 2005. Anglican cleric [Desmond Tutu], born this day in 1931, won the [Nobel Prize] for Peace in 1984 for his role in opposing [apartheid] in [South Africa], and he later headed a committee investigating South African human rights abuses. Desmond Tutu [![Photograph:Desmond Tutu, 2005.]] - Desmond Tutu, 2005. Anglican cleric Desmond Tutu, born this day in 1931, won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1984 for his role in opposing apartheid in South Africa, and he later headed a committee investigating South African human rights abuses.

[Elie Wiesel]

[![Photograph:Elie Wiesel.]] - Elie Wiesel. The works of Romanian-born Jewish writer [Elie Wiesel], who was born this day in 1928 and received the 1986 [Nobel Prize] for Peace, provide a sober yet passionate testament of the destruction of Europe's Jews in the [Holocaust]. Elie Wiesel [![Photograph:Elie Wiesel.]] - Elie Wiesel. The works of Romanian-born Jewish writer Elie Wiesel, who was born this day in 1928 and received the 1986 [Nobel Prize] for Peace, provide a sober yet passionate testament of the destruction of Europe's Jews in the Holocaust.

[Günter Grass]

[![Photograph:Günter Grass, 1997.]] - Günter Grass, 1997. The literary conscience of the generation that grew up in [Nazi Germany], [Günter Grass], poet, novelist, playwright, and 1999 winner of the [Nobel Prize] for Literature, was born this day in 1927 in Danzig (now [Gdańsk], Poland). [Günter Grass] [![Photograph:Günter Grass, 1997.]] - Günter Grass, 1997. The literary conscience of the generation that grew up in Nazi Germany, [Günter Grass], poet, novelist, playwright, and 1999 winner of the [Nobel Prize] for Literature, was born this day in 1927 in Danzig (now [Gdańsk], Poland).

[Diego Rivera]

[![Photograph:Jarabe, detail from a mosaic by Diego Rivera, on the Teatro ...]] - *Jarabe*, detail from a mosaic by Diego Rivera, on the Teatro ... Mexican painter [Diego Rivera], whose bold, large-scale [murals] stimulated a revival of fresco painting in Latin America and whose wife, [Frida Kahlo], was also an accomplished painter, died this day in 1957. Diego Rivera [![Photograph:Jarabe, detail from a mosaic by Diego Rivera, on the Teatro ...]] - *Jarabe*, detail from a mosaic by Diego Rivera, on the Teatro ... Mexican painter Diego Rivera, whose bold, large-scale murals stimulated a revival of fresco painting in Latin America and whose wife, Frida Kahlo, was also an accomplished painter, died this day in 1957.

[John Calvin]

[![Photograph:John Calvin.]] - John Calvin. French Protestant [Reformer] [John Calvin], who advanced a theology—articulated in his *Institutes of the Christian Religion* (1536)—that became the foundation for the Reformed church and [Presbyterianism], was born this day in 1509. John Calvin [![Photograph:John Calvin.]] - John Calvin. French Protestant Reformer John Calvin, who advanced a theology—articulated in his *Institutes of the Christian Religion* (1536)—that became the foundation for the Reformed church and Presbyterianism, was born this day in 1509.

[John Milton]

[![Photograph:John Milton, after a pastel by William Faithorne.]] - John Milton, after a pastel by William Faithorne. [John Milton], whose *Paradise Lost* is regarded as the greatest epic poem in the [English language] and who exerted a major influence on the history of [English literature], culture, and libertarian thought, died this day in 1674. John Milton [![Photograph:John Milton, after a pastel by William Faithorne.]] - John Milton, after a pastel by William Faithorne. John Milton, whose *Paradise Lost* is regarded as the greatest epic poem in the English language and who exerted a major influence on the history of English literature, culture, and libertarian thought, died this day in 1674.

[John Howard]

[![Photograph:John Winston Howard.]] - John Winston Howard. [Liberal] leader [John Howard], born this day in 1939, became prime minister of [Australia] in 1996, and his policies, including his strict immigration stance, proved popular with voters, who elected him to a fourth term in 2004. John Howard [![Photograph:John Winston Howard.]] - John Winston Howard. Liberal leader John Howard, born this day in 1939, became prime minister of Australia in 1996, and his policies, including his strict immigration stance, proved popular with voters, who elected him to a fourth term in 2004.

[John]

[![Photograph:John of England, from an early 14th-century illumination.]] - John of England, from an early 14th-century illumination. [King John] of [England] (1199-1216), born this day in 1167, lost Normandy and almost all his other French possessions in a war with France and was forced to seal the [Magna Carta] (1215) following an English baronial revolt. John [![Photograph:John of England, from an early 14th-century illumination.]] - John of England, from an early 14th-century illumination. King John of England (1199-1216), born this day in 1167, lost Normandy and almost all his other French possessions in a war with France and was forced to seal the Magna Carta (1215) following an English baronial revolt.

[Kim Jong Il]

[![Photograph:Kim Jong Il.]] - Kim Jong Il. [Kim Jong Il], son of North Korean communist dictator [Kim Il-sung] and his successor as head of the Korean Workers' Party and ruler of [North Korea], was born in Siberia in the Soviet Union this day in 1941. Kim Jong Il [![Photograph:Kim Jong Il.]] - Kim Jong Il. Kim Jong Il, son of North Korean communist dictator Kim Il-sung and his successor as head of the Korean Workers' Party and ruler of North Korea, was born in Siberia in the Soviet Union this day in 1941.

[Kofi Annan]

[![Photograph:Kofi Annan, 1996.]] - Kofi Annan, 1996. Ghanaian international civil servant [Kofi Annan], the seventh secretary-general of the [United Nations] (from 1997) and corecipient with the United Nations of the [Nobel Peace Prize] in 2001, was born this day in 1938. Kofi Annan [![Photograph:Kofi Annan, 1996.]] - Kofi Annan, 1996. Ghanaian international civil servant Kofi Annan, the seventh secretary-general of the United Nations (from 1997) and corecipient with the United Nations of the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, was born this day in 1938.

[Luciano Berio]

[![Photograph:Luciano Berio, 1970.]] - Luciano Berio, 1970. Italian musician [Luciano Berio], born this day in 1925, combined lyric and expressive qualities with advanced techniques of [electronic] and [aleatoric] music and ranked among the leaders of the musical avant-garde. Luciano Berio [![Photograph:Luciano Berio, 1970.]] - Luciano Berio, 1970. Italian musician Luciano Berio, born this day in 1925, combined lyric and expressive qualities with advanced techniques of electronic and aleatoric music and ranked among the leaders of the musical avant-garde.

[Moses Maimonides]

[![Photograph:Moses Maimonides, 1190, engraved portrait.]] - Moses Maimonides, *c.* 1190, engraved portrait. Philosopher, jurist, and physician [Moses Maimonides], the foremost intellectual figure of medieval [Judaism], whose works, written in Hebrew and Arabic, influenced both Jewish and non-Jewish scholars, died this day in 1204. Moses Maimonides [![Photograph:Moses Maimonides, 1190, engraved portrait.]] - Moses Maimonides, *c.* 1190, engraved portrait. Philosopher, jurist, and physician Moses Maimonides, the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism, whose works, written in Hebrew and Arabic, influenced both Jewish and non-Jewish scholars, died this day in 1204.

[Sir Peter Ustinov]

[![Photograph:Peter Ustinov in Appointment with Death, 1988.]] - Peter Ustinov in *Appointment with Death*, 1988. English actor, director, playwright, and humanitarian [Sir Peter Ustinov], who was born this day in 1921, made more than 70 films in Rome, [Hollywood], and London during an acclaimed career that spanned some six decades. Sir Peter Ustinov [![Photograph:Peter Ustinov in Appointment with Death, 1988.]] - Peter Ustinov in *Appointment with Death*, 1988. English actor, director, playwright, and humanitarian Sir Peter Ustinov, who was born this day in 1921, made more than 70 films in Rome, Hollywood, and London during an acclaimed career that spanned some six decades.

[Giacomo Puccini]

[![Photograph:Poster for the first production of Giacomo Puccini's opera Tosca, 1900.]] - Poster for the first production of Giacomo Puccini's opera *Tosca*, 1900. One of the greatest exponents of [operatic] realism, Italian composer [Giacomo Puccini], born this day in 1858, imbued each of his works with a distinctive ambiance, including the classics *La Bohème*, *Tosca*, and *Madama Butterfly*. Giacomo Puccini [![Photograph:Poster for the first production of Giacomo Puccini's opera Tosca, 1900.]] - Poster for the first production of Giacomo Puccini's opera *Tosca*, 1900. One of the greatest exponents of operatic realism, Italian composer Giacomo Puccini, born this day in 1858, imbued each of his works with a distinctive ambiance, including the classics *La Bohème*, *Tosca*, and *Madama Butterfly*.

[Edgar Degas]

[![Photograph:Prima Ballerina, pastel by Edgar Degas, 1876; in the ...]] - *Prima Ballerina*, pastel by Edgar Degas, *c.* 1876; in the ... [Edgar Degas]—a French painter and sculptor who was prominent in the [Impressionist] group and widely celebrated for his images of the female figure, especially ballet dancers and bathers—was born this day in 1834. Edgar Degas [![Photograph:Prima Ballerina, pastel by Edgar Degas, 1876; in the ...]] - *Prima Ballerina*, pastel by Edgar Degas, *c.* 1876; in the ... Edgar Degas—a French painter and sculptor who was prominent in the Impressionist group and widely celebrated for his images of the female figure, especially ballet dancers and bathers—was born this day in 1834.

Acoma

[![Photograph:Pueblos at Acoma, N.M.]] - Pueblos at Acoma, N.M. Indian pueblo, Valencia county, west-central [New Mexico], U.S. The pueblo lies 55 miles (89 km) west-southwest of [Albuquerque] and is known as the "Sky City." Its inhabitants live in terraced dwellings made of stone and adobe atop a precipitous sandstone butte 357 feet (109 metres) high. They have always engaged in farming (on the plains below) and pottery making. Believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited place in the area of the United States (since the 10th century), it was described by the conquistador [Francisco Vázquez de Coronado] in 1540 as the strongest defensive position in the world. The massive mission church of []San Esteban Rey was built there in 1629-41; its 30-foot (9-metre) log beams were carried from the Cebollita Mountains (30 miles [50 km] southwest) and, with the dirt for its graveyard, were hauled up from below. Visitors and inhabitants can now gain access by means of a staircase cut into the rock, and a road that bears vehicular traffic has also been built. The pueblo's name comes from the Keresan Indian language: *ako*, meaning "white rock," and *ma*, "people." About 3 miles (5 km) northeast is the Enchanted Mesa, another butte rising 430 feet (130 metres) above the surrounding plain, which is believed by the Acoma Indians to be the dwelling place of their gods. Pop. (2000) pueblo and adjacent areas, 2,802.

[Samuel Johnson]

[![Photograph:Samuel Johnson.]] - Samuel Johnson. [Samuel Johnson], born this day in 1709, was renowned for his [*A Dictionary of the English Language*] (1755) and his critical edition of [Shakespeare]'s works and is regarded as one of England's greatest 18th-century figures. Samuel Johnson [![Photograph:Samuel Johnson.]] - Samuel Johnson. Samuel Johnson, born this day in 1709, was renowned for his *A Dictionary of the English Language* (1755) and his critical edition of Shakespeare's works and is regarded as one of England's greatest 18th-century figures.

[Andrew Lloyd Webber]

[![Photograph:Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, 2005.]] - Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, 2005. English composer [Andrew Lloyd Webber], whose works such as *Evita*, *Jesus Christ Superstar*, and *The Phantom of the Opera* helped revitalize British and American musical theatre in the late 20th century, was born this day in 1948. Andrew Lloyd Webber [![Photograph:Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, 2005.]] - Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, 2005. English composer Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose works such as *Evita*, *Jesus Christ Superstar*, and *The Phantom of the Opera* helped revitalize British and American musical theatre in the late 20th century, was born this day in 1948.

[Viv Richards]

[![Photograph:Sir Viv Richards.]] - Sir Viv Richards. West Indian [cricketer] [Viv Richards], born this day in 1952 and nicknamed "Master Blaster," was arguably the finest batsman of his generation, scoring 8,540 runs and averaging more than 50 runs per innings in Test competition. Viv Richards [![Photograph:Sir Viv Richards.]] - Sir Viv Richards. West Indian cricketer Viv Richards, born this day in 1952 and nicknamed "Master Blaster," was arguably the finest batsman of his generation, scoring 8,540 runs and averaging more than 50 runs per innings in Test competition.

[Saint Francis of Assisi]

[![Photograph:St. Francis of Assisi with another Franciscan friar, painting by the Master of Hoogstraten.]] - St. Francis of Assisi with another Franciscan friar, painting by the Master of Hoogstraten. [St. Francis of Assisi], who died this day in 1226, founded the [Franciscan] order and stressed the need to imitate the life of [Jesus], drawing followers with his evangelical zeal, consecration to poverty, charity, and charisma. Saint Francis of Assisi [![Photograph:St. Francis of Assisi with another Franciscan friar, painting by the Master of Hoogstraten.]] - St. Francis of Assisi with another Franciscan friar, painting by the Master of Hoogstraten. St. Francis of Assisi, who died this day in 1226, founded the Franciscan order and stressed the need to imitate the life of Jesus, drawing followers with his evangelical zeal, consecration to poverty, charity, and charisma.

[Edvard Munch]

[![Photograph:The Scream, oil and tempera on wood by Edvard Munch, 1893.]] - *The Scream*, oil and tempera on wood by Edvard Munch, 1893. Norwegian artist [Edvard Munch], whose painting *The Scream* (1893) can be seen as a symbol of modern spiritual anguish and whose works greatly influenced German [Expressionism] in the 20th century, was born this day in 1863. [Edvard Munch] [![Photograph:The Scream, oil and tempera on wood by Edvard Munch, 1893.]] - *The Scream*, oil and tempera on wood by Edvard Munch, 1893. Norwegian artist [Edvard Munch], whose painting *The Scream* (1893) can be seen as a symbol of modern spiritual anguish and whose works greatly influenced German Expressionism in the 20th century, was born this day in 1863.

[Tycho Brahe]

[![Photograph:Tycho Brahe.]] - Tycho Brahe. Danish astronomer [Tycho Brahe], born this day in 1546, developed astronomical instruments and measured and fixed the positions of [stars] in an era before the invention of the [telescope], paving the way for future discoveries. Tycho Brahe [![Photograph:Tycho Brahe.]] - Tycho Brahe. Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, born this day in 1546, developed astronomical instruments and measured and fixed the positions of stars in an era before the invention of the telescope, paving the way for future discoveries.

[Václav Havel]

[![Photograph:Václav Havel.]] - Václav Havel. Czech writer and dissident [Václav Havel], born this day in 1936, was known for his absurdist depiction of bureaucratic routines and later served as president of [Czechoslovakia] (1989-92) and the [Czech Republic] (1993-2003). Václav Havel [![Photograph:Václav Havel.]] - Václav Havel. Czech writer and dissident Václav Havel, born this day in 1936, was known for his absurdist depiction of bureaucratic routines and later served as president of Czechoslovakia (1989-92) and the Czech Republic (1993-2003).

[Diego Velázquez]

[Diego Velázquez]—the most important Spanish painter of the 1600s, whose brilliant diversity of brushstrokes and subtle harmonies of colour made him a forerunner of 19th-century French [Impressionism]—died this day in 1660. [Diego Velázquez] [Diego Velázquez]—the most important Spanish painter of the 1600s, whose brilliant diversity of brushstrokes and subtle harmonies of colour made him a forerunner of 19th-century French Impressionism—died this day in 1660.

[Paul Martin]

[Liberal] politician [Paul Martin]—who, as prime minister of Canada (2003-06), fostered economic growth and introduced progressive social policies but lost power amid a financial scandal in his party—was born this day in 1938. Paul Martin Liberal politician Paul Martin—who, as prime minister of Canada (2003-06), fostered economic growth and introduced progressive social policies but lost power amid a financial scandal in his party—was born this day in 1938.

absolute zero

[][temperature] at which a thermodynamic system has the lowest energy. It corresponds to −273.15 °C on the [Celsius temperature scale] and to −459.67 °F on the [Fahrenheit temperature scale]. The notion that there is an ultimately lowest temperature was suggested by the behaviour of [][gases] at low pressures: it was noted that gases seem to contract indefinitely as the temperature is decreased. It appeared that an "ideal gas" at constant pressure would reach zero volume at what is now called the absolute zero of temperature. Any real gas actually condenses to a liquid or a solid at some temperature higher than absolute zero; therefore, the [ideal gas law] is only an approximation to real gas behaviour. As such, however, it is extremely useful. The concept of absolute zero as a limiting temperature has many thermodynamic consequences. For example, all molecular motion does not necessarily cease at absolute zero, but none is available for transfer to other systems, and it is therefore correct to say that the energy at absolute zero is minimal. (For more on this, *see* [thermodynamics].) Any temperature scale having absolute zero for its zero point is termed an [][absolute temperature scale] or a thermodynamic scale. In the [International System of Units], the [][Kelvin] (K) scale is the standard for all scientific temperature measurements. Its fundamental unit, the kelvin, is identical in size to the Celsius degree and is defined as 1/273.16 of the "triple point" of pure water (0.01 °C)—i.e., the temperature at which the liquid, solid, and gaseous forms of the substance can be maintained simultaneously. In effect, the interval between this triple point and absolute zero comprises 273.16 kelvins; a temperature given in degrees Celsius can be converted to degrees Kelvin by adding 273.15.

acorn and nut weevil

any of approximately 45 species of weevils in the family Curculionidae (order Coleoptera) that have extremely long and slender snouts, which in females can be almost twice the length of the body. The mandibles are located at the tip of the snout. Eggs are deposited in holes chewed in a nut. These weevils are common in both Europe and North America. Different species prefer certain nuts: *[]Curculio proboscides* attacks large chestnuts, for example, and *[]C. rectus* and *[]C. baculi* feed on acorns.

Achenbach, Oswald

born Feb. 2, 1827, Düsseldorf, Prussia died Feb. 1, 1905, Düsseldorf, Ger. landscape painter of the [][Düsseldorf school] who is distinguished for his colourful renderings of the Bay of Naples, of Rome, and of Venice. He broke away from the traditional classicist interpretation of these scenes and revelled in strong and glowing colour effects. His more famous brother, Andreas, influenced his work.

Abruzzi, Luigi Amedeo Giuseppe Maria Ferdinando Francesco, Duke (duca) d'

born Jan. 29, 1873, Madrid, Spain died March 18, 1933, Abruzzi City, near Mogadiscio, Italian Somaliland [now Mogadishu, Somalia] Spanish mountaineer and explorer whose ventures ranged from Africa to the Arctic. The son of King [][Amadeus] of Spain (who was also the Duke d'Aosta in Italy), Abruzzi was the first to ascend Mount [][St. Elias] in Alaska (1897). His 1899 Arctic expedition reached latitude 86°34′ N—a record for the time. In 1906 he was the first to scale the highest summits of the [][Ruwenzori Range] in east-central Africa. His expedition investigated the geology, topography, and glaciology of the range; it mapped the range and named its major peaks, passes, and glaciers. In 1909 Abruzzi climbed the world's second highest mountain, K2, in the Himalayas, to a height of more than 20,000 feet (6,000 m). During World War I he held a naval command in the Adriatic until 1917. He was later involved in exploration and colonization in Italian Somaliland.

Abraham, Karl

born May 3, 1877, Bremen, Germany died December 25, 1925, Berlin German psychoanalyst who studied the role of infant sexuality in character development and mental illness. While serving as an assistant to the psychiatrist [Eugen Bleuler] at the Burghölzi Mental Hospital in Zürich (1904-07), Abraham met the psychoanalyst [][Carl Jung] and was introduced to the ideas of [Sigmund Freud]. His first psychoanalytic paper dealt with childhood sexual trauma in relation to the symptoms of [schizophrenia]. Abraham entered psychoanalytic practice in Berlin (1907), where he helped to establish the first branch of the International Psychoanalytic Institute (1910). His studies contributed to theories about symbols and myths; in a major paper published in 1909, he connected myths with dreams and viewed both as wish-fulfillment fantasies.

acriflavine

dye obtained from coal tar, introduced as an antiseptic in 1912 by the German medical-research worker Paul Ehrlich and used extensively in World War I to kill the parasites that cause sleeping sickness. The hydrochloride and the less irritating base, neutral acriflavine, both are odourless, reddish-brown powders used in dilute aqueous solutions primarily as topical antiseptics or given orally as urinary antiseptics. Once used in the treatment of gonorrhea, acriflavine has been replaced by the antibiotics.

activity coefficient

in chemistry, the ratio of the chemical activity of any substance to its molar concentration. The measured concentration of a substance may not be an accurate indicator of its chemical effectiveness, as represented by the equation for a particular reaction, in which case an activity coefficient is arbitrarily established and used instead of the concentration in calculations. In solutions, the activity coefficient is a measure of how much a solution differs from an [][ideal solution]—*i.e.,* one in which the effectiveness of each molecule is equal to its theoretical effectiveness.

Abgar legend

in early Christian times, a popular myth that Jesus had an exchange of letters with King Abgar V Ukkama of Osroene, whose capital was Edessa, a Mesopotamian city on the northern fringe of the Syrian plateau. According to the legend, the king, afflicted with leprosy, had heard of Jesus' miracles and wrote to Jesus acknowledging his divine mission, asking to be cured, and inviting him to come to Edessa as a safe refuge from persecution. In his reply, Jesus allegedly commended the king for his faith, expressed regret that his mission in life precluded a visit, but promised that after his Ascension into heaven a disciple would visit Edessa and heal the king. A developed form of the legend exists in the *[]Doctrine of Addai*, a Syriac document containing suggestions of primitive Christianity in Edessa. In any event, the letters, probably composed early in the 4th century, have been considered spurious since the 5th century. They were translated from Syriac into Greek, Armenian, Latin, Arabic, and other ancient languages, clear evidence of the popularity of the legend.

acciaccatura

in music, ornamental note sometimes confused with [appoggiatura] (*q.v.*).

Adam and Eve, Life of

pseudepigraphal work (a noncanonical writing that in style and content resembles authentic biblical works), one of many Jewish and Christian stories that embellish the account of Adam and Eve as given in the biblical Genesis. Biography was an extremely popular literary genre during the late Hellenistic period of Judaism (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD), and legends of biblical figures were numerous. But all surviving Haggada (folk stories and anecdotes) about Adam and Eve are Christian works and are preserved in a number of ancient languages (*e.g.,* Greek, Latin, Ethiopic). Although all Aramaic and Hebrew texts have been lost, the basic material was presumably of Jewish authorship. Extant versions of the *Life of Adam and Eve* have consequently been used to reconstruct the supposed original, which was probably composed sometime between 20 BC and AD 70, because the apocalyptic portion of the work (chapter 29) seems to imply that the Herodian Temple of Jerusalem was functioning when the book was written. The book is primarily noteworthy for its imaginative retelling of the biblical story and for its inclusion of visions and angelology, both characteristic of [][Hellenistic] religious writing. The detailed descriptions of the penances that Adam and Eve inflicted upon themselves after their expulsion from Eden suggest an []ascetic influence.

Adams

town (township), Berkshire county, northwestern [Massachusetts], U.S. It lies at the foot of [Mount Greylock] (3,491 feet [1,064 metres]), on the Hoosic River, 15 miles (24 km) north of [Pittsfield]. The town of [North Adams] is 5 miles north. Founded by Quakers in 1766, it was known as East Hoosuck until 1778, when it was incorporated and renamed for the Revolutionary War hero Samuel Adams. Local limestone and marble quarries supplied early building stone industries, and waterpower from the Hoosic led to the manufacture of textiles and paper. Mount Greylock, the highest point in the state, is crowned by a 90-foot (27-metre) war memorial tower. The mountain and nearby state forests, parks, and ski resorts make Adams a year-round tourist base. In 1784 the town's Quaker meetinghouse was erected. The birthplace (built c. 1810) of the pioneer woman suffragist [Susan B. Anthony] is also preserved. Area 22 square miles (57 square km). Pop. (1990) 9,445; (2000) 8,809.

[George Luks]

In 1908 [George Luks], who died this day in 1933, and seven others formed [The Eight], a group that sought to bring painting into closer touch with everyday life by depicting urban scenes and that evolved into the Ashcan school. George Luks In 1908 George Luks, who died this day in 1933, and seven others formed The Eight, a group that sought to bring painting into closer touch with everyday life by depicting urban scenes and that evolved into the Ashcan school.

Abram, Morris Berthold

American lawyer and civil and human rights advocate (b. June 19, 1918, Fitzgerald, Ga.—d. March 16, 2000, Geneva, Switz.), fought a 14-year battle all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court to overthrow a Georgia electoral rule that gave ballots cast by rural voters, most of whom were white, greater strength than those cast by urban, mostly black, voters. The Supreme Court's landmark 1963 declaration that the rule was unconstitutional struck a blow against segregation and upheld the principle of one voter, one vote. Abram graduated (1938) summa cum laude from the University of Georgia and was selected to be a Rhodes scholar, but Great Britain's entrance into World War II temporarily halted his plans to attend the University of Oxford. He instead enrolled in the University of Chicago Law School. Following graduation (1940) and military service, however, Abram did attend Oxford and earned bachelor's (1948) and master's (1953) degrees. Abram began his struggle against the Georgia electoral rule in 1949 and himself fell victim to it when, running on a desegregation platform, he failed in an attempt to become a Democratic Party nominee in the 1953 congressional election even though he carried a populous urban county. In 1961 Pres. John F. Kennedy appointed Abram the first general counsel to the Peace Corps, and he went on to serve on commissions and panels under four more presidents. He also served as national president of the American Jewish Committee (1963-68), chairman of the United Negro College Fund (1970-79), chairman of the National Conference on Soviet Jewry (1983-88), and chairman of the Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations (1986-88). Abram was a partner at the law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison from 1963 until 1983, except for two turbulent years (1968-70) during which he served as president of Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass., and in 1993 he became counsel to that law firm. Also in 1993, with Edgar M. Bronfman, Abram cofounded UN Watch, and he served as its chairman until his death. His autobiography, *The Day Is Short,* was published in 1982.

Abidjan

[![Photograph:View of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.]] - View of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. chief port, de facto capital, and largest city of [Côte d'Ivoire] (Ivory Coast). It lies along the Ébrié Lagoon, which is separated from the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic by the Vridi Plage sandbar. A village in 1898, it became a town in 1903. Abidjan was a rail terminus from 1904 but had to depend on the meagre facilities of Port-Bouët on the sandbar's ocean shore. It succeeded Bingerville as capital of the French colony in 1934 and retained that position after independence in 1960. In 1983 Yamoussoukro, a town located about 170 miles (274 km) to the northwest, was officially named the new national capital. The transfer of government functions proceeded slowly, however, and Abidjan remained the de facto capital into the 21st century. Districts within the city include Plateau, Cocody (site of the National University of Côte d'Ivoire), Treichville, Adjame, Koumassi, and Marcory. The [Vridi Canal] opened the lagoon to the sea in 1950, and the city soon became the major shipping and financial centre of French-speaking West Africa. The first of two bridges linking the mainland to Petit-Bassam Island was built in 1958. Abidjan's modern deepwater port exports coffee, cocoa, timber, bananas, pineapples, and manganese. From the administrative and business sectors on the mainland, the city stretches southward to the industrial area on Petit-Bassam and the mineral and petroleum docks along the Vridi Canal. There are a number of wide, shady streets and gardened squares in the city; the university (1958) lies on the eastern mainland. Abidjan has a museum of traditional Ivoirian art, a national library, and several agricultural and scientific research institutes. There are numerous tourist attractions, most notably the immense Hôtel Ivoire, which features a bowling alley, cinema, casino, and the only ice rink in Western Africa; the Italian-designed St. Paul's Cathedral is one of the continent's most elaborate churches. North of the city is [Banco National Park], a magnificent tropical rainforest. Abidjan is a communications centre and the site of an international airport (at Port-Bouët, an autonomous municipality within Abidjan). Pop. (2005 est.) 3,576,000.

[John Paul Jones]

> Sir, I have not yet begun to fight.\ > John Paul Jones, September 23, 1779 [John Paul Jones], born this day in 1747 in Scotland, was a naval hero in the [American Revolution], renowned for his victory over British battleships off the eastern coast of England on September 23, 1779. [John Paul Jones] > Sir, I have not yet begun to fight.\ > John Paul Jones, September 23, 1779 [John Paul Jones], born this day in 1747 in Scotland, was a naval hero in the [American Revolution], renowned for his victory over British battleships off the eastern coast of England on September 23, 1779.

[Josephine Baker]

> Tall.\ > Pablo Picasso, describing Josephine Baker Entertainer [Josephine Baker], born in Missouri this day in 1906, became one of [France]'s most popular performers, took French citizenship, worked with the [Resistance] in World War II, and received the [Legion of Honour]. [Josephine Baker] > Tall.\ > Pablo Picasso, describing Josephine Baker Entertainer [Josephine Baker], born in Missouri this day in 1906, became one of France's most popular performers, took French citizenship, worked with the Resistance in World War II, and received the Legion of Honour.

[Olga Korbut]

Soviet gymnast [Olga Korbut], born this day in Belorussia (now Belarus) in 1955, earned three gold medals at the 1972 Olympics in Munich, West Germany, where she captivated audiences with her charm, youth, and diminutive size. Olga Korbut Soviet gymnast Olga Korbut, born this day in Belorussia (now Belarus) in 1955, earned three gold medals at the 1972 Olympics in Munich, West Germany, where she captivated audiences with her charm, youth, and diminutive size.

[Martin Luther King, Jr.]

[![Photograph:Martin Luther King, Jr., during a march on Washington, D.C., in 1963.]] - Martin Luther King, Jr., during a march on Washington, D.C., in 1963. [Martin Luther King, Jr.], born this day in 1929, led the [civil rights movement] in the United States from the mid-1950s until his assassination in 1968 and was the recipient of the [Nobel Peace Prize] in 1964. Martin Luther King, Jr. [![Photograph:Martin Luther King, Jr., during a march on Washington, D.C., in 1963.]] - Martin Luther King, Jr., during a march on Washington, D.C., in 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr., born this day in 1929, led the civil rights movement in the United States from the mid-1950s until his assassination in 1968 and was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.

[Christo]

[![Photograph:The Gates, Central Park, New York City, 1979-2005 by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, ...]] - *The Gates, Central Park, New York City, 1979-2005* by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, ... Environmental sculptor [Christo], born this day in 1935 in Bulgaria, is noted for his controversial outdoor sculptures and displays, which have included the wrapping of Berlin's [Reichstag] in metallic silver fabric in 1995. Christo [![Photograph:The Gates, Central Park, New York City, 1979-2005 by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, ...]] - *The Gates, Central Park, New York City, 1979-2005* by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, ... Environmental sculptor Christo, born this day in 1935 in Bulgaria, is noted for his controversial outdoor sculptures and displays, which have included the wrapping of Berlin's Reichstag in metallic silver fabric in 1995.

Abbé Pierre

***Henri-Antoine Grouès; the "ragpickers' saint"** * [![Photograph:Roman Catholic priest and champion of the poor Abbé Pierre]] - Roman Catholic priest and champion of the poor Abbé Pierre French Roman Catholic priest and social activist born Aug. 5, 1912 , Lyons, France died Jan. 22, 2007 , Paris, France

[Florence Griffith Joyner]

American sprinter [Florence Griffith Joyner], considered one of the fastest women in track and holder from 1988 of the world record in the 100 metres (10.49 seconds) and 200 metres (21.34 seconds), was born this day in 1959. Florence Griffith Joyner American sprinter Florence Griffith Joyner, considered one of the fastest women in track and holder from 1988 of the world record in the 100 metres (10.49 seconds) and 200 metres (21.34 seconds), was born this day in 1959.

[Dian Fossey]

American zoologist [Dian Fossey], born this day in 1932, became the world's leading authority on the mountain [gorilla], and her autobiography, *Gorillas in the Mist* (1983), was subsequently adapted into a feature film. [Dian Fossey] American zoologist [Dian Fossey], born this day in 1932, became the world's leading authority on the mountain gorilla, and her autobiography, *Gorillas in the Mist* (1983), was subsequently adapted into a feature film.

Aborigines and self-designation

At the turn of the 21st century, postcolonialism—which examined the effects of colonialism on the colonized—was an established field of study across many disciplines. One of the more fascinating aspects of the issue under scrutiny is that of names. The conquerors virtually always apply their own generally uncomprehending name to the conquered—ask the "barbarian" Berbers or the "Egyptian" Gypsies. Netherlanders in South Africa, who could make little sense of the click languages they encountered, referred to the Khoisan peoples as Hottentots, perhaps in an effort to reproduce (and maybe to mock) those clicks. Not surprisingly, most of those who survived conquest rejected these imposed names. The situation of the original inhabitants of Australia presents a classic case in point. The most common name for these people is Aborigine. The name is always spelled with a capital *A*. To further emphasize that this is a name for a subset of Australians, Aborigine or the adjectival Aboriginal is often attached to the word Australian, in order to distinguish them from (lowercase) aboriginal peoples of other lands. In light of their fraught history with the European settlers who assigned that name, many contemporary descendants of the earliest Australians reject these labels, now covered by more than a century of disrespect and abuse; proposed substitutes have included First Australians and Indigenous Australians (the latter term again using capitalization to distinguish these Australians from the lowercase indigenous peoples throughout the world). In a further complication, Torres Strait Islanders (who are also original inhabitants of what we now call Australia) often prefer to be differentiated from mainland Aboriginal Australians, with the result that publications sometimes suggest the unwieldy phrase Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The obvious solution to this problem would be to accept and promulgate a people's self-designation. Like aboriginal peoples all over the world, Aboriginal Australians refer to themselves with a word meaning "person" or "people" in their own languages (*see* [Australian Aboriginal languages]). This name in both Victoria and New South Wales is Koori (usually spelled Koorie in Victoria, also spelled Coorie or Goorie), but in Queensland it is Murri (or Murray), in Tasmania Palawa, in Western Australia Nyungar (Nyoongar), in South Australia Nunga (Nyungar or Nyoongah), in Central Australia Ananga, and in Northern Territory Yolngu. Much narrower language terms—such as Warlpiri, Birdawal, and Gunybarai—are also used to identify the speakers of those languages. None of these names is satisfactory as a collective term. In Australia, as in many other regions, the need for a universally acceptable collective term for those who preceded and were conquered by the current majority remained unmet in the early 21st century.

ʿAbd al-Malik

Introduction ------------ *in full **ʿabd Al-malik Ibn Marwān** * born 646/647, Medina, Arabia died October 705, Damascus fifth caliph (685-705) of the Umayyad Arab dynasty centred in Damascus. He reorganized and strengthened governmental administration and, throughout the empire, adopted Arabic as the language of administration. Life {#84.toc} ----

Abiola, Moshood Kashimawo Olawale

Nigerian executive, financier, and politician (b. Aug. 24, 1937, Abeokuta, Nigeria--d. July 7, 1998, Abuja, Nigeria), was one of the richest magnates in Africa and popularly regarded as the leader of the pro-democracy movement in Nigeria. He had been imprisoned since 1994 after winning the 1993 presidential election. Abiola, who was born in poverty, attended the University of Glasgow, Scot., on scholarship. He became an accountant for ITT Nigeria in 1968; by 1971 he was its chief executive and chairman, posts he held until 1988. During that time he amassed an immense private fortune and became owner of a publishing house, a newspaper syndicate, and an airline. With his luxurious, flamboyant lifestyle--which included marrying more wives (21 at the time of his death) than sanctioned by Islam--Abiola became a popular public figure; he also made generous donations for building schools. After decades of nearly uninterrupted military rule, democratic elections were held in Nigeria in 1993. Abiola, running as the presidential candidate of the Social Democratic Party, won almost 60% of the vote. The ruling junta, threatened by Abiola's popularity, annulled the election at the instigation of Gen. Ibrahim Babangida. This provoked a political crisis that remained unresolved. Abiola agitated publicly for the presidency he had won, which led to his 1994 arrest on a charge of treason. During his imprisonment Abiola was deprived of outside news and subjected to solitary confinement and abuse that included negligent medical care. His release seemed imminent following the death of [Gen. Sani Abacha] (*q.v.*) in June 1998 and a visit to Nigeria by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan made largely on Abiola's behalf. However, Abiola died suddenly under mysterious circumstances, arousing suspicions of foul play. Although heart attack was officially declared to be the cause of death, that conclusion was greeted with skepticism by many.

About this list

This is not intended to be a list of the best rock records ever made, nor are these necessarily the most representative records of the artists involved. Rather, these are 50 records through which the history of rock may be heard and understood. The list is organized chronologically and refers to the records as they were originally released and packaged, rather than as they have been rereleased and repackaged. This was the way they made their musical mark (which, in some cases, was as collections). There are necessarily more titles from the early years of rock's history, when it was taking musical and ideological shape, than from its later years, when its routines were established. This is not to say that rock became less musically interesting or valuable as it developed, just that it became more familiar. [Simon Frith]

[Eugene V. Debs]

> Years ago I recognized my kinship with all living things, and I made > up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on the > earth. I said then and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I > am in it; while there is a criminal element, I am of it; while there > is a soul in prison, I am not free.\ > Eugene V. Debs [Eugene V. Debs], born this day in 1855, was a five-time [Socialist] candidate for U.S. president and won nearly one million votes in 1920 while in prison for his criticism of prosecutions under the 1917 [Espionage] Act. [Eugene V. Debs] > Years ago I recognized my kinship with all living things, and I made > up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on the > earth. I said then and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I > am in it; while there is a criminal element, I am of it; while there > is a soul in prison, I am not free.\ > Eugene V. Debs [Eugene V. Debs], born this day in 1855, was a five-time [Socialist] candidate for U.S. president and won nearly one million votes in 1920 while in prison for his criticism of prosecutions under the 1917 Espionage Act.

Abakanowicz, Magdalena

born June 20, 1930, Falenty, Poland Polish artist whose massive series of sculptures earned her international acclaim. A descendant of Polish nobility, Abakanowicz studied at the School of Fine Arts in Sopot, Poland (1949), and graduated from the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw (1954). She began working as an independent artist in 1956 and initially earned success for large, three-dimensional woven sculptures known as *[]Abakans*, a derivation of her family name. These monumental, often garmentlike, pieces are ambiguous and compelling. Although initially Abakanowicz was best known for her work with textiles, she also exhibited paintings and drawings. Her later work, generally made of hard surfaces—though several contained fibres, rope, or textiles—characteristically employed groupings of repeated forms often based on the human body (described by one critic as "headless human husks") or on animals or trees. These forms are similar in appearance and gesture to one another, but each has its individuality. Works such as *Heads* (1975), *Backs* (1976-82), and *Embryology* (1978-81) were composed of multiple forms, primarily made of organic materials such as burlap, rope, and canvas. Much of her later work was done in bronze, stone, or concrete: *Katarsis* (1985; 33 cast bronze sculptures); *Becalmed Beings* (1993; 40 cast bronze figures); and *Space of Stone* (2003; 22 granite blocks). Many are large permanent outdoor installations. These are scattered throughout the world in places such as Jerusalem; Seoul; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Kansas City, Missouri; Dallas, Texas; Washington, D.C.; Lisbon; Paris; and New York City. Her artwork appeared internationally in more than 100 group and solo exhibitions. From 1965, she taught at the Academy of Fine Arts in Poznań, Poland, becoming a professor in 1979. Additional Reading {#235545.toc} ------------------ Studies include Barbara Rose, *Magdalena Abakanowicz* (1994); and Joanna Inglot, *The Figurative Sculpture of Magdalena Abakanowicz: Bodies, Environments, and Myths* (2004).

Adair v. the United States

(1908), case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld []"yellow dog" contracts forbidding workers from joining labour unions. []William Adair of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad fired O.B. []Coppage for belonging to a labour union, an action in direct violation of the [Erdman Act] of 1898, which prohibited railroads engaged in interstate commerce from requiring workers to refrain from union membership as a condition of employment. In 1908 the Supreme Court decided in a 6 to 2 vote that the Erdman Act was unconstitutional. The court held that the act represented an unreasonable violation of the due process clause of the [Fifth Amendment], which guaranteed freedom of contract and property rights; moreover, according to the majority, Congress' constitutional authority over interstate commerce did not extend to matters of union membership.

Achaemenian Dynasty

*also called **Achaemenid,** Persian **Hakhamanishiya** * (559-330 BC), ancient Iranian dynasty whose kings founded and ruled the Achaemenian Empire. Achaemenes (Persian Hakhamanish), the Achaemenians'eponymous ancestor, is presumed to have lived early in the 7th century BC, but little is known of his life. From his son Teispes two lines of kings descended. The kings of the older line were [Cyrus I], [Cambyses I], [Cyrus II] (the Great), and [Cambyses II]. After the death of Cambyses II (522 BC) the junior line came to the throne with [Darius I]. The dynasty became extinct with the death of [Darius III], following his defeat (330 BC) by [Alexander the Great]. Probably the greatest of the Achaemenian rulers were Cyrus II (reigned 559-c. 529 BC), who actually established the empire and from whose reign it is dated; Darius I (522-486), who excelled as an administrator and secured the borders from external threats; and [Xerxes I] (486-465), who completed many of the buildings begun by Darius. During the time of Darius I and Xerxes I, the empire extended as far west as Macedonia and Libya and as far east as the Hyphasis (Beās) River; it stretched to the Caucasus Mountains and the Aral Sea in the north and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Desert in the south. The Achaemenian rule of conquered peoples was generally liberal; the empire itself was divided into provinces (satrapies), each administered by a satrap who underwent frequent inspections by officials reporting directly to the king.

actinomyxidian

*also called **Actinosporean,** * any parasitic microorganism of the class Actinomyxidia (Actinosporea), phylum Myxosporidia (Myxospora). It inhabits the alimentary canal of certain aquatic worms. The characteristic spores develop in the host's gut after the union of large and small gametes. The spores contain three polar filaments (possibly anchoring devices) enclosed in capsules and one to many infective sporozoites. The representative species *[]Triactinomyxon ignotum* lives in the marine worm *Tubifex* and has spore valves that are elongated into three large hooks.

Adalbero Of Ardennes

*also called **Adalbero Of Reims,** French **Adalbéron D'ardenne, or Adalbéron De Reims** * died January 989 archbishop of Reims who, by declaring the Frankish crown to be elective rather than hereditary, paved the way for the accession of [][Hugh Capet] in place of the Carolingian claimant, Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine. Adalbero, a native of Lorraine, had opposed the attempts of the Carolingian king of France, [][Lothair], to gain Lorraine from the Holy Roman emperor Otto II. Accused of treason, he was summoned by Louis V (986-987), Lothair's son and successor, to appear at an assembly of the leading Franks at Compiègne. But Louis's sudden death prevented the trial from taking place; instead, Adalbero denounced [][Charles] of Lorraine, uncle of Louis, as unfit to succeed to the Frankish throne and supported the candidacy of Hugh Capet. Duly elected, Hugh was crowned by Adalbero in July 987 at Noyon.

acrocephalosyndactyly

*also called **Apert syndrome** * congenital malformation of the skeleton affecting the [skull] and limbs. The disorder most often is hereditary, but it may appear spontaneously. The head appears pointed (acrocephaly) because of premature closing of the cranial sutures between the individual bones that make up the skull. The bones and skin of several adjacent fingers or toes may be fused (syndactyly); in some cases all five digits may fuse. Deformity of the skull causes the eyes to bulge because the eye sockets are shallower than normal. Other congenital abnormalities, such as heart defects, also may be present. Treatment includes surgical correction of the skull. The disease was first described by the French pediatrician Eugène Apert. *See also* [craniosynostosis].

Abhdisho bar Berikha

*also called **Ebedjesus Of Nisibis** * died November 1318 Syrian Christian theologian and poet who was the last important representative of the [][Nestorian] tradition, a theological school emphasizing a rational, critical interpretation of early Christian doctrine. The sect, centred in ancient Antioch, countered the speculative mysticism then prevalent in Alexandria and Jerusalem. Appointed bishop of Shiggar and Beth-Arabaye (Syria) about 1285, Abhdisho became, by 1291, metropolitan (senior bishop over a larger province) of Nisibis (now Nusaybin, Tur.) and Armenia. Most notable of his works is *[]Margaritha vitae* ("The Pearl of Life"), considered to be one of the most comprehensive statements of late Nestorian teaching. The "Pearl" focussed on the issue of Christ's psychological identity. Reacting against the pietistic element of Greek and Oriental Christianity, which accented Christ as simply the divinity in human form rather than as a distinct individual, Abhdisho argued that Jesus experienced completely the biological and psychological functions of an integral, human person in feelings, mind, and will. Such a view was motivated by the Nestorian concern for an effective and authentic meaning to Christ's moral example and sacrifice on behalf of the human race.

abstract art

*also called **nonobjective art** or **nonrepresentational art** * [![Photograph:Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949.]] - Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949. painting, sculpture, or graphic art in which the portrayal of things from the visible world plays no part. All art consists largely of elements that can be called abstract—elements of form, colour, line, tone, and texture. Prior to the 20th century these abstract elements were employed by artists to describe, illustrate, or reproduce the world of nature and of human civilization—and exposition dominated over expressive function. Abstract art has its origins in the 19th century. The period characterized by so vast a body of elaborately representational art produced for the sake of illustrating anecdote also produced a number of painters who examined the mechanism of light and visual perception. The period of Romanticism had put forward ideas about art that denied classicism's emphasis on imitation and idealization and had instead stressed the role of imagination and of the unconscious as the essential creative factors. Gradually many painters of this period began to accept the new freedom and the new responsibilities implied in the coalescence of these attitudes. [][Maurice Denis]'s statement of 1890, "It should be remembered that a picture—before being a war-horse, a nude, or an anecdote of some sort—is essentially a flat surface covered with colours assembled in a certain order," summarizes the feeling among the Symbolist and Postimpressionist artists of his time.

Abd ar-Rahman

*also called **ʿabd Ar-raḥmān Ibn Hishām** * born 1789/90 died August 28, 1859, Meknès, Mor. sultan of Morocco (1822-59) who was the 24th ruler of the ʿAlawī dynasty. His reign was marked by both peaceful and hostile contacts with European powers, particularly France. Having succeeded to the throne without internal conflict, Abd ar-Rahman became an able administrator and active builder of public works. During his long reign his authority was often challenged by dissident tribes and disaffected notables; he suppressed revolts in 1824, 1828, 1831, 1843, 1849, and 1853.

Abū Ẓaby

*also spelled **Abu Dhabi** * [![Photograph:A mosque in Abū Ẓaby, U.A.E.]] - A mosque in Abū Ẓaby, U.A.E. constituent emirate of the [United Arab Emirates] (formerly Trucial States, or Trucial Oman). Though its international boundaries are disputed, it is unquestionably the largest of the country's seven constituent emirates with more than three-fourths of the area of the entire federation. Its rich oil fields, both onshore and in the [Persian Gulf], make it, with neighbouring [Dubayy], one of the nation's two most prosperous emirates. Abū Ẓaby fronts the Persian Gulf on the north for about 280 miles (450 km). The desolate coast has many areas of *sabkhah* ("salt marsh") and numerous offshore islands. Abū Ẓaby borders [Qatar] (west), [Saudi Arabia] (south), and [Oman], formerly [Muscat] and Oman (east). Internally it half surrounds Dubayy and has a short frontier with [Al-Shāriqah].

Abū Ruwaysh

*also spelled **Abu Roash,** * ![Map/Still] [][ancient Egyptian site] of a 4th-dynasty (c. 2575-c. 2465 BC) [][pyramid] built by [Redjedef], usually considered the third of the seven kings of that dynasty. The site is about 5 miles (8 km) northwest of the [Pyramids of Giza] (Al-Jīzah) on the west bank of the [Nile River]. It is part of a UNESCO [World Heritage site]—along with [Dahshūr], [Ṣaqqārah], [Abū Ṣīr], [Memphis], and the Pyramids of Giza—that was designated in 1979. Of the pyramid superstructure very little remains, and some scholars believe that it was never finished—a theory reinforced by evidence that the walls of the [mortuary temple] next to the pyramid were hastily made of mud brick instead of the usual cut stone; the complex was also deliberately ransacked, as Redjedef was involved in a dynastic struggle. Nothing remains of the pyramid's valley temple, but the causeway from it to the mortuary temple can still be traced. An Early Dynastic (c. 2925-c. 2575 BC) private cemetery has also been found at Abū Ruwaysh.

ʿādah

(Arabic: "custom"), in Islāmic law, a local custom that is given a particular consideration by judicial authorities even when it conflicts with some principle of canon law (Sharīʿah); in Indonesia it is known as *[][adat],* in North Africa it is *[ʿurf],* and in East Africa, *[]dustūr.* Muslim communities developed their *ʿādah*s before accepting Islām and did not abandon them entirely afterward. Thus in Indonesian Minangkabau, where many Muslims still retain old Hindu or pagan traditions, a matriarchate is recognized, contrary to the Sharīʿah; in parts of India, Muslims adopt children, forbidden by canon law, and then again circumvent the Sharīʿah by providing them with an inheritance. Such *ʿādah*s are accepted by religious courts as legitimate local laws that must be respected by others. Each community has developed its own norms for handling disputes, and these may often disagree with standard religious teachings. Nevertheless, authorities condone various religious customs to foster harmony and peace in the community.

Abū Ḥanīfah

*in full **Abū Ḥanīfah An-nuʿmān Ibn Thābit** * born 699, Kūfah, Iraq died 767, Baghdad Muslim jurist and theologian whose systematization of Islāmic legal doctrine was acknowledged as one of the four canonical schools of []Islāmic []law. The school of Abū Ḥanīfah acquired such prestige that its doctrines were applied by a majority of Muslim dynasties. Even today it is widely followed in India, Pakistan, Turkey, Central Asia, and Arab countries. Abū Ḥanīfah was born in Kūfah, an intellectual centre of Iraq, and belonged to the *[mawālī],* the non-Arab Muslims, who pioneered intellectual activity in Islāmic lands. The son of a merchant, young Abū Ḥanīfah took up the silk trade for a living and eventually became moderately wealthy. In early youth he was attracted to theological debates, but later, disenchanted with theology, he turned to law and for about 18 years was a disciple of []Ḥammād (d. 738), then the most noted Iraqi jurist. After Ḥammād's death, Abū Ḥanīfah became his successor. He also learned from several other scholars, notably the Meccan traditionist ʿAṭāʾ (d. *c.* 732) and the founder of the Shīʿite law, [][Jaʿfar aṣ-Ṣādiq] (d. 765). Abū Ḥanīfah's mind was also matured by extensive travels and by exposure to the heterogeneous, advanced society of Iraq.

Acta

(Latin: "Acts"), in ancient Rome, minutes of public business and gazette of political and social events. They were in two forms: *Acta Senatus* and *Acta diurna*. The *Acta Senatus,* or *Commentarii Senatus,* were the minutes of the proceedings of the Senate. The emperor Augustus continued to keep them but forbade their publication. From the reign of his successor, Tiberius, in the 1st century AD, a young senator drew up the *Acta,* which were kept in the imperial archives and public libraries. Special permission was necessary in order to examine them. The *Acta diurna* (*Acta populi,* or *Acta publica*) grew out of [][Julius Caesar's] arrangements for the publishing of official business and matters of public interest. Under the empire (after 27 BC) the *Acta diurna* constituted a type of daily gazette, and thus it was, in a sense, the prototype of the modern newspaper.

Actium, Battle of

(September 2, 31 BC), naval battle off a promontory in the north of Acarnania, on the western coast of Greece, where Octavian (known as the emperor [][Augustus] after 27 BC), by his decisive victory over [][Mark Antony], became the undisputed master of the Roman world. Antony, with 500 ships and 70,000 infantry, made his camp at Actium, which lies on the southern side of a strait leading from the Ionian Sea into the Ambracian Gulf. Octavian, with 400 ships and 80,000 infantry, arrived from the north and, by occupying Patrae and Corinth, also managed to cut Antony's southward communications with Egypt via the Peloponnese. Desertions by some of his allies and a lack of provisions soon forced Antony to take action. Either hoping to win at sea because he was outmaneuvered on land or else simply trying to break the blockade, Antony followed [][Cleopatra]'s advice to employ the fleet. He drew up his ships outside the bay, facing west, with Cleopatra's squadron behind. The ensuing naval battle was hotly contested, with each side's squadrons trying to outflank the other, until Cleopatra took her Egyptian galleys and fled the battle. Antony then broke off and with a few ships managed to follow her. The remainder of his fleet became disheartened and surrendered to Octavian, and Antony's land forces surrendered one week later.

Abbas, Abu

***Muhammad Abbas** * Palestinian guerrilla leader (b. 1948/49?, near Haifa?, Palestine/Israel?—d. March 8/9, 2004, near Baghdad, Iraq), was best known as the mastermind behind the 1985 hijacking of the Italian cruise ship *Achille Lauro,* during which a wheelchair-bound American Jewish man, Leon Klinghoffer, was shot and pushed into the sea; this act brought worldwide condemnation, and Abbas was sentenced in absentia to life in prison in Italy. Abbas grew up in a Palestinian refugee camp in Syria and, under the nom de guerre Abu Abbas, became a rising star in Ahmad Jibril's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, which was known for its daring, ruthless, and frequently disastrous attacks on Israel. In the mid-1970s Abbas founded his own faction, the Palestine Liberation Front. The *Achille Lauro* hijacking was reportedly a botched attempt to infiltrate Israel from the sea by four people under Abbas's command. With his public acceptance of the Oslo peace agreements, he was permitted in 1996 to return to Gaza, where he apologized for the hijacking and for Klinghoffer's murder. Abbas was captured in Baghdad by American troops in April 2003 and died while in U.S. military custody.

Ackermann, Louise-Victorine

**née* **Choquet** * born November 30, 1813, Paris, Fr. died August 2, 1890, Nice French poet who is best-known for works characterized by a deep sense of pessimism. Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopédistes, she traveled to Berlin in 1838 to study German and there married (1843) Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist. Two years later her husband died, and she went to live with her sister at Nice. There she wrote *Contes en vers* (1855; "Stories in Verse") and *Contes et poésies* (1862; "Stories and Poetry"), but her real reputation rests on the *[]Poésies, premières poésies, poésies philosophiques* (1874; "Poetry, First Poetry, Philosophical Poetry"), a volume of sombre and powerful verse, expressing her revolt against human suffering.

Abington, Fanny

**née* **Frances Barton** * born 1737, London, Eng. died March 4, 1815, London English actress admired both for her craft and for her leadership in fashion. She was at first a flower girl, hence her later nickname, Nosegay Fan, and a street singer. Employment by a French milliner gave her taste in dress and a knowledge of French that she later found useful. She first appeared on the stage at the Haymarket Theatre, London, in 1755. In 1756 she joined the Drury Lane company but was overshadowed by Hannah Pritchard and Kitty Clive. After an unfortunate marriage to her music master in 1759, she was known as Mrs. Abington. She spent five successful years in Ireland and was then invited by David Garrick to rejoin Drury Lane. There she remained for 18 years, creating many important roles, among them Lady Teazle in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's *The School for Scandal* (1777). She was equally successful in tragedy and comedy. In 1782 Mrs. Abington went from Drury Lane to Covent Garden. She left the stage in 1790, returning in 1797 for another two years. She was a leader of fashion, and a headdress of hers called the Abington cap was very widely worn.

Abrikosov, Alexey A.

*in full **Alexey Alexeevich Abrikosov** * born June 25, 1928, Moscow, U.S.S.R. [now Russia] Russian physicist, who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2003 for his pioneering contribution to the theory of [superconductivity]. He shared the award with [Vitaly L. Ginzburg] of Russia and [Anthony J. Leggett] of Great Britain. Abrikosov received doctorates in physics from the Institute for Physical Problems (now the P.L. Kapitsa Institute) in Moscow in 1951 and 1955. In the following decades he worked at scientific institutions and universities in the U.S.S.R. In 1991 he joined [Argonne National Laboratory] in Illinois and became a distinguished scientist in its materials science division. Abrikosov's prizewinning work focused on [][superconductivity], the disappearance of electrical resistance in various solids when they are cooled below a certain critical (and typically very low) temperature. The phenomenon was first identified in 1911, and in the following decades scientists explained why certain metals, termed type I superconductors, lose electrical resistance. However, there was a second group of metals, termed [type II superconductors], that continued to superconduct even in the presence of very powerful magnetic fields, with superconductivity and magnetism existing within them at the same time. Building on the work done by Ginzburg and others, Abrikosov devised a theoretical explanation for type II superconductivity. This enabled other scientists to create and test new superconducting materials and build more powerful electromagnets. Among the practical results were magnets critical for the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used in medical diagnostics.

Acuff, Roy

*in full **Roy Claxton Acuff** * born Sept. 15, 1903, Maynardsville, Tenn., U.S. died Nov. 23, 1992, Nashville, Tenn. American vocalist, songwriter, and fiddle player, called the "King of [][Country Music]," who in the mid-1930s reasserted the mournful musical traditions of Southeastern rural whites and became a national radio star on the "Grand Ole Opry" broadcasts. Turning his attention to music after an aborted baseball career, Acuff gained immediate popularity with his recordings of "The Great Speckled Bird" and "The []Wabash Cannonball." The latter piece became his theme song. By the early 1940s his sincere singing style, backed by the traditional sound of the Smoky Mountain Boys, was earning him \$200,000 per year.

ʿAbdullāh I

*in full **ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ḥusayn** * born 1882, Mecca died July 20, 1951, Jerusalem statesman who became the first ruler (1946-51) of the [Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.] [![Photograph:ʿAbdullāh, the first king of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.]] - ʿAbdullāh, the first king of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. ʿAbdullāh, the second son of [Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī], the ruler of the [Hejaz], was educated in Istanbul in what was then the Ottoman Empire. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, he represented Mecca in the Ottoman parliament. Early in 1914 he joined the Arab nationalist movement, which sought independence for Arab territories in the Ottoman Empire. In 1915-16 he played a leading role in clandestine negotiations between the British in Egypt and his father that led to the proclamation (June 10, 1916) of the Arab revolt against the Ottomans.

ʿAbd al-Ghanī

*in full **ʿAbd al-Ghanī ibn Ismāʿīl an-Nābulusī** * born March 19, 1641, Damascus died March 5, 1731 Syrian mystic prose and verse writer on the cultural and religious thought of his time. Orphaned at an early age, ʿAbd al-Ghanī, joined the Islāmic mystical orders of the Qādirīyah and the Naqshbandīyah. He then spent seven years in isolation in his house, studying the mystics on their expression of divine experiences. ʿAbd al-Ghanī traveled extensively throughout the Islāmic world, visiting Istanbul in 1664, Lebanon in 1688, Jerusalem and Palestine in 1689, Egypt and Arabia in 1693, and Tripoli in 1700.

Adab

*modern **Bismāyah** * [![Photograph:Alabaster head of a man wearing a turban, from Adab, Akkadian period, c. 24th century ; ...]] - Alabaster head of a man wearing a turban, from Adab, Akkadian period, *c.* 24th century BC; ... ancient Sumerian city located south of Nippur (modern Niffer or Nuffar), Iraq. Excavations (1903-04) carried out by the American archaeologist []Edgar James Banks revealed buildings dating from as early as the prehistoric period and as late as the reign of Ur-Nammu (reigned 2112-2095 BC). Adab was an important Sumerian centre only up to about 2000. The Sumerian king list ascribed to the city one of the early dynasties, comprising only one king, []Lugal-anne-mundu, who was said to have reigned for 90 years; according to his position on the king list this reign would have been about 2400. At almost all other times in its history Adab was ruled by kings who controlled all or most of Babylonia (southern Mesopotamia). The principal deity of the city was the goddess Ninhursag.

Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of, Viscount Gordon Of Aberdeen, Viscount Of Formartine, Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves, And Kellie

*original name **George Gordon** * born Jan. 28, 1784, Edinburgh, Scot. died Dec. 14, 1860, London, Eng. [![Photograph:Aberdeen, detail of an oil painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1828; in the collection of Viscount ...]] - Aberdeen, detail of an oil painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1828; in the collection of Viscount ... British foreign secretary and prime minister (1852-55) whose government involved Great Britain in the [][Crimean War] against Russia (1853-56).

Abel, Rudolf (Ivanovich)

*original name **William August Fisher** * born July 11, 1903, Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, Eng. died Nov. 15, 1971, Moscow Soviet intelligence officer, convicted in the United States in 1957 for conspiring to transmit military secrets to the Soviet Union. He was exchanged in 1962 for the American aviator [][Francis Gary Powers], who had been imprisoned as a spy in the Soviet Union since 1960. Genrich Fischer (or Fisher), Abel's father and a friend of Lenin's, emigrated to Britain around 1901, where he spent 20 years attempting to organize and indoctrinate his fellow factory workers before returning to Russia. His son, born in England and going to Russia with his father, joined the Soviet intelligence and security agency GPU (the predecessor of the KGB) in 1927 and operated in western European countries and the Soviet Union in the next two decades. In about 1948 he illegally entered the United States and, under the name of Emil R. Goldfus, lived for some time as an artist and photographer in a Brooklyn studio apartment, where he concealed shortwave-radio transmitting and receiving equipment. On June 21, 1957, he was arrested by the FBI, and on Oct. 25, 1957, a federal district court in Brooklyn found him guilty of espionage, relying in part on testimony by Soviet Lieutenant Colonel []Reino Hayhanen, who had defected to the West and who stated that he had been Abel's chief coconspirator in the United States. The court sentenced Abel to 30 years' imprisonment.

acroterion

*plural **Acroteria,** * in architecture, decorative pedestal for an ornament or statue placed atop the pediment of a Greek temple; the term has also been extended to refer to the statue or ornament that stands on the pedestal. Originally a petal-shaped ornament with incised pattern, such as the honeysuckle, was placed on the ridge and at the eaves at either side of the pediment. Later this ornamentation was developed into groups of statuary, as at the []Temple of Apollo (420 BC) on the island of Delos; the crowning group is dominated by Eos, the dawn, being lifted up by the handsome god Cephalus. At first, acroteria were made of terra-cotta, as were the roof tiles; later they were made of stone. The acroteria of the Apollo temple are made of beautiful semitranslucent Pentelic marble. The acroterion is sometimes incorporated into the design of furniture; for example, it can be placed in the broken pediment of a secretary bookcase.

abacus

*plural **abaci** or **abacuses** * [![Photograph:A Chinese wooden abacus.]] - A Chinese wooden abacus. calculating device, probably of [][Babylonian] origin, that was long important in commerce. It is the ancestor of the modern calculating machine and computer. The earliest "abacus" likely was a board or slab on which a Babylonian spread sand so he could trace letters for general writing purposes. The word *abacus* is probably derived, through its Greek form *abakos,* from a Semitic word such as the Hebrew *ibeq* ("to wipe the dust"; noun *abaq,* "dust"). As the abacus came to be used solely for counting and computing, its form was changed and improved. The sand ("dust") surface is thought to have evolved into the board marked with lines and equipped with counters whose positions indicated numerical values—*i.e.,* ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. In the []Roman abacus the board was given grooves to facilitate moving the counters in the proper files. Another form, common today, has the counters strung on wires.

[Jack Lemmon]

Adept at both comedy and drama in a career that spanned more than 50 years, American actor [Jack Lemmon], who died this day in 2001, won two [Academy Awards], including best actor for his performance in *Save the Tiger* (1973). Jack Lemmon Adept at both comedy and drama in a career that spanned more than 50 years, American actor Jack Lemmon, who died this day in 2001, won two Academy Awards, including best actor for his performance in *Save the Tiger* (1973).

[Cecil Rhodes]

> I contend that we [the British] are the finest race in the world and > that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human > race.\ > Cecil Rhodes [Cecil Rhodes], born this day in 1853, was a financier and statesman of British [South Africa] who served as prime minister of [Cape Colony], organized the diamond company [De Beers], and created the [Rhodes scholarships] at Oxford. [Cecil Rhodes] > I contend that we [the British] are the finest race in the world and > that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human > race.\ > Cecil Rhodes [Cecil Rhodes], born this day in 1853, was a financier and statesman of British [South Africa] who served as prime minister of Cape Colony, organized the diamond company De Beers, and created the Rhodes scholarships at Oxford.

[Adolf Hitler]

> I know, my comrades, it must have been difficult at times, when you > were desiring change which didn't come, so time and time again the > appeal has to be made to continue the struggle—you mustn't act > yourself, you must obey, you must give in, you must submit to this > overwhelming need to obey.\ > Adolf Hitler, speaking to SA and SS troops, January 30, 1933, the day > he was appointed chancellor of Germany Born this day in 1889 in Austria, [Adolf Hitler] became leader of the [Nazi Party] in 1920 and chancellor of Germany in 1933, created a formidable war machine, provoked [World War II], and orchestrated the [Holocaust]. [Adolf Hitler] > I know, my comrades, it must have been difficult at times, when you > were desiring change which didn't come, so time and time again the > appeal has to be made to continue the struggle—you mustn't act > yourself, you must obey, you must give in, you must submit to this > overwhelming need to obey.\ > Adolf Hitler, speaking to SA and SS troops, January 30, 1933, the day > he was appointed chancellor of Germany Born this day in 1889 in Austria, [Adolf Hitler] became leader of the Nazi Party in 1920 and chancellor of Germany in 1933, created a formidable war machine, provoked [World War II], and orchestrated the Holocaust.

[Voltaire]

> Men will always be mad, and those who think they can cure them are the > maddest of all.\ > Voltaire, 1762 One of the greatest [French writers], famous for his critical capacity and satiric wit and still widely revered as a courageous crusader against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty, [Voltaire] was born this day in 1694. [Voltaire] > Men will always be mad, and those who think they can cure them are the > maddest of all.\ > Voltaire, 1762 One of the greatest French writers, famous for his critical capacity and satiric wit and still widely revered as a courageous crusader against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty, [Voltaire] was born this day in 1694.

[Katharine Hepburn]

> My greatest strength is...common sense. I'm really a standard brand—like > Campbell's tomato soup or Baker's chocolate.\ > Katharine Hepburn Born this day in 1907, American actress [Katharine Hepburn] brought a spirited individuality and depth of character to her roles that made her one of Hollywood's most dynamic leading ladies and earned her four Academy Awards. [Katharine Hepburn] > My greatest strength is...common sense. I'm really a standard brand—like > Campbell's tomato soup or Baker's chocolate.\ > Katharine Hepburn Born this day in 1907, American actress [Katharine Hepburn] brought a spirited individuality and depth of character to her roles that made her one of Hollywood's most dynamic leading ladies and earned her four Academy Awards.

[Wole Soyinka]

> Some people think the Nobel Prize makes you bulletproof. I never had > that illusion.\ > Wole Soyinka Nigerian playwright, poet, and novelist [Wole Soyinka], born this day in 1934, wrote of modern West Africa in a satiric style and with a tragic sense of the obstacles of progress, winning the 1986 Nobel Prize for Literature. [Wole Soyinka] > Some people think the Nobel Prize makes you bulletproof. I never had > that illusion.\ > Wole Soyinka Nigerian playwright, poet, and novelist [Wole Soyinka], born this day in 1934, wrote of modern West Africa in a satiric style and with a tragic sense of the obstacles of progress, winning the 1986 Nobel Prize for Literature.

[Bill Clinton]

> There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured by what is > right with America.\ > Bill Clinton, inaugural address, January 21, 1993 [Bill Clinton]—who, as the 42nd president of the United States (1993-2001), oversaw the country's longest peacetime economic expansion but became, in 1998, only the second president to be [impeached]—was born this day in 1946. [Bill Clinton] > There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured by what is > right with America.\ > Bill Clinton, inaugural address, January 21, 1993 [Bill Clinton]—who, as the 42nd president of the United States (1993-2001), oversaw the country's longest peacetime economic expansion but became, in 1998, only the second president to be impeached—was born this day in 1946.

[Michael Jordan]

> There's Michael, then there's all the rest of us.\ > Basketball player Magic Johnson Considered by many the greatest all-around player in the history of [basketball], American [Michael ("Air") Jordan]%20Jordan#9043977.toc), who was born this day in 1963, led the Chicago Bulls to six [NBA] championships (1991-93, 1996-98). [Michael Jordan] > There's Michael, then there's all the rest of us.\ > Basketball player Magic Johnson Considered by many the greatest all-around player in the history of [basketball], American [Michael ("Air") Jordan]%20Jordan#9275183%20.toc), who was born this day in 1963, led the Chicago Bulls to six NBA championships (1991-93, 1996-98).

[Joseph Rotblat]

> What we are advocating in Pugwash, a war-free world, will be seen by > many as a Utopian dream. It is not Utopian. There already exist in the > world large regions, for example, the European Union, within which war > is inconceivable.\ > Joseph Rotblat, 1995 Born this day in 1908 in Poland, British physicist [Joseph Rotblat] was a leading critic of nuclear weapons and joint winner with the [Pugwash Conferences] (of which he was a founding member) of the 1995 [Nobel Prize] for Peace. [Joseph Rotblat] > What we are advocating in Pugwash, a war-free world, will be seen by > many as a Utopian dream. It is not Utopian. There already exist in the > world large regions, for example, the European Union, within which war > is inconceivable.\ > Joseph Rotblat, 1995 Born this day in 1908 in Poland, British physicist [Joseph Rotblat] was a leading critic of nuclear weapons and joint winner with the Pugwash Conferences (of which he was a founding member) of the 1995 [Nobel Prize] for Peace.

[Jimi Hendrix]

> You can't mess with people's heads, that's for sure. But that's what > music's all about, messing with people's heads.\ > Jimi Hendrix Born this day in 1942, American guitarist [Jimi Hendrix] altered the course of popular music in his brief career through his innovative playing of the electric [guitar] and his standing as a symbol of the 1960s youth movement. [Jimi Hendrix] > You can't mess with people's heads, that's for sure. But that's what > music's all about, messing with people's heads.\ > Jimi Hendrix Born this day in 1942, American guitarist [Jimi Hendrix] altered the course of popular music in his brief career through his innovative playing of the electric guitar and his standing as a symbol of the 1960s youth movement.

[D.H. Lawrence]

> You have to have something vicious in you to be a creative writer....God > save me from being 'nice.'\ > D.H. Lawrence [D.H. Lawrence], born this day in 1885, was one of the most influential [English writers] of the 20th century, known in particular for his novels *Sons and Lovers* (1913), *The Rainbow* (1915), and *Women in Love* (1920). [D.H. Lawrence] > You have to have something vicious in you to be a creative writer....God > save me from being 'nice.'\ > D.H. Lawrence [D.H. Lawrence], born this day in 1885, was one of the most influential English writers of the 20th century, known in particular for his novels *Sons and Lovers* (1913), *The Rainbow* (1915), and *Women in Love* (1920).

[Julie Christie]

British film actress [Julie Christie], born in India this day in 1941, was renowned for a wide range of roles in English and American films, as well as for her striking looks and offbeat, free-spirited personality. Julie Christie British film actress Julie Christie, born in India this day in 1941, was renowned for a wide range of roles in English and American films, as well as for her striking looks and offbeat, free-spirited personality.

[Ian Fleming]

British suspense-fiction novelist [Ian Fleming], born this day in 1908, created one of the most successful and widely imitated heroes of popular fiction: James Bond, the stylish, high-living British secret service agent 007. [Ian Fleming] British suspense-fiction novelist [Ian Fleming], born this day in 1908, created one of the most successful and widely imitated heroes of popular fiction: James Bond, the stylish, high-living British secret service agent 007.

Adamec, Ladislav

Czech politician born Sept 10, 1926, Frenstat pod Radhostem, Moravia, Czech. [now in Czech Republic] died April 14, 2007 , Prague, Czech Rep. failed to prevent the end of communist rule in his country even as he tried to initiate modest reforms as federal prime minister (1988-89). Adamec joined the Communist Party in 1946 and the party's central committee in 1966. He served as deputy premier (1969-87) and premier (1987-88) in the Czech Socialist Republic before being named head of the national government on Oct. 11, 1988. During the 1989 Velvet Revolution, Adamec opened the country's borders and refused to authorize military intervention, but his offer of limited multiparty government was rebuffed by Vaclav Havel and other pro-democracy leaders. Adamec resigned on Dec. 7, 1989, and stepped down as Communist Party leader the next year, but he remained a member of the new Czech parliament until 1992.

[Leonid Brezhnev]

During his tenure as [Soviet] leader, [Leonid Brezhnev], born this day in 1906, developed a doctrine that asserted the right of Soviet intervention in other socialist countries and ordered an invasion of [Afghanistan] in 1979. Leonid Brezhnev During his tenure as Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, born this day in 1906, developed a doctrine that asserted the right of Soviet intervention in other socialist countries and ordered an invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

[Jacques Chirac]

French politician [Jacques Chirac], born this day in 1932, was elected mayor of [Paris] in 1977, twice served as prime minister of [France] (1974-76, 1986-88), and was elected twice (1995, 2002) as the country's president. Jacques Chirac French politician Jacques Chirac, born this day in 1932, was elected mayor of Paris in 1977, twice served as prime minister of France (1974-76, 1986-88), and was elected twice (1995, 2002) as the country's president.

acetaldehyde

*also called **ethanal (CH~3~CHO)** * an aldehyde used as a starting material in the synthesis of acetic acid, *n*-butyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, and other chemical compounds. It is manufactured by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol and by the hydration of acetylene. Pure acetaldehyde is a colourless, flammable liquid with pungent, fruity odour; it boils at 20.8° C.

[Pervez Musharraf]

Born this day in 1943, General [Pervez Musharraf] assumed power in Pakistan following a 1999 coup, formed a military government, and later struggled to deal with rising Islamist extremism within the country. Pervez Musharraf Born this day in 1943, General Pervez Musharraf assumed power in Pakistan following a 1999 coup, formed a military government, and later struggled to deal with rising Islamist extremism within the country.

[Charles Dickens]

Born in England this day in 1812, [Charles Dickens], whose works include *A Christmas Carol*, *David Copperfield*, *A Tale of Two Cities*, and *Great Expectations*, is generally considered the greatest [Victorian-era novelist]. Charles Dickens Born in England this day in 1812, Charles Dickens, whose works include *A Christmas Carol*, *David Copperfield*, *A Tale of Two Cities*, and *Great Expectations*, is generally considered the greatest Victorian-era novelist.

[Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford]

Born this day in 1550, English lyric poet [Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford], emerged in the 20th century as the strongest candidate proposed (other than [William Shakespeare] himself) as the author of Shakespeare's plays. Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford Born this day in 1550, English lyric poet Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford, emerged in the 20th century as the strongest candidate proposed (other than William Shakespeare himself) as the author of Shakespeare's plays.

[Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier]

Born this day in 1743, [Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier] was a prominent French chemist and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical revolution who developed an experimentally based theory of the chemical reactivity of [oxygen]. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier Born this day in 1743, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was a prominent French chemist and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical revolution who developed an experimentally based theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen.

[O.J. Simpson]

Born this day in 1947, [O.J. Simpson] was an outstanding running back—winning the 1968 [Heisman Trophy] and setting an NFL single-season record for rushing yards (2,003)—but became perhaps best known for his 1995 murder trial. O.J. Simpson Born this day in 1947, O.J. Simpson was an outstanding running back—winning the 1968 Heisman Trophy and setting an NFL single-season record for rushing yards (2,003)—but became perhaps best known for his 1995 murder trial.

[Balthus]

In the midst of 20th-century avant-gardism, French painter [Balthus], born this day in 1908, hewed to the figurative and, inspired by painters such as [Nicolas Poussin], painted still lifes, landscapes, and portraits. Balthus In the midst of 20th-century avant-gardism, French painter Balthus, born this day in 1908, hewed to the figurative and, inspired by painters such as Nicolas Poussin, painted still lifes, landscapes, and portraits.

ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III

Introduction ------------ *byname **Al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (Arabic: "Victor for the Religion of Allah")** , in full **ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabḍī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil** * born January 891 died October 15, 961, Córdoba first caliph and greatest ruler of the Umayyad Arab Muslim dynasty of Spain. He reigned as hereditary emir ("prince") of [][Córdoba] from October 912 and took the title of caliph in 929. Accession as emir {#90.toc} -----------------

[Clarence Thomas]

[![Photograph:Clarence Thomas.]] - Clarence Thomas. Born this day in 1948 was [Clarence Thomas], associate justice of the [U.S. Supreme Court] from 1991, whose appointment to replace [Thurgood Marshall] (the court's first African American justice) gave the court a conservative cast. Clarence Thomas [![Photograph:Clarence Thomas.]] - Clarence Thomas. Born this day in 1948 was Clarence Thomas, associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1991, whose appointment to replace Thurgood Marshall (the court's first African American justice) gave the court a conservative cast.

Adams family

Massachusetts family with deep roots in American history whose members made major contributions to the nation's political and intellectual life for more than 150 years. Established in America by []Henry Adams, who emigrated from England to Massachusetts Bay Colony about 1636, the family made no special mark until the time of [][John Adams] (1735-1826). Perhaps the most profound political philosopher of the Revolutionary and early national periods of U.S. history, Adams also served as the country's second president (1797-1801). His wife, [][Abigail Adams] (1744-1818), left a voluminous correspondence testifying to her wit, literary capabilities, and political insight. John's cousin [][Samuel Adams] (1722-1803) was the firebrand of Revolutionary Boston, constantly organizing protests against British policies and shrewdly directing public opinion toward the goal of independence. [][John Quincy Adams] (1767-1848), son of John and Abigail, like his father served four unhappy years as president of the United States (1825-29). More than for his presidency, perhaps, he is best remembered for his diplomatic skills, which resulted in the acquisition of Florida and in the [Monroe Doctrine], and for his heroic championing of antislavery petitions while a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. His son, [][Charles Francis Adams] (1807-86), continued the battle against slavery as a congressman and as a leader of the Free-Soil Party. During the Civil War he demonstrated his own diplomatic genius while U.S. minister to Great Britain, preventing British recognition of and possible alliance with the Confederacy. Except for a grandson of [][Charles Francis Adams]—Charles Francis Adams III (1866-1954), who served as secretary of the navy during the presidential administration of Herbert Hoover—subsequent generations of the Adams family refrained from participation in public life. []Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (1835-1915), was a historian, civic leader, and railroad expert who for a time was president of the Union Pacific Railroad and who later retired to write a biography of his father and books on other historical subjects. His two brothers, [][Henry (Brooks) Adams]%20Adams#9003665.toc) (1838-1918) and [][Brooks Adams] (1848-1927), were also historians, as well as profound social critics. Henry Adams, in particular, ranks as one of the great post-Civil War American writers. Other Adamses have been prominent lawyers, financiers, and corporation executives.

Abbadie, Antoine-Thomson d'; and Abbadie, Arnaud-Michel d'

Respectively, born Jan. 3, 1810, Dublin, Ire. died March 19, 1897, Pirinei, Italy born July 24, 1815, Dublin died Nov. 13, 1893, Urrugne, France two brothers who, as geographers and travelers, conducted extensive investigations of the geography, geology, archaeology, and natural history of Ethiopia. Their parents, a French father and an Irish mother, moved to France in 1818. In 1835 the French Academy sent []Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil. []Arnaud spent some time in Algeria before the two brothers started for Ethiopia in 1837, landing at Mitsiwa (now Massawa, Eritrea) in 1838. After collecting much information on the geography and natural history of the country, the brothers returned to France in 1848. Antoine published a classified list and description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts (1859), topographical findings (1860-73), and part of a geography of Ethiopia (1890). He became involved in controversies regarding his geographic findings, but subsequent explorers proved that his statements were correct, though he erred in contending that the Blue Nile was the main headstream of the Nile. In 1873 he published, along with findings from his stay in Ethiopia, the results of his earlier scientific mission to Brazil.

Achagua

South American Indian people of Venezuela and eastern Colombia. They speak a language of the Maipurean Arawakan group. Traditionally, the Achagua had typical tropical-forest economies, living in large villages and growing bitter cassava and other crops. The Achagua were warlike; they were one of the few native South American people to use arrows poisoned with curare. Achagua social organization was distinguished by numerous lineages named for animals such as the serpent, bat, jaguar, and fox. Each such unit occupied one communal house in the village. The Achagua were []polygynous, each man aiming to have three or four wives. The chiefs also maintained concubines. The wives were legally equal, and each cultivated her own separate field. Women were excluded from the men's house and from a number of religious ceremonies. The Achagua believed in a supreme being, in a god of the fields, a god of riches, and gods of earthquakes, of madness, and of fire. They also worshipped lakes.

private, coeducational institution of higher education in [Seattle], Washington, U.S. It is affiliated with the [Jesuit] order of the Roman Catholic church. It offers about 50 undergraduate degree programs and about 20 graduate degree programs; professional degrees are also available. Seattle University comprises eight academic units: the College of Arts and Sciences, Albers School of Business and Economics, Matteo Ricci College (a program that integrates high school and university studies), and schools of education, law, nursing, science and engineering, and theology and ministry. In addition, the Institute of Public Service provides a master's degree program. The school provides the opportunity to study abroad in about 15 countries in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Seattle University is one of the largest independent universities in the Northwest, with an approximate enrollment of 6,000 students.

The school was founded in 1891 as the Parish and School of the Immaculate Conception, a parish school for boys that opened in 1894. High-school level instruction began in 1898, and the school became Seattle College the same year. Bachelor of arts degrees were first awarded in 1909. Because of World War I, instruction was suspended from 1918 until 1922. Women first matriculated in 1933 and first graduated in 1936. The school was elevated to university status in 1948. A professional degree program in education was established in the mid 1930s, and a doctorate program in education was added in 1976. Seattle University is a pioneer in creating academic programs, including an addiction studies program (1973), a graduate program in software engineering (1987), an undergraduate program in environmental engineering (1990), and an executive master's degree program in not-for-profit leadership (1995). Basketball player [Elgin Baylor] was a Seattle University alumnus.

[Dante]

[![Photograph:Dante.]] - Dante. Italian poet and philosopher [Dante], best known for the epic poem [*The Divine Comedy*]—considered one of the world's great works of literature and divided into *[Hell]* (*Inferno*), *[Purgatory]*, and *[Paradise]*—died September 13/14, 1321. Dante [![Photograph:Dante.]] - Dante. Italian poet and philosopher Dante, best known for the epic poem *The Divine Comedy*—considered one of the world's great works of literature and divided into *Hell* (*Inferno*), *Purgatory*, and *Paradise*—died September 13/14, 1321.

Abravanel, Maurice

U.S. conductor (b. Jan. 6, 1903, Thessaloniki, Greece--d. Sept. 22, 1993, Salt Lake City, Utah), was of Spanish-Portuguese Sephardic parentage and had his early career in the cultural ferment of Weimar Germany, but he later spent more than three decades as music director and conductor of the Utah Symphony Orchestra. Abravanel grew up in Lausanne, Switz., and gave up the prospect of medicine to study music. In 1922 he went to Berlin, where he studied performance and composition with Kurt Weill, and two years later he made his debut as a conductor. He conducted throughout Europe and in 1933 fled to Paris and was engaged as music director for George Balanchine's Les Ballets 1933. In 1936 he went to the U.S., where he became the youngest conductor in the history of the Metropolitan Opera. Abravanel then conducted musicals on Broadway, including works of Weill. In 1947 he became director of the Utah Symphony, and he remained there until 1979. Under his leadership the orchestra flourished and gained widespread recognition; among their many recordings was the first complete cycle of the symphonies of Gustav Mahler made by a U.S. orchestra. In 1982 Abravanel began an affiliation with the Berkshire Music Center, in Tanglewood, Mass. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1991.

acrocyanosis

bluish discoloration of the hands caused by spasms in [arterioles] (small [arteries]) of the skin. Less commonly, the feet are affected. The fingers or toes are usually cold and sweat copiously. The cause of the condition is unknown. Acrocyanosis is most common in women, particularly in adolescents and those in their 20s. The condition usually improves with age.

61 Cygni

first star whose distance from Earth (about 11 light-years) was measured (by [][Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel] in 1838). The star is a visual binary the components of which revolve around each other in a period of about 650 years. They are of fifth and sixth magnitudes.

Adal

historic Islāmic state of eastern Africa, in the Danakil-Somali region southwest of the Gulf of Aden, with its capital at Harer (now in [Ethiopia]). Its rivalry with Christian Ethiopia began in the 14th century with minor border raids and skirmishes. In the 16th century, Adal rose briefly to international importance by launching a series of more serious attacks. The first phase, in which the forces of Adal were led by []Mahfuz, governor of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden, ended in 1516, when Mahfuz and many of his followers were killed in an Ethiopian ambush. Within a few years there emerged a new leader, [][Aḥmad Grāñ] (Aḥmad the Left-handed). He gathered a following of Muslim nomads for a *jihād*, or religious war, against Ethiopia. They swept into the highlands, drove the Ethiopian emperor into exile, forced massive conversions, and by 1533 controlled most of central Ethiopia. They destroyed churches and monasteries. The fugitive emperor appealed to Portugal for help. Four hundred Portuguese musketeers landed at Mitsiwa (now Massawa, Eritrea) in 1541. Adal then took on reinforcements as well: 900 Arab, Turkish, and Albanian musketeers, plus some cannon. Adal's successes continued until Grāñ was killed in a battle near Lake Tana in 1543. The [][Oromo] invasions of the later 16th century put an end to Adal's power. Its rulers fled north into the desert, their nomadic followers lost any semblance of unity, and Adal was reduced to insignificance.

Acestes

in Greek mythology, legendary king of Segesta (Greek Egesta) in Sicily. His mother, Egesta, had been sent from Troy by her parents to save her from being devoured by a sea serpent. Going to Sicily she met the river god Crimisus, by whom she became the mother of Acestes. Acestes appears notably in the *[Aeneid],* offering hospitality to Aeneas when he lands in [][Sicily]. Acestes' function is to emphasize the mythological connection of Sicily with Troy; in Greek legend Aeneas, whose descendants founded Rome, traveled no farther than Sicily. In the *Aeneid* Acestes brings the funeral games of Anchises, Aeneas' father, to a climax by shooting into the air an arrow that becomes a comet, a sign of Anchises' eternal life.

acre

unit of land measurement in the [British Imperial] and United States Customary systems, equal to 43,560 square feet, or 160 square [rods]. One acre is equivalent to 0.4047 [hectares] (4,047 square metres). Derived from Middle English *aker* (from Old English *aecer*) and akin to Latin *ager* ("field"), the acre had one origin in the typical area that could be plowed in one day with a yoke of oxen pulling a wooden plow. The Anglo-Saxon acre was defined as a strip of land 1 × ^^1^^/~~10~~ [furlong], or 40 × 4 rods (660 × 66 feet). One acre gradually came to denote a piece of land of any shape measuring the present 4,840 square yards. Larger and smaller variant acres, ranging from 0.19 to 0.911 hectares, were once employed throughout the British Isles.

Abington

urban township, Montgomery county, southeastern [Pennsylvania], U.S. Abington is a northern suburb of [Philadelphia], encompassing the communities of Ardsley, Glenside, McKinley, Noble, North Glenside, and Roslyn. The area was inhabited by [Delaware] Indians when European settlers began arriving in the late 16th century. Abington was organized in the early 1700s, probably named for a parish in [England]. Abington became a station on the North Pennsylvania Railroad in 1855. During the [American Revolution], a skirmish between American and British troops took place on December 7, 1777, at nearby Edge Hill. The township's manufactures include pressed steel, chemicals, and metal and plastic products. Penn State Abington (formerly Ogontz School for Girls), a campus of [Pennsylvania State University], opened in the township in 1950. Inc. 1906. Pop. (1990) 56,358; (2000) 56,103.

Abel Tasman National Park

wildlife preserve in northwestern South Island, New Zealand. Established in 1942, it was named for Abel []Tasman, the Dutch navigator. With an area of 55,699 acres (22,541 hectares), it extends inland for about 6 miles (10 km) from the beaches of Tasman Bay on its western shores between Separation Point and Marahau Inlet, about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Nelson. The park includes the Tata Islands in Golden Bay and Tonga, Adele, and Fisherman islands in Tasman Bay. The park is largely covered in shrubland and pasture, though in the river valleys there are rain forests consisting of beech, rata, matai, miro, hinau, and tussock. Abel Tasman National Park is unique in New Zealand in that its bush-clad slopes exhibit a mixture of the vegetation types characteristic of both North and South Islands, a phenomenon that is found nowhere else in New Zealand. Birdlife in the park includes petrel, shag, penguin, gull, tern, heron, and numerous other varieties. Animal life includes deer, goat, wild pig, and opossum. The park's headquarters are at Totaranui.

ʿAbbādid dynasty

Muslim-Arab dynasty of Andalusia that arose in [][Sevilla] (Seville) in the 11th century, in the period of the factions, or "party kingdoms" (*ṭāʾifah*s), following the downfall of the caliphate of Córdoba. In 1023 the qadi (religious judge) []Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbbād declared Sevilla independent of Córdoba. His son [Abu ʿAmr ʿAbbād], known as al-Muʿtaḍid (1042-69), greatly enlarged his territory by forcibly annexing the minor kingdoms of Mertola, Niebla, Huelva, Saltés, Silves, and Santa María de Algarve. A poet and patron of poets, al-Muʿtaḍid also had a reputation for ruthlessness and cruelty; in 1053 he suffocated a number of Berber chiefs of southern Andalusia in a steam bath in Sevilla and then seized their kingdoms of Arcos, Morón, and Ronda. The last member of the dynasty, the poet-king [][Muḥammad ibn ʿAbbād al-Muʿtamid] (1069-95), made Sevilla a brilliant centre of Spanish-Muslim culture. In 1071 he took Córdoba, maintaining a precarious hold on the city until 1075; he held it again, 1078-91, while []Ibn ʿAmmār, his vizier and fellow poet, conquered Murcia.

[Benazir Bhutto]

Pakistani politician [Benazir Bhutto], born this day in 1953, was the daughter of former president and prime minister [Zulfikar Ali Bhutto] and became in 1988 the first woman leader of a Muslim country in modern history. Benazir Bhutto Pakistani politician Benazir Bhutto, born this day in 1953, was the daughter of former president and prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and became in 1988 the first woman leader of a Muslim country in modern history.

piece and the electorate of Cologne), the Netherlands, England, Sweden, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Savoy (Portugal also eventually joined the alliance). Its aim was to restore the European balance to the status of 1648 and 1659 by ejecting Louis from his conquests and by splitting the Spanish empire. From 1701 to 1714, France, with a few minor allies, fought the Grand Alliance in the [][War of the Spanish Succession]. Despite a number of major battles, including [Blenheim] (1704), [Ramillies] (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and [Malplaquet] (1709), neither side was able to win a decisive victory (though the Alliance did seem to be prevailing). The death of the emperor Joseph I in 1711 placed his brother Charles, who had been proclaimed the Spanish king, on the imperial throne as [][Charles VI] (1711-40). This raised the spectre of a Habsburg reunion of the Holy Roman and Spanish empires—a situation no more agreeable to European powers than the prospect of French hegemony. Thus, the alliance was severed and the war began to wind down.

Peace negotiations began in 1712, resulting in a number of treaties, signed at [][Utrecht] and [][Rastatt] in 1713-14. The Spanish empire was partitioned, with the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sicily going to Austria and Spain itself coming under the rule of Philip V of Bourbon, a grandson of Louis XIV. The alliance's original aim, to prevent French hegemony, had been achieved, though in the follow-up [][War of the Polish Succession] (1733-35) France acquired control of Lorraine. Austria profited substantially in territorial terms, and a few other German rulers profited as well, albeit less so. As for the empire itself, it had gained no real benefit from more than half a century of intermittent warfare. German society, however, was deeply affected. Economic stagnation and slow demographic recovery after the Thirty Years' War made Germany dependent on governmental intervention as a means of stimulating recovery. As centres of economic vitality, the princely courts, attended by an international nobility, exposed Germany to a variety of cultural innovations that originated in other, more prosperous European countries. Baroque art—the preeminent expression of monarchical power and of Roman Catholic resurgence after the Reformation—came from Spain and Italy, opera from Italy, and polite language and manners from France. The style of this period took French patterns as its model, from elaborately coded court ceremonials to dress, social conventions, food, and conversation. French absolutism not only became the political model, however scaled down, for the governance of all states in the empire, but every German prince and princeling imitated the lavish display with which Louis XIV created his aura of majesty and outshone his rivals. This started up a lively domestic market in luxuries, not to mention splendid works of architecture and decoration. But the cost of these luxuries was prohibitive (in 1719 the Palatine court consumed 50 percent of the territory's revenues) and represented an enormous burden on the people, especially when added to the cost of large armies and proliferating bureaucracies. Not only did this conspicuous consumption widen the social division between the court-oriented elite and the bulk of the urban and rural population, but the preference for foreign cultural products also inhibited creative impulses at home. In the second half of the 17th century, German energies were to a large extent still focused on religion. The confessional pluralism legitimized by the settlement of 1648 encouraged emphasis on theological distinctions, exacerbating the move toward religious orthodoxy under way in each denomination since the 16th century. The one genuinely German product of this religious preoccupation was [][Pietism], a movement within Lutheranism that opposed rigid dogmatism and promoted instead a subjective, mystical devoutness and an emphasis on a pious life guided by love of one's neighbour as well as of God. Influenced by English Puritanism, Pietism was shaped in its theology by [][Philipp Jakob Spener] (1635-1705) and in its organization by his disciple [][August Hermann Francke] (1663-1727), who established a centre for its promulgation in [][Halle]. There he founded schools, orphanages, medical facilities, and a printing house for publishing cheap Bibles and devotional works, which made Pietism a widely influential program of Evangelical activism. The intensely emotional and mystical flavour of Pietist poetry is preserved in the cantata texts set to music by Johann Sebastian Bach, in whose deeply spiritual church music Protestant chorale singing, another indigenous German product, reached its apogee. ##### The contest between Prussia and Austria {#58170.toc}

Abbott, Jacob

born Nov. 14, 1803, Hallowell, Maine, U.S. died Oct. 31, 1879, Farmington, Maine American teacher and writer, best known for his many books for young readers. Abbott attended Hallowell Academy and Bowdoin College and studied at Andover Newton Theological School. After teaching at Amherst College, he moved in 1829 to Boston, where he founded and was the first principal of the Mount Vernon School, a secondary school for girls. Abbott was sole author of 180 books and coauthor or editor of 31 others, notably the "Rollo" series (28 vol.). To accompany the earlier books (*[]Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play*), Abbott wrote a volume for teachers, *The Rollo Code of Morals; or, The Rules of Duty for Children, Arranged with Questions for the Use of Schools* (1841). In following Rollo's world travels with his all-knowing Uncle George, the young reader could improve his knowledge of ethics, geography, science, and history. Abbott also wrote 22 volumes of biographical histories and the *Franconia Stories* (10 vol.).

Achillini, Alessandro

born Oct. 29, 1463, Bologna, Papal States [Italy] died Aug. 2, 1512, Bologna Italian philosopher and physician, an advocate of the teachings of William of Ockham. Achillini was educated at the University of Bologna, where he taught philosophy and medicine from 1484 to 1512, except for two years at Padua. Although sometimes classed as a strict Averroist, an adherent of the Arabic philosophy of Averroës (1126-98) asserting the supremacy of reason over faith, Achillini reflected other influences. Achillini's complete works were published in 1508.

Acciaiuoli, Niccolò

born Sept. 12, 1310, Montegufoni, near Florence died Nov. 8, 1365, Naples statesman, soldier, and grand seneschal of Naples who enjoyed a predominant position in the Neapolitan court. Of a prominent and wealthy Florentine family, Acciaiuoli went to Naples in 1331 to direct the family's banking interests. In 1335 King Robert made him a knight, entrusted him with the care of his nephew Louis of Taranto, and bestowed upon him a series of fiefs in Apulia and in Greece. After playing a major role in arranging the marriage between Louis of Taranto and Queen [][Joan I] of Naples in 1347, Acciaiuoli became one of the most powerful men in the kingdom, being named grand seneschal in 1348. He defended Louis and Joan against the attack of [][Louis I] of Hungary, who was seeking revenge for the assassination of his brother Andrew, Joan's first husband. Acciaiuoli finally regained the kingdom, having Louis of Taranto crowned king (May 27, 1352).

Abel, Sidney Gerald

***"Sid"** * Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. Feb. 22, 1918, Melville, Sask.—d. Feb. 8, 2000, Farmington Hills, Mich.), was a longtime star with the Detroit Red Wings, helping the team to win three Stanley Cup titles (1943, 1950, 1952) and four consecutive regular-season titles (1949-52). Together with Gordie Howe and Ted Lindsay, he was a member of the "Production Line," Detroit's famed high-scoring trio. He began his professional career with the Red Wings in 1938 and played with the team—with the exception of three years during World War II, when he served in the Canadian military—until 1952, when he began a two-year stint as player-coach for the Chicago Blackhawks. He amassed career totals of 189 goals and 283 assists. He later served (1957-71) as coach of the Red Wings and was also a Red Wings radio and television broadcaster from 1976 to 1986. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1969.

Adalbert

*Italian **Adalberto** * died *c.* 972-975 Lombard king of Italy, who shared the throne for 11 years with his father, [][Berengar II], and after Berengar's exile continued his father's struggle against the German king and Holy Roman emperor [][Otto I]. Adalbert joined his father in 946-947 in fighting the co-kings of Italy, Hugh of Provence and his son Lothar. After Lothar's death in 950, Adalbert was crowned with Berengar at Pavia. When Lothar's widow, Adelaide, refused to marry Adalbert and Berengar imprisoned her, Otto I marched into Italy in 951 to rescue and marry her. After Otto's return to Germany, Berengar and Adalbert resumed the throne and in August 952 swore homage to Otto.

Academy of Venice, Galleries of the

*Italian **Gallerie Dell'accademia Di Venezia,** * museum of art in Venice housing an unrivaled collection of paintings from the Venetian masters of the 13th through the 18th century. There are outstanding works by Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, and Canaletto. The galleries occupy the former monastery, church, and school of Santa Maria della Carità. The core of the collection was assembled in 1756.

abhibhvāyatana

*Sanskrit"total mastery over the senses"Pāli **Abhibhāyātana** * in Buddhist philosophy, one of the preparatory stages of meditation, in which the senses are completely restrained. In Buddhist canons, *abhibhvāyatana* is divided into eight substages during which man comes to realize that physical forms in the external world are different from himself, thus freeing himself from attachment to the sense objects. These stages become bases for man's deliverance from sensual pleasures and pains, which are understood to be sufferings.

Academy Bay

*Spanish **Bahía de la Academia** * [![Photograph:Small craft in the harbour at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos Islands]] - Small craft in the harbour at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos Islands bay at the south end of Santa Cruz (Indefatigable) Island (one of the Galapagos Islands), in the eastern Pacific Ocean about 600 miles (965 km) west of mainland Ecuador. Named in 1905 by the California Academy of Sciences Expedition, it is the site of the []Charles Darwin Research Station, which was established in 1959 to study and preserve the Galapagos Islands' flora and fauna. The bay also serves as a harbour for small craft. It was from Academy Bay that the stranded Norwegian crew of the abandoned ship Alexandra was rescued in 1906.

Aconcagua River

*Spanish **Río Aconcagua** * river in central [Chile]. It rises in the northwestern foothills of Mount Aconcagua of the Andes Mountains and flows westward from the Argentine border area to enter the Pacific Ocean north of the city of Viña del Mar after a course of 120 miles (190 km). Much of the Chilean trackage of the Transandine Railway to Mendoza, Arg., follows the river valley, as does the highway from Los Andes to Mendoza.

acetaminophen

*also called **paracetamol** * drug used in the treatment of mild [pain], such as [headache] and pain in joints and muscles, and to reduce [fever]. It is formed in the body as a metabolite of [][acetanilid] or [phenacetin], which were once commonly used drugs, and is responsible for their [analgesic] effects. Acetaminophen relieves pain by raising the body's pain threshold, and it reduces fever by its action on the temperature-regulating centre of the brain. The drug inhibits [prostaglandin] synthesis in the central nervous system, but it lacks an anti-inflammatory effect in peripheral nerves. Acetaminophen is much less likely to cause gastrointestinal side effects than [][aspirin], but overdoses of it can cause fatal liver damage. For prolonged use, aspirin is considered safer. The drug is marketed under several trade names, including [Tylenol], Tempra, and Panadol.

Abşeron Peninsula

*also spelled **Apsheron** , Azerbaijani **Abşeron Yasaqliği** * peninsula in Azerbaijan that extends 37 miles (60 km) eastward into the Caspian Sea and reaches a maximum width of 19 miles (30 km). An eastern extension of the Caucasus Mountains, the Abşeron Peninsula consists of a gently undulating plain, in part dissected by ravines and characterized by frequent salt lakes and lands flooded by tides. Vineyards and tea plantations are features of the regional economy. The national capital, Baku, lies on the peninsula's southern coast. The peninsula is especially noted for its oil-bearing strata, and the workings extend into the sea.

Acosta, Uriel

*original name **Gabriel Da Costa** * born *c.* 1585, Oporto, Port. died April 1640, Amsterdam, Neth. freethinking rationalist who became an example among Jews of one martyred by the intolerance of his own religious community. He is sometimes cited as a forerunner of the renowned philosopher Benedict de Spinoza. The son of an aristocratic family of Marranos (Spanish and Portuguese Jews forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism), Acosta studied canon law and became the treasurer of a cathedral chapter. Disturbed by the conviction that there was no salvation through the Roman Catholic church, he turned to the Judaism of the Old Testament. After converting his mother and brothers to his beliefs, he and the family fled to Amsterdam and embraced Judaism. After circumcision, he took Uriel as his given name.

[Alice Walker]

> 'When you ask me about peace, Suwelo,' said Miss Lissie, 'if I've ever > in all my lifetimes experienced peace, I am nearly perplexed. Could it > be possible that after hundreds of lifetimes I have not known peace? > That seems to be the fact. In lifetime after lifetime I have known > oppression: from parents, siblings, relatives, governments, countries, > continents. As well as from my own body and mind.'\ > Alice Walker, *The Temple of My Familiar* (1990) The works of American writer [Alice Walker], born this day in 1944 and perhaps best known for the [Pulitzer Prize]-winning *The Color Purple* (1982), are noted for their insightful treatment of [African American culture]. [Alice Walker] > 'When you ask me about peace, Suwelo,' said Miss Lissie, 'if I've ever > in all my lifetimes experienced peace, I am nearly perplexed. Could it > be possible that after hundreds of lifetimes I have not known peace? > That seems to be the fact. In lifetime after lifetime I have known > oppression: from parents, siblings, relatives, governments, countries, > continents. As well as from my own body and mind.'\ > Alice Walker, *The Temple of My Familiar* (1990) The works of American writer [Alice Walker], born this day in 1944 and perhaps best known for the Pulitzer Prize-winning *The Color Purple* (1982), are noted for their insightful treatment of African American culture.

[John F. Kennedy]

> A man may die, nations may rise and fall, but an idea lives on. Ideas > have endurance without death.\ > John F. Kennedy Born this day in 1917, [John F. Kennedy], the 35th U.S. president, faced several foreign crises, most notably in [Cuba] and [Berlin], and secured such achievements as the [Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty] before being assassinated in 1963. [John F. Kennedy] > A man may die, nations may rise and fall, but an idea lives on. Ideas > have endurance without death.\ > John F. Kennedy Born this day in 1917, [John F. Kennedy], the 35th U.S. president, faced several foreign crises, most notably in Cuba and [Berlin], and secured such achievements as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty before being assassinated in 1963.

[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]

> After so much time spent in painful labour, to arrive at once at the > summit of my desires, was the most gratifying consummation of my > toils. But this discovery was so great and so overwhelming, that all > the steps by which I had been progressively led to it were > obliterated, and I beheld only the result.\ > Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, *Frankenstein* [Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley], born this day in 1797, was the English [Romantic] novelist best known as the author of *Frankenstein* (1818), which recounts the consequences that arise after a scientist builds a human being. [Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley] > After so much time spent in painful labour, to arrive at once at the > summit of my desires, was the most gratifying consummation of my > toils. But this discovery was so great and so overwhelming, that all > the steps by which I had been progressively led to it were > obliterated, and I beheld only the result.\ > Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, *Frankenstein* [Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley], born this day in 1797, was the English Romantic novelist best known as the author of *Frankenstein* (1818), which recounts the consequences that arise after a scientist builds a human being.

[Benito Mussolini]

> From today onwards we are all Italians and nothing but Italians. Now > that steel has met steel, one single cry comes from our hearts—Viva > l'Italia!\ > Benito Mussolini Born this day in 1883, [Benito Mussolini] was the first of 20th-century Europe's [fascist] dictators, assuming absolute power of Italy in 1922, and his harsh rule and involvement in [World War II] led to his death in 1945. [Benito Mussolini] > From today onwards we are all Italians and nothing but Italians. Now > that steel has met steel, one single cry comes from our hearts—Viva > l'Italia!\ > Benito Mussolini Born this day in 1883, [Benito Mussolini] was the first of 20th-century Europe's [fascist] dictators, assuming absolute power of Italy in 1922, and his harsh rule and involvement in World War II led to his death in 1945.

[Yāsir ʿArafāt]

> I emphasize to you that we will discover ourselves through peace more > than we did through confrontation and conflict.\ > Yāsir ʿArafāt Palestinian leader [Yāsir ʿArafāt], believed to have been born this day in Cairo in 1929, was president of the [Palestinian Authority] (1996-2004), chairman of the [PLO] (1969-2004), and cowinner of the 1994 Nobel Prize for Peace. [Yāsir ʿArafāt] > I emphasize to you that we will discover ourselves through peace more > than we did through confrontation and conflict.\ > Yāsir ʿArafāt Palestinian leader [Yāsir ʿArafāt], believed to have been born this day in Cairo in 1929, was president of the Palestinian Authority (1996-2004), chairman of the [PLO] (1969-2004), and cowinner of the 1994 Nobel Prize for Peace.

[Jesse Owens]

> I let my feet spend as little time on the ground as possible. From the > air, fast down, and from the ground, fast up.\ > Jesse Owens African American track-and-field athlete [Jesse Owens], born this day in 1913, won four gold medals at the 1936 [Olympic Games] in [Berlin], ruining [Adolf Hitler]'s intent to use the Games as proof of Aryan superiority. [Jesse Owens] > I let my feet spend as little time on the ground as possible. From the > air, fast down, and from the ground, fast up.\ > Jesse Owens African American track-and-field athlete [Jesse Owens], born this day in 1913, won four gold medals at the 1936 [Olympic Games] in Berlin, ruining [Adolf Hitler]'s intent to use the Games as proof of Aryan superiority.

[Alexander Graham Bell]

> Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!\ > Purportedly the message of the first telephone call, sent by Alexander > Graham Bell to his assistant Thomas Watson on March 10, 1876 [Alexander Graham Bell], born in Edinburgh this day in 1847, was an audiologist who in his career was granted 18 individual patents and 12 with collaborators but was best known as the inventor of the [telephone] (1876). [Alexander Graham Bell] > Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!\ > Purportedly the message of the first telephone call, sent by Alexander > Graham Bell to his assistant Thomas Watson on March 10, 1876 [Alexander Graham Bell], born in Edinburgh this day in 1847, was an audiologist who in his career was granted 18 individual patents and 12 with collaborators but was best known as the inventor of the telephone (1876).

[Jesse Jackson]

> My constituency is the desperate, the damned, the disinherited, the > disrespected, and the despised.\ > Jesse Jackson, 1984 [Jesse Jackson], [civil rights] leader and the first African American man to make a serious bid for the [U.S. presidency] (in the [Democratic Party]'s nomination races in 1983-84, 1987-88), was born this day in 1941. [Jesse Jackson] > My constituency is the desperate, the damned, the disinherited, the > disrespected, and the despised.\ > Jesse Jackson, 1984 [Jesse Jackson], civil rights leader and the first African American man to make a serious bid for the U.S. presidency (in the Democratic Party's nomination races in 1983-84, 1987-88), was born this day in 1941.

[Woody Guthrie]

> My eyes has been my camera taking pictures of the world and my songs > has been messages that I tried to scatter across the back sides and > along the steps of the fire escapes and on the windowsills and > throughout the dark halls.\ > Woody Guthrie American singer and composer [Woody Guthrie], born this day in 1912, wrote politically charged songs of common people and their struggles, especially during the [Depression], and his classics include "This Land Is Your Land." [Woody Guthrie] > My eyes has been my camera taking pictures of the world and my songs > has been messages that I tried to scatter across the back sides and > along the steps of the fire escapes and on the windowsills and > throughout the dark halls.\ > Woody Guthrie American singer and composer [Woody Guthrie], born this day in 1912, wrote politically charged songs of common people and their struggles, especially during the [Depression], and his classics include "This Land Is Your Land."

[Harry Houdini]

> My mind is the key that sets me free.\ > Harry Houdini [![Photograph:Harry Houdini as Harvey Hanford in the film The Grim Game, 1919.]] - Harry Houdini as Harvey Hanford in the film *The Grim Game*, *c.* 1919. American [magician] [Harry Houdini], born this day in 1874, earned an international reputation for his daring feats of extrication from shackles, ropes, and handcuffs and from locked containers such as coffins and prison cells. [Harry Houdini] > My mind is the key that sets me free.\ > Harry Houdini

[Ernest Hemingway]

> Once writing has become your major vice and greatest pleasure only > death can stop it.\ > Ernest Hemingway American writer [Ernest Hemingway]—famous for his adventurous life and lucid, masculine prose, for which he earned the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature—was born this day in 1899 in what is now Oak Park, Illinois. [Ernest Hemingway] > Once writing has become your major vice and greatest pleasure only > death can stop it.\ > Ernest Hemingway American writer [Ernest Hemingway]—famous for his adventurous life and lucid, masculine prose, for which he earned the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature—was born this day in 1899 in what is now Oak Park, Illinois.

[Theodore Roosevelt]

> Practical efficiency is common, and lofty idealism is not uncommon; it > is the combination that is necessary, and that combination is rare.\ > Theodore Roosevelt, 1913 [Theodore Roosevelt], born this day in 1858, was a writer and soldier, received the [Nobel Prize] for Peace, and, as the 26th U.S. president (1901-09), greatly expanded the powers of the [presidency] and federal government. [Theodore Roosevelt] > Practical efficiency is common, and lofty idealism is not uncommon; it > is the combination that is necessary, and that combination is rare.\ > Theodore Roosevelt, 1913 [Theodore Roosevelt], born this day in 1858, was a writer and soldier, received the [Nobel Prize] for Peace, and, as the 26th U.S. president (1901-09), greatly expanded the powers of the presidency and federal government.

[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]

> Sometimes, in order to imitate the original, it is necessary to put > something that is not in the original into the portrait in marble.\ > Gian Lorenzo Bernini Perhaps the greatest sculptor-architect of the 17th century, Italian [Gian Lorenzo Bernini], born this day in 1598, created the [Baroque] style and refined it with such works as his masterpiece, *The Ecstasy of St. Teresa*. [Gian Lorenzo Bernini] > Sometimes, in order to imitate the original, it is necessary to put > something that is not in the original into the portrait in marble.\ > Gian Lorenzo Bernini Perhaps the greatest sculptor-architect of the 17th century, Italian [Gian Lorenzo Bernini], born this day in 1598, created the [Baroque] style and refined it with such works as his masterpiece, *The Ecstasy of St. Teresa*.

[Woodrow Wilson]

> The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted > upon the tested foundations of political liberty.\ > Woodrow Wilson The 28th [U.S. president], [Woodrow Wilson], born this day in 1856, was the creator and leading advocate of the [League of Nations] after [World War I], for which he was awarded the [Nobel Prize] for Peace in 1919. [Woodrow Wilson] > The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted > upon the tested foundations of political liberty.\ > Woodrow Wilson The 28th U.S. president, [Woodrow Wilson], born this day in 1856, was the creator and leading advocate of the [League of Nations] after [World War I], for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1919.

[Auguste Rodin]

> There is a continual exchange of ideas between all minds of a > generation. Journalists, popular novelists, illustrators, and > cartoonists adapt the truths discovered by the powerful intellects for > the multitude.\ > Auguste Rodin, *Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell* (1911; trans. > 1984) French sculptor [Auguste Rodin], known for his bronze and marble figures, including *The Thinker* (1880) and *The Kiss* (1886), and considered one of the best portraitists in the history of [sculpture], died this day in 1917. [Auguste Rodin] > There is a continual exchange of ideas between all minds of a > generation. Journalists, popular novelists, illustrators, and > cartoonists adapt the truths discovered by the powerful intellects for > the multitude.\ > Auguste Rodin, *Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell* (1911; trans. > 1984) French sculptor [Auguste Rodin], known for his bronze and marble figures, including *The Thinker* (1880) and *The Kiss* (1886), and considered one of the best portraitists in the history of sculpture, died this day in 1917.

[Élie, Duc Decazes]

> Those who have assassinated His Lordship the Duke of Berry are those > who have rewarded treason and punished loyalty; those who have > bestowed governmental office on the enemies of the Bourbons and the > hirelings of Bonaparte!\ > French ultraloyalists accusing Élie, Duc Decazes, in the assassination > of the duc de Berry French politician [Élie, Duc Decazes], born this day in 1780, was an intimate adviser to King [Louis XVIII] and head of the moderate constitutional monarchists, who favoured the liberalization of censorship and electoral laws. Élie, Duc Decazes > Those who have assassinated His Lordship the Duke of Berry are those > who have rewarded treason and punished loyalty; those who have > bestowed governmental office on the enemies of the Bourbons and the > hirelings of Bonaparte!\ > French ultraloyalists accusing Élie, Duc Decazes, in the assassination > of the duc de Berry French politician Élie, Duc Decazes, born this day in 1780, was an intimate adviser to King [Louis XVIII] and head of the moderate constitutional monarchists, who favoured the liberalization of censorship and electoral laws.

[Enrico Fermi]

> Whatever Nature has in store for mankind, unpleasant as it may be, men > must accept, for ignorance is never better than knowledge.\ > Enrico Fermi Born in Italy this day in 1901, American physicist [Enrico Fermi] received the [Nobel Prize] for Physics in 1938, directed the first controlled chain reaction involving [nuclear fission], and helped develop the first [atomic bomb]. [Enrico Fermi] > Whatever Nature has in store for mankind, unpleasant as it may be, men > must accept, for ignorance is never better than knowledge.\ > Enrico Fermi Born in Italy this day in 1901, American physicist [Enrico Fermi] received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1938, directed the first controlled chain reaction involving nuclear fission, and helped develop the first atomic bomb.

[Henry Miller]

> Whoever uses the spirit that is in him creatively is an artist. To > make living itself an art, that is the goal.\ > Henry Miller American writer [Henry Miller], born this day in 1891, was a perennial bohemian with a gift for comedy whose autobiographical [novels] achieved a candour that was considered liberating by many mid-20th-century readers. [Henry Miller] > Whoever uses the spirit that is in him creatively is an artist. To > make living itself an art, that is the goal.\ > Henry Miller American writer [Henry Miller], born this day in 1891, was a perennial bohemian with a gift for comedy whose autobiographical novels achieved a candour that was considered liberating by many mid-20th-century readers.

[Kenneth Branagh]

Actor, director, and writer [Kenneth Branagh], born this day in 1960 in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is best known for his film adaptations of [Shakespearean] plays and for his magnetic and often whimsical performances. Kenneth Branagh Actor, director, and writer Kenneth Branagh, born this day in 1960 in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is best known for his film adaptations of Shakespearean plays and for his magnetic and often whimsical performances.

[Peter Lorre]

American motion-picture actor [Peter Lorre], who first achieved international fame as the psychotic child murderer in the German classic film *M* (1931; directed by [Fritz Lang]), was born in Rózsahegy, Hungary, this day in 1904. [Peter Lorre] American motion-picture actor [Peter Lorre], who first achieved international fame as the psychotic child murderer in the German classic film *M* (1931; directed by Fritz Lang), was born in Rózsahegy, Hungary, this day in 1904.

[Richard II]

Born this day in 1367, King [Richard II] of England, an ambitious ruler who reigned from 1377 to 1399, was deposed by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke ([Henry IV]) because of his arbitrary and factional rule. Richard II Born this day in 1367, King Richard II of England, an ambitious ruler who reigned from 1377 to 1399, was deposed by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke (Henry IV) because of his arbitrary and factional rule.

[Rembrandt van Rijn]

Born this day in 1606 was Dutch painter and printmaker [Rembrandt]—one of the greatest storytellers in the history of art, known for his exceptional ability to render people in their various moods and dramatic guises. [Rembrandt van Rijn] Born this day in 1606 was Dutch painter and printmaker [Rembrandt]—one of the greatest storytellers in the history of art, known for his exceptional ability to render people in their various moods and dramatic guises.

[Amedeo Avogadro]

Born this day in 1776, [Amedeo Avogadro] of Italy showed that, under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of molecules—what became known as [Avogadro's law]. Amedeo Avogadro Born this day in 1776, Amedeo Avogadro of Italy showed that, under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of molecules—what became known as Avogadro's law.

[Berry Gordy, Jr.]

Born this day in 1929, [Berry Gordy, Jr.], founded the [Motown] Record Corporation in Detroit in 1959, through which he developed many great rhythm-and-blues performers, including [Diana Ross], [Marvin Gaye], and [Michael Jackson]. Berry Gordy, Jr. Born this day in 1929, Berry Gordy, Jr., founded the Motown Record Corporation in Detroit in 1959, through which he developed many great rhythm-and-blues performers, including Diana Ross, Marvin Gaye, and Michael Jackson.

[Sir Sean Connery]

Born this day in 1930 in Scotland, actor [Sir Sean Connery] achieved international stardom portraying the suave secret agent James Bond and later earned an Oscar for his performance in *The Untouchables* (1987). Sir Sean Connery Born this day in 1930 in Scotland, actor Sir Sean Connery achieved international stardom portraying the suave secret agent James Bond and later earned an Oscar for his performance in *The Untouchables* (1987).

Acajutla

Pacific seaport, southwestern [El Salvador]. Spanish conquistadores defeated the Indians there in 1524, and it subsequently flourished as a colonial port. The old town has been rebuilt inland in order to make room for new port facilities. Acajutla is El Salvador's principal port and handles a large portion of its coffee exports and shipments of sugar and [balsam] (a resin used in perfumes and cosmetics). There are also a petroleum refinery and a fertilizer plant in the city. Fish- and shell-processing industries and summer beach-resort facilities are also important. Pop. (2005 est.) urban area, 26,100.

[Wisława Szymborska]

Polish poet [Wisława Szymborska], born this day in 1923, rejected [Socialist Realism] to pen intelligent and empathetic verse that explored philosophical and moral issues, for which she won the 1996 Nobel Prize for Literature. Wisława Szymborska Polish poet Wisława Szymborska, born this day in 1923, rejected Socialist Realism to pen intelligent and empathetic verse that explored philosophical and moral issues, for which she won the 1996 Nobel Prize for Literature.

[Crazy Horse]

The [Sioux] Indian chief [Crazy Horse], who died this day in 1877 during a scuffle with soldiers trying to imprison him, was a leader of the Sioux resistance to the invasion of America's northern [Great Plains] by whites. Crazy Horse The Sioux Indian chief Crazy Horse, who died this day in 1877 during a scuffle with soldiers trying to imprison him, was a leader of the Sioux resistance to the invasion of America's northern Great Plains by whites.

[Sir V.S. Naipaul]

Trinidadian writer [Sir V.S. Naipaul], who was born this day in 1932, became known for his pessimistic novels set in Third World countries—such as *A Bend in the River* (1979)—and won the 2001 Nobel Prize for Literature. Sir V.S. Naipaul Trinidadian writer Sir V.S. Naipaul, who was born this day in 1932, became known for his pessimistic novels set in Third World countries—such as *A Bend in the River* (1979)—and won the 2001 Nobel Prize for Literature.

[Georges Seurat]

[![Photograph:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte—1884, oil on canvas by Georges Seurat, 1884-86; in ...]] - *A Sunday on La Grande Jatte—1884*, oil on canvas by Georges Seurat, 1884-86; in ... Using the technique of pointillism, French [Neo-Impressionist] painter [Georges Seurat], born this day in 1859, created huge, shimmering compositions comprising tiny, detached, colourful strokes indistinguishable from afar. Georges Seurat [![Photograph:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte—1884, oil on canvas by Georges Seurat, 1884-86; in ...]] - *A Sunday on La Grande Jatte—1884*, oil on canvas by Georges Seurat, 1884-86; in ... Using the technique of pointillism, French Neo-Impressionist painter Georges Seurat, born this day in 1859, created huge, shimmering compositions comprising tiny, detached, colourful strokes indistinguishable from afar.

[Mia Hamm]

[![Photograph:American footballer (soccer player) Mia Hamm dribbling during FIFA Women's World Cup competition ...]] - American footballer (soccer player) Mia Hamm dribbling during FIFA Women's World Cup competition ... Two-time FIFA Women's World Player of the Year [Mia Hamm], born this day in 1972, was the first global star in women's [football] (soccer), retiring with 158 goals in international play—the most by any player, male or female. Mia Hamm [![Photograph:American footballer (soccer player) Mia Hamm dribbling during FIFA Women's World Cup competition ...]] - American footballer (soccer player) Mia Hamm dribbling during FIFA Women's World Cup competition ... Two-time FIFA Women's World Player of the Year Mia Hamm, born this day in 1972, was the first global star in women's football (soccer), retiring with 158 goals in international play—the most by any player, male or female.

[Charles V]

[![Photograph:Charles V, oil on canvas by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), 1548; in the Alte Pinakothek, ...]] - Charles V, oil on canvas by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), *c.* 1548; in the Alte Pinakothek, ... [Holy Roman Emperor] [Charles V], who oversaw an empire extending across Europe but faced hostility from the pope and pressure from Turkey, France, and Protestants before abdicating his claims in 1556, died this day in 1558. Charles V [![Photograph:Charles V, oil on canvas by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), 1548; in the Alte Pinakothek, ...]] - Charles V, oil on canvas by Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), *c.* 1548; in the Alte Pinakothek, ... Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who oversaw an empire extending across Europe but faced hostility from the pope and pressure from Turkey, France, and Protestants before abdicating his claims in 1556, died this day in 1558.

[Father Damien]

[![Photograph:Father Damien, coloured engraving, 1889.]] - Father Damien, coloured engraving, 1889. Belgian priest [Father Damien], born this day in 1840, went on a mission to the Hawaiian Islands in 1863 and subsequently devoted his life to ministering to the [lepers] who had been deported to [Molokai] island. Father Damien [![Photograph:Father Damien, coloured engraving, 1889.]] - Father Damien, coloured engraving, 1889. Belgian priest Father Damien, born this day in 1840, went on a mission to the Hawaiian Islands in 1863 and subsequently devoted his life to ministering to the lepers who had been deported to Molokai island.

[Federico Fellini]

[![Photograph:Federico Fellini, 1965.]] - Federico Fellini, 1965. Italian director [Federico Fellini], born this day in 1920, was one of the most celebrated [filmmakers] in the post-World War II period, his distinctive style imposing dreamlike or hallucinatory imagery on ordinary situations. Federico Fellini [![Photograph:Federico Fellini, 1965.]] - Federico Fellini, 1965. Italian director Federico Fellini, born this day in 1920, was one of the most celebrated filmmakers in the post-World War II period, his distinctive style imposing dreamlike or hallucinatory imagery on ordinary situations.

[Isaac Asimov]

[![Photograph:Isaac Asimov, 1991.]] - Isaac Asimov, 1991. American biochemist and author [Isaac Asimov], born in Russia this day in 1920, was a popularizer of scientific ideas and a prolific writer of [science fiction], in which he created an ethical system for humans and [robots]. [Isaac Asimov] [![Photograph:Isaac Asimov, 1991.]] - Isaac Asimov, 1991. American biochemist and author [Isaac Asimov], born in Russia this day in 1920, was a popularizer of scientific ideas and a prolific writer of science fiction, in which he created an ethical system for humans and robots.

[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis]

[![Photograph:Jacqueline Kennedy with her husband, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, 1961.]] - Jacqueline Kennedy with her husband, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, 1961. Born this day in 1929 was [Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis], who redefined the role of U.S. first lady with her elegance, charm, and especially her composure after the 1963 assassination of her husband, President [John F. Kennedy]. Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis [![Photograph:Jacqueline Kennedy with her husband, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, 1961.]] - Jacqueline Kennedy with her husband, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, 1961. Born this day in 1929 was Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who redefined the role of U.S. first lady with her elegance, charm, and especially her composure after the 1963 assassination of her husband, President John F. Kennedy.

[Akihito]

[![Photograph:Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002.]] - Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002. [Japanese] emperor since 1989, [Akihito]—who was born this day in 1933, the eldest son of [Hirohito], and whose reign is designated Heisei ("Achieving Peace")—broke a 1,500-year-old tradition by marrying a commoner. Akihito [![Photograph:Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002.]] - Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002. Japanese emperor since 1989, Akihito—who was born this day in 1933, the eldest son of Hirohito, and whose reign is designated Heisei ("Achieving Peace")—broke a 1,500-year-old tradition by marrying a commoner.

[John Locke]

[![Photograph:John Locke.]] - John Locke. [John Locke], an initiator of the [Enlightenment] and founder of British [Empiricism] whose ideas inspired [liberalism] and influenced the [American] and [French] revolutions and the [U.S. Constitution], died this day in 1704. John Locke [![Photograph:John Locke.]] - John Locke. John Locke, an initiator of the Enlightenment and founder of British Empiricism whose ideas inspired liberalism and influenced the American and French revolutions and the U.S. Constitution, died this day in 1704.

[Miriam Makeba]

[![Photograph:Miriam Makeba, 1990.]] - Miriam Makeba, 1990. South African singer [Miriam Makeba], one of the world's most prominent black African performers of the 20th century, was born near Johannesburg this day in 1932 and introduced [Xhosa] and [Zulu] songs to Western audiences. Miriam Makeba [![Photograph:Miriam Makeba, 1990.]] - Miriam Makeba, 1990. South African singer Miriam Makeba, one of the world's most prominent black African performers of the 20th century, was born near Johannesburg this day in 1932 and introduced Xhosa and Zulu songs to Western audiences.

[René Descartes]

[![Photograph:René Descartes, lithograph, 19th century.]] - René Descartes, lithograph, 19th century. Often called the father of modern [philosophy], French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher [René Descartes], who erected new epistemic foundations with the dictum "I think, therefore I am," died this day in 1650. [René Descartes] [![Photograph:René Descartes, lithograph, 19th century.]] - René Descartes, lithograph, 19th century. Often called the father of modern philosophy, French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher [René Descartes], who erected new epistemic foundations with the dictum "I think, therefore I am," died this day in 1650.

[T.S. Eliot]

[![Photograph:T.S. Eliot.]] - T.S. Eliot. Born on this day in 1888, [T.S. Eliot], a leader of [poetry]'s Modernist movement, revitalized [English poetry] with experiments in diction, style, and versification and exercised a strong influence on Anglo-American culture. T.S. Eliot [![Photograph:T.S. Eliot.]] - T.S. Eliot. Born on this day in 1888, T.S. Eliot, a leader of poetry's Modernist movement, revitalized English poetry with experiments in diction, style, and versification and exercised a strong influence on Anglo-American culture.

acid rain

[![Video:Testing rainwater and air for acidity at a research station in the Black Forest, Germany.]] - Testing rainwater and air for acidity at a research station in the Black Forest, Germany. form of precipitation containing a heavy concentration of sulfuric and nitric acids. The term is also commonly applied to [][snow], [][sleet], and [][hail] that manifest similar acidification. Such precipitation has become an increasingly serious environmental problem in many areas of North America, Europe, and Asia (*see* [video]). Although this form of [][pollution] is most severe in and around large urban and industrial areas, substantial amounts of acid precipitation may be transported great distances. [![Photograph:(top) Spruce trees damaged by acid rain in Karkonosze National Park, Poland.]] - (top) Spruce trees damaged by acid rain in Karkonosze National Park, Poland. [![Photograph:Many trees in the Great Smoky Mountains, such as those in the foreground, have succumbed to the ...]] - Many trees in the Great Smoky Mountains, such as those in the foreground, have succumbed to the ... The process that results in the formation of acid rain generally begins with emissions into the atmosphere of [sulfur dioxide] and [nitrogen] oxide. These gases are released by automobiles, certain industrial operations (e.g., smelting and refining), and electric power plants that burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil. The gases combine with water vapour in clouds to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When precipitation falls from the clouds, it is highly acidic, having a [][pH] value of about 5.6 or lower. (The term pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in kilograms per cubic metre. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with lower numbers indicating increased acidity.) At several locations in the eastern United States and western Europe, pH values between 2 and 3 have been recorded. In areas such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Whiteface Mountain in New York, [][fog] is often 10 or more times as acidic as the local [][precipitation].

[Hillary Rodham Clinton]

[Hillary Rodham Clinton], born this day in 1947, served as American [first lady] during the [presidency] of [Bill Clinton] and became the first first lady to win elective office when she was elected to the [U.S. Senate] in 2000. Hillary Rodham Clinton Hillary Rodham Clinton, born this day in 1947, served as American first lady during the presidency of Bill Clinton and became the first first lady to win elective office when she was elected to the U.S. Senate in 2000.

[Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida]

[Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida]—a Spanish painter whose style was a variant of [Impressionism] and whose best works, painted in the open air, vividly portray the sunny seacoast of Valencia—died this day in 1923. Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida—a Spanish painter whose style was a variant of Impressionism and whose best works, painted in the open air, vividly portray the sunny seacoast of Valencia—died this day in 1923.

[Mikhail Baryshnikov]

[Mikhail Baryshnikov], whose elegance, great physical prowess, and unsurpassed leaping ability made him the preeminent male [ballet] dancer of the 1970s and '80s, was born in Riga, Latvia, this day in 1948. [Mikhail Baryshnikov] [Mikhail Baryshnikov], whose elegance, great physical prowess, and unsurpassed leaping ability made him the preeminent male ballet dancer of the 1970s and '80s, was born in Riga, Latvia, this day in 1948.

[Plácido Domingo]

[Plácido Domingo], an operatic [tenor] whose voice, physical stature, good looks, and dramatic ability made him one of the most popular tenors of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, was born in Madrid this day in 1941. Plácido Domingo Plácido Domingo, an operatic tenor whose voice, physical stature, good looks, and dramatic ability made him one of the most popular tenors of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, was born in Madrid this day in 1941.

[Saint Augustine]

[St. Augustine]—the author of the *Confessions* and *City of God*, the bishop of [Hippo] from AD 396 to 430, and perhaps the most significant [Christian] thinker after [St. Paul]—was born in Numidia (now in Algeria) this day in 354. [Saint Augustine] [St. Augustine]—the author of the *Confessions* and *City of God*, the bishop of Hippo from AD 396 to 430, and perhaps the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul—was born in Numidia (now in Algeria) this day in 354.

İbrahim Müteferrika

[] born *c.* 1670, , Kolozsvár, Transylvania [now Cluj-Napoca, Rom.] died 1745, Constantinople, [][Ottoman Empire] [now Istanbul, Tur.] Ottoman diplomat known for his contributions to the 18th-century reform movement in the Ottoman Empire; he sponsored the introduction of printing into the Turkish domains. A Hungarian by origin, İbrahim converted to Islām and entered the Ottoman diplomatic service. He took part in negotiations with Austria and Russia and was active in promoting the Ottoman-French alliance (1737-39) against Austria and Russia and Ottoman-Swedish action against Russia.

25 Largest U.S. Banks^1^ ======================== ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- 1 2 **Bank** Chase Manhattan Corp. Citicorp **Assets\ 366,574 300,381 (in U.S. \$000,000)** ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------

^1^Ranked by asset size. Source: SNL Securities LC.

Abraham Lincoln Battalion

a force of volunteers from the United States who served on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War from January 1937 until November 1938. All seven [International Brigades] (*q.v.*)—each composed of three or more battalions—were formed by the Comintern (Communist International), beginning in late 1936, and all were disbanded by late 1938 as the war neared an end. Like the European battalions, the American one was composed largely of communists; but, unlike the Europeans, the majority of Americans were students, and none had previously seen military service. Briefly in 1937 there was a second American force, the []George Washington Battalion, but the casualties of both were so heavy that in mid-year the two were merged. As time went on, other nationalities were admitted to the Lincoln Battalion so that, by late 1938, Spaniards outnumbered Americans in the battalion three to one. Its first and perhaps most noted commander was []Robert Hale Merriman (1912?-38)—the son of a lumberjack, a graduate of the University of Nevada, and a former graduate student at the University of California at Berkeley—who rose to the rank of major and became chief of staff of the 14th International Brigade (which included the Lincoln Battalion); he fought in several battles and was killed in action. Of the total of about 2,800 American volunteers, about 900 were killed in action.

accismus

a form of [irony] in which a person feigns indifference to or pretends to refuse something he or she desires. The fox's dismissal of the grapes in [Aesop]'s fable of the fox and the grapes is an example of accismus. A classic example is that of Caesar's initial refusal to accept the crown, a circumstance reported by one of the conspirators in William Shakespeare's *Julius Caesar.* The word is from the Greek *akkismós,* "prudery," and is a derivative of *akkízesthai,* "to feign ignorance."

Acadian orogeny

a mountain-building event that affected an area from present-day New York to Newfoundland during the Devonian Period (416 to 359.2 million years ago). Originally a depositional fore-arc basin formed from what was formerly known as the [Appalachian Geosyncline]; subsequent compressional orogenic activity caused the deposits to be folded as a mountain chain. This activity began during the Early Devonian in Gaspé, spread westward throughout Devonian time, and affected the western margins of the geosyncline in Late Devonian time. The orogeny was most intense in the Merrimac area in southern New England and in Maine and extended northward to the Central Volcanic Belt of Newfoundland. Evidence for the Acadian orogeny consists of abundant angular unconformities (nonparallel strata) and igneous intrusions, regional metamorphism, and deformation of pre-Devonian and Devonian rocks. Additionally, the westward spread of clastic sedimentary wedges and red beds probably resulted from Acadian uplift in the interior portions of the fore-arc basin. The [][Catskill Delta]in New York and eastern Pennsylvania represents the westernmost of these clastic wedges. The cause of the Acadian orogeny has been ascribed to the collision of the Avalonia Terrane with the North American Plate produced by an eastward subduction of the proto-Atlantic.

actinomycosis

a noncontagious bacterial infection of humans and cattle that is caused by two anaerobic species of the genus *Actinomyces.* The disease is characterized by multiple painful, hard swellings filled with pus, most often seen on the face, neck, chest, and abdomen. *[]Actinomyces bovis* is responsible for the disease in cattle and *[]Actinomyces israeli* for that in humans. In humans the organism lives chiefly in the mouth and bowel, growing best in the absence of oxygen, and disease is produced by direct invasion of devitalized tissues. Lesions of the neck and face (cervicofacial actinomycosis), notably the jaw, which account for about one-half of all cases, may appear following a wound in the mouth or a tooth extraction, and lesions of the abdomen may follow appendicitis or perforation of the stomach or large intestine. Infection of the lungs and surrounding structures (thoracic actinomycosis) may result from inhalation of the organism into the air passages and is usually associated with weight loss, night sweats, coughing, and high fever. In rare cases the disorder may be disseminated, via the bloodstream, in which case lesions appear in most parts of the body. Treatment is with antibiotics; surgical drainage or excision of accessible lesions are valuable adjuncts.

Absolute Idealism

a philosophical theory chiefly associated with G.W.F. []Hegel and Friedrich []Schelling, both German idealist philosophers of the 19th century, [][Josiah Royce], an American philosopher, and others, but, in its essentials, the product of Hegel. Absolute Idealism can generally be characterized as including the following principles: (1) the common everyday world of things and embodied minds is not the world as it really is but merely as it appears in terms of uncriticized categories; (2) the best reflection of the world is not found in physical and mathematical categories but in terms of a self-conscious mind; and (3) thought is the relation of each particular experience with the infinite whole of which it is an expression, rather than the imposition of ready-made forms upon given material. Idealism for Hegel meant that the finite world is a reflection of [][mind], which alone is truly real. He held that limited being (that which comes to be and passes away) presupposes infinite unlimited being, within which the finite is a dependent element. In this view, truth becomes the relationship of harmony or coherence between thoughts, rather than a correspondence between thoughts and external realities. As one proceeds from the confusing world of sense experience to the more complex and coherent categories of science, the []Absolute Idea, of which all other abstract ideas are merely a part, is approached. Hegel also held that this increasing clarity is evident in the fact that later philosophy presupposes and advances from earlier philosophy, ultimately approaching that to which all things are related and which is nevertheless self-contained—*i.e.,* the Absolute Idea. Schelling, though similar to Hegel in that he also believed in the Absolute Idea, differed from him in identifying the Absolute as the undifferentiated, or featureless, unity of opposites. Thus, in the state of intellectual intuition, subject and object, being opposites, are lost in the anonymity of the Absolute. Hegel attacked this position in his *Phänomenologie des Geistes* (1807; *Phenomenology of Mind*). Royce proposed that human minds are fragments of the Absolute, yet somehow remain separate selves and persons. He held that individual selves (as parts of the Absolute) are able, through the fundamental virtue of loyalty, to seek their ever increasing and ever widening meaning and identify with it, thus approaching the Absolute.

adage

a saying, often in [metaphoric] form, that embodies a common observation, such as "If the shoe fits, wear it,'' "Out of the frying pan, into the fire,'' or "Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.'' The scholar [][Erasmus] published a well-known collection of adages as *Adagia* in 1508. The word is from the Latin *adagium*, "proverb."

abstract poem

a term coined by [][Edith Sitwell] to describe a poem in which the words are chosen for their aural quality rather than specifically for their sense or meaning. An example from "Popular Song" in Sitwell's *Façade* (1923) follows: > The red retriever-haired satyr\ > Can whine and tease her and flatter,\ > But Lily O'Grady,\ > Silly and shady,\ > In the deep shade is a lazy lady;\ > Now Pompey's dead, Homer's read,\ > Heliogabalus lost his head,\ > And shade is on the brightest wing,\ > And dust forbids the bird to sing.\

acidosis

abnormally high level of acidity, or low level of alkalinity, in the body fluids, including the blood. Acidosis may be respiratory or metabolic in origin. The former may result from excess retention of carbon dioxide because of faulty oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the lungs, or it may result from abnormalities of the chest bellows, from constrictions of the air passages, or from such diseases as emphysema and severe pneumonia. The latter may result from the inability of diseased kidneys to excrete the acids produced within the body. It may also accompany diabetes mellitus, severe diarrhea, or starvation, conditions that involve either the accumulation of acids in the system or the loss of alkali. It may also be brought on by drugs or anesthesia. *Compare* [alkalosis.]

actinolite

an amphibole mineral in the tremolite-actinolite series of calcium, magnesium, and iron silicates. The minerals in this series are abundant in regionally metamorphosed rocks, such as schists. Tremolite may weather to talc, and both tremolite and actinolite may alter to chlorite or carbonates. For chemical formula and detailed physical properties, *see* [amphibole] (table). The fibres of the magnesium-rich members in the series are asbestos; these varieties, sometimes known as [][amphibole asbestos], constitute the material to which the name asbestos was originally given. The fibres are fine and silky and possess appreciable tensile strength; those that occur in thin, felted sheets of interwoven fibres are called mountain leather; in thicker sheets, mountain cork; and in compact masses resembling dry wood, mountain wood.

Abū al-ʿAbbās as-Saffāḥ

born , 722 died 754, Al-Anbār [Iraq] Islāmic caliph (reigned 749-754), first of the ʿAbbāsid dynasty, which was to rule over eastern Islām for approximately the next 500 years. The ʿAbbāsids were descended from an uncle of Muḥammad and were cousins to the ruling [][Umayyad dynasty]. The Umayyads were weakened by decadence and an unclear line of succession, and they enjoyed little popular support, prompting the ʿAbbāsids to declare open revolt in 747. When Abū al-ʿAbbās assumed the caliphate in 749, he began a campaign of extermination against the Umayyads, the ʿAlids, other ʿAbbāsid leaders who had become too popular, and all other claimants to power. He named himself as-Saffāḥ, "the blood-shedder," because of his savage attacks. He established a firm legal and dynastic base for the ʿAbbāsids. His successor moved the caliphate to Baghdad.

Aaron ben Elijah

born 1328/30, Nicomedia, Ottoman Empire [modern İzmit, Turkey] died 1369 theologian of Constantinople (now Istanbul), the only scholar to seek a philosophical basis for Karaite beliefs. [][Karaism], a Jewish movement originating in 8th-century Iran, rejected the oral tradition and challenged the authority of the [][Talmud], the rabbinical compendium of law, lore, and commentary. Aaron ben Elijah's views are summarized in his compilation of Karaite lore, in three books. In the first book, *[]ʿEtz ḥayyim* (1346; "Tree of Life"), modeled after the 12th-century Jewish philosopher [][Maimonides'] *Moreh nevukhim* (*[The Guide for the Perplexed]*), he attempts to create a Karaite counterpart to Maimonides' Aristotelian outlook. In the second book, *[]Gan Eden* (1354; "The Garden of Eden"), he attempts to justify the Karaite code of law. The third book, *[]Keter Torah* (1362; "Crown of Law"), is a commentary on the Pentateuch, based on literal interpretations of the text.

Adam Brothers

born 18th century three French brothers who sculpted many monuments for the French and Prussian royal residences. They were exponents of a style that employed the textures of shells, corals, and perforated rocks. []Lambert-Sigisbert Adam (1700-59) created sculptures for King Louis XV of France and Frederick the Great of Prussia. []Nicolas-Sébastien Adam (1705-78) sculptured for Stanislas I Leszczyński, father-in-law of Louis and former king of Poland. []François-Gaspard-Balthasar Adam (1710-61) was responsible for works at Frederick's royal palace of Sans Souci near Potsdam and at Potsdam itself.

Adams, Charles Follen

born April 21, 1842, Dorchester, Mass., U.S. died March 8, 1918, Roxbury, Mass. [![Photograph:Charles Follen Adams.]] - Charles Follen Adams. U.S. regional humorous poet, best known for his Pennsylvania German dialect poems. During the American Civil War he was wounded and taken prisoner. In 1872 he began writing humorous verses for periodicals and newspapers in a Pennsylvania German dialect. Collections of his verse are *Leedle Yawcob Strauss, and Other Poems* (1877) and *Dialect Ballads* (1888). His complete poetical writings, *Yawcob Strauss, and Other Poems,* with illustrations by "Boz," were published in 1910.

Abruzzo, Ben L.

born June 9, 1930, Rockford, Ill., U.S. died Feb. 11, 1985, Albuquerque, N.M. American balloonist who, with three crew mates, made the first transpacific []balloon flight and the longest nonstop balloon flight, in the *[]Double Eagle V.* Abruzzo graduated from the University of Illinois (Champaign-Urbana) in 1952 and served two years in the U.S. Air Force at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, N.M. (1952-54). He settled in Albuquerque and became a real-estate developer. He, as well as his wife and children, became active in skiing, boating, sailing, tennis, flying, and ballooning. In 1978 Abruzzo, with [][Maxie Anderson] (*q.v.*) and [Larry Newman], made the first transatlantic balloon flight in the *Double Eagle II.* In 1979 Abruzzo and Anderson won the Gordon Bennett race in the *Double Eagle III.* The transpacific flight, with Abruzzo as captain and teammates Larry Newman and Ron Clark, both of Albuquerque, and Rocky Aoki, a Japanese-American restaurateur from Miami, who partly financed the flight, was launched from Nagashima, Japan, on Nov. 9, 1981. The balloon landed, 84 hr 31 min later, in the Mendocino National Forest in California on November 12. The flight covered 5,768 miles (9,244 km), the longest balloon flight in history.

Abdülhamid I

born March 20, 1725 died April 7, 1789 Ottoman sultan from 1774 to 1789 who concluded the war with Russia by signing the humiliating [][Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]. By the terms of the treaty, Russia obtained the fortresses on the coast of the Sea of Azov, the area between the Dnieper and Bug rivers, and navigation and commercial privileges in the Ottoman Empire. Bukovina was ceded to Austria in 1775. Russia annexed the Crimea (an Ottoman vassal state) in 1783 and planned to partition the Ottoman Empire. Confronted with Russian designs, Abdülhamid in 1787 declared war, which was not ended until after his death. A pious and benevolent man with a keen interest in state affairs, he favoured reform and appointed able grand viziers to whom he entrusted wide powers. He initiated army reforms and opened the Imperial Naval Engineering School. He also endeavoured to strengthen the central government against provincial rulers, particularly in Syria, Egypt, and Iraq.

Acheampong, Ignatius Kutu

born Sept. 23, 1931, Kumasi, Gold Coast died June 16, 1979, Accra, Ghana Ghanaian army officer, who, after leading a military revolt that overthrew the government of Kofi Busia, became Ghana's chief of state in 1972. In July 1978 he was forced to resign, and the following June he and his successor, Lieut. Gen. F.W.K. []Akuffo, were executed after a coup led by young officers, whose Armed Forces Revolutionary Council returned Ghana to civilian rule in September 1979.

Abuja

city and capital of Nigeria. It lies in the central part of the Abuja federal capital territory (created 1976), approximately 300 miles (480 km) northeast of Lagos, the former capital (until 1991). During the 1980s the new capital city (designed by the Department of Architecture of Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria) was built and developed on the grass-covered Chukuku Hills. The site was chosen for Nigeria's new capital because of its central location, easy accessibility, salubrious climate, low population density, and the availability of land for future expansion. It was the first planned city to be built in Nigeria. Abuja lies at 1,180 feet (360 m) above sea level and has a cooler climate and less humidity than is found in [][Lagos]. The city was planned with a projected population of about 25,000 in the early stages of occupation and is divided into two zones. The central area contains the National Assembly, the city hall, national cultural institutes, and other government-related offices. The other zone provides housing, shopping facilities, and other urban amenities. The University of Abuja was founded in 1988. Abuja has an airport, and expressways connect the federal capital with other state capitals. High-tension power lines conduct electricity to the city from Shiroro Dam, on the Niger River, 46 miles (75 km) southwest of Abuja.

Aberdeen

city, Grays Harbor county, western [Washington], U.S., on the Pacific estuaries of the Chehalis, Wishkah, and Hoquiam rivers (which together form Grays Harbor). With [Hoquiam] and Cosmopolis, Aberdeen forms a tri-city area. Captain [Robert Gray] navigated the inlet in the ship *Columbia* on May 7, 1792, and named it Bullfinch Harbour. In 1878 settler Samuel Benn laid out a village, which 10 years later merged with the adjacent settlement of Wishkah to form the town of Aberdeen. A [Northern Pacific Railway] line reached the city in 1895 after residents donated their labour to build a branch, giving Aberdeen an economic advantage over its larger neighbours; it grew to become the commercial and industrial centre of the area. A fire devastated the downtown district in 1904; afterward most of the city's buildings were made of brick rather than wood. Fishing, lumbering, seafood processing, and tourism are its economic mainstays. The deepwater port of Grays Harbor is midway between Aberdeen and Hoquiam. The two-year Grays Harbor College was founded at Aberdeen in 1930. Inc. city, 1890. Pop. (1990) 16,565; (2000) 16,461.

Acámbaro

city, southeastern Guanajuato *estado* (state), central Mexico. Acámbaro lies along the Lerma River, on the Mexican Plateau, at 6,388 feet (1,947 m) above sea level. A Spanish settlement was founded there in 1526 on the site of a small Tarascan Indian village. With the construction of the Solís Reservoir, irrigation water became available to bring land under cultivation. Corn (maize), beans, wheat, and chick-peas are the principal crops. Cattle, sheep, and pig raising are also important. Much of Acámbaro's importance derives from its function as a rail and highway junction 45 miles (70 km) south of Celaya and 172 miles (277 km) west-northwest of Mexico City. Pop. (2000) 55,516.

Abbeville

county, northwestern [South Carolina], U.S. It lies in a hilly piedmont region bounded to the southwest by the state's []Richard B. Russell Lake border with Georgia; the [Saluda River] forms the county's northeastern border. Calhoun Falls State Park is on the lake, which is formed by the Richard B. Russell Dam on the [Savannah River]. A large part of this hilly rural area lies in oak-hickory-pine woodland, and much of its southeastern section is within Sumter National Forest. The Savannah River Scenic Highway traverses the western part of the county. The area was inhabited by [Cherokee] Indians at the start of European settlement in 1758. In 1777, near Due West, the [][Cherokee] signed a treaty yielding extensive lands to South Carolina. Abbeville county was established in 1785 and named for Abbeville, France; the county seat is [Abbeville]. Raising livestock is the principal agricultural activity. The manufacture of clothing and textiles is another major component of the economy. Area 508 square miles (1,316 square km). Pop. (1990) 23,862; (1998 est.) 24,632.

Abuja

federal capital territory, central Nigeria, created in 1976. The territory is located north of the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers. It is bordered by the states of Niger to the west and northwest, Kaduna to the northeast, Plateau to the east and south, and Kogi to the southwest. [][Abuja], the federal capital and a planned modern city, is located near the centre of the territory. The region is underlain by crystalline rocks consisting of granites and gneisses. The vegetation is mainly savanna with limited forest areas. Agriculture, the economic mainstay, produces yams, millet, corn (maize), sorghum, and beans. The population comprises the Gwari, Koro, Ganagana, Gwandara, Afo, and Bassa ethnic groups, predominantly dairy farmers. Hausa and Fulani also live in the territory. Mineral resources include clay, tin, feldspar, gold, iron ore, lead, marble, and talc. Abuja city has an airport and major road connections. Area 2,824 square miles (7,315 square km). Pop. (1995 est.) capital territory, 423,391.

Adam Of Bremen

flourished 11th century German historian whose work on the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen provides valuable information on German politics under the Salian emperors and is also one of the great books of medieval geography. Of Franconian origin, he was probably educated at the cathedral school in Bamberg but was introduced in 1066 or 1067 into the cathedral chapter at Bremen by Archbishop Adalbert. In 1069 Adam was head of the Bremen cathedral school. Adam began his *Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum* (*[History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen]*), comprising four books, after Adalbert's death (1072). In Book III a candid and vivid description of the archbishop's personality and activities leads to an account of the German political affairs of the time. Book IV gives a "description of the islands of the north," and besides dealing with Russia, the countries of the Baltic peoples, Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland, Adam makes the earliest known reference to Vinland, that part of North America reached by Leif Eriksson.

Abū al-Ḥasan

flourished 17th century, , Delhi [India] one of the leading [][Mughal] painters of the emperor [][Jahāngīr's] atelier, honoured by the emperor with the title Nādir-uz-Zamān ("Wonder of the Age"). Abū al-Ḥasan was the son of Āqā Rezā of Herāt, who took employment with Jahāngīr (reigned 1605-27) before his accession to the throne. Abū al-Ḥasan was trained in painting under the careful tutelage of the emperor, who praised him as having "no rival or equal" and took pride in having personally formed him at his court. Paintings of his that have survived include the famous chinar tree with squirrels in the India Office Library, and a large number of superb portraits. His study of European prints may have reinforced his naturalism and sympathy for his subjects. He is known to have worked early in the reign of Shāh Jahān (reigned 1628-57/58).

acromegaly

growth and metabolic disorder characterized by enlargement of the [][skeletal] extremities. It is the result of overproduction of pituitary [][growth hormone] (somatotropin) after maturity, caused by a tumour of the [][pituitary gland]. Acromegaly is often associated with the abnormal growth in stature known as pituitary gigantism (*see* [gigantism]). The onset of acromegaly is gradual. Hands and feet become enlarged; facial features are exaggerated as the jaw lengthens and the nose and forehead grow thicker; the skin thickens; and most internal organs enlarge. Headache, excessive sweating, muscle weakness, and high blood pressure are other manifestations. Acromegalic subjects may develop congestive heart failure, particularly when blood pressure becomes high. At times, excessive overgrowth of bone and cartilage involves the joints and causes pain. The bones may become thin and porous—a condition known as [][osteoporosis]. [][Diabetes mellitus] appears in 20 to 40 percent of acromegalic subjects because excess growth hormone blocks the action of insulin. If the pituitary tumour enlarges, it can cause visual-field defects, blindness or paralysis of the eye muscles, and can injure the posterior pituitary gland or the hypothalamus. Also, hemorrhage into the tumour can cause sudden loss of vision. Acromegaly may be treated by surgical removal of the pituitary tumour or destruction of it by X-ray irradiation or liquid nitrogen. Rarely, the pituitary tumour will cease to secrete growth hormone because of a spontaneous hemorrhage or a blockage of the blood supply. Decreases in acromegalic manifestations and amelioration of diabetes mellitus have followed therapy with female hormones—estrogen or medroxyprogesterone—which reduce the secretion of growth hormone. For those treated by pituitary surgery, irradiation, or other measures and for those who spontaneously develop deficits of gonadal, thyroidal, or adrenocortical hormones, replacement-hormone therapy is necessary.

Abhayagiri

important ancient Theravāda Buddhist monastic centre (*vihāra*) built by King []Vaṭṭagāmaṇi Abhaya (29-17 BC) on the northern side of Anurādhapura, the capital of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at that time. Its importance lay, in part, in the fact that religious and political power were closely related, so that monastic centres had much influence on the secular history of the nation. But it is also important in the history of Theravāda Buddhism itself. It was originally associated with the nearby [][Mahāvihāra] ("Great Monastery"), which was the traditional centre of religious and civil power built by Devānanpiya-Tissa (307-267 BC). But Abhayagiri seceded from the Great Monastery toward the end of Vaṭṭagāmaṇi's reign in a dispute over the relations between monks and the lay community and the use of Sanskrit works to augment Pāli texts as scripture. Although viewed as heretical by the monks at the Great Monastery, the Abhayagiri monastery advanced in prestige and wealth under the patronage of King Gajabāhu I (AD 113-135). Abhayagiri continued to flourish until Anurādhapura was abandoned in the 13th century. Even then, two of its main colleges continued to operate until the 16th century.

abandonment

in Anglo-American [][property law], the relinquishment of possession of property with an intent to terminate all ownership interests in that property. Abandonment may occur by throwing away the property, by losing it and making no attempt to retrieve it, by vacating the property with no intention of returning to it, or by any other act manifesting a complete disclaimer of ownership in the property. The general effect of abandonment is to give full ownership of the property to the first taker. In the French and civil-law systems, the term abandonment is more technical and means the surrender by a debtor of his property to be used in satisfaction of claims by his creditors.

accessory

in law, a person who becomes equally guilty in the crime of another by knowingly and voluntarily aiding the criminal prior to or after the crime. An accessory is one kind of [accomplice] (*q.v.*), the other being an abettor, who aids the criminal during the act itself.

Abiathar

in the Old Testament, son of Ahimelech, priest of Nob. He was the sole survivor of a massacre carried out by Doeg. Fleeing to David, he remained with him throughout his wanderings and his reign. He was loyal through the rebellion of Absalom, but he supported Adonijah against Solomon. Abiathar probably represents an early rival house to that of Zadok, the official priestly family of Jerusalem down to the Exile (1 Samuel 22:20-23; 2 Samuel 15:24-37; and 1 Kings 2:26-27).

Aberdare Range

mountain range, forming a section of the eastern rim of the Great Rift Valley in west-central Kenya, northeast of Naivasha and Gilgil and just south of the Equator. The range has an average elevation of 11,000 feet (3,350 metres) and culminates in Oldoinyo Lesatima (13,120 feet [3,999 metres]) and Ilkinangop (12,815 feet [3,906 metres]). The Aberdares slope gradually east and southeast, providing a fine example of an immature, consequent drainage pattern, before the ground rises again to the cone of Mount Kenya (17,058 feet [5,199 metres]).

actin

protein that is an important contributor to the contractile property of [muscle] and other cells. It exists in two forms: G-actin (monomeric globular actin) and F-actin (polymeric fibrous actin), the form involved in muscle contraction. In []muscle, two long strands of beadlike actin molecules are twisted together to form a thin filament, bundles of which alternate and interdigitate with bundles of thick filaments formed of myosin, the most abundant protein found in muscle. Two other muscle proteins, tropomyosin and troponin, regulate the temporary fusion of actin and myosin; this fusion results in the contraction of muscle. Actin and myosin have been found in dozens of other (nonmuscle) cells and are believed to be responsible for the contractile properties of animal cells generally.

acetanilide

synthetic organic compound introduced in therapy in 1886 as a fever-reducing drug. Its effectiveness in relieving pain was discovered soon thereafter, and it was used as an alternative to aspirin for many years in treating such common complaints as headache, menstrual cramps, and rheumatism. Excessive or prolonged use engenders toxic side effects: it interferes with the function of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment of the blood. In the body acetanilide is mostly converted to acetaminophen, which has replaced acetanilide in therapy because it is less likely to induce blood disorders.

Achaemenid Dynasty

the Persian 27th dynasty of Egypt (525-404 BC), founded by [][Cambyses II] of Persia and named after his family of the Achaemenids. The policy of the Achaemenid kings seems to have been conciliatory to national beliefs and sentiments. There are conflicting views of Cambyses II's reign. The Egyptian courtier Udjahorresne depicts an ideal ruler in the pharaonic tradition, while Herodotus draws a portrait of a savage tyrant. Cambyses II apparently reduced the revenues given the Egyptian priesthood by more than half. Certainly [][Darius] (reigned 522-486 BC) proved himself a more beneficent ruler and, in a visit to Egypt, displayed his consideration for the religion of the country. He restored the priests' privileges, ordered a written codification of Egyptian law, and completed or repaired the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea. At the very end of his reign, however, several years after the Achaemenid defeat at Marathon, Egypt rebelled. Xerxes (reigned 486-465 BC) put down the revolt with severity. The disorders that marked the accession of his successor, [][Artaxerxes] (reigned 466-424 BC), gave Egypt another opportunity to rebel, aided by an Athenian force. In 455 BC, however, the Achaemenids captured and destroyed two Athenian fleets and quickly ended the rebellion. The reigns of Xerxes II and Darius II were uneventful until 404 BC, when Egypt regained its independence under Amyrtaeus of Sais. The Persians briefly reconquered Egypt under Artaxerxes III between 343 and 341 BC, and it remained under Achaemenid rule until 332, when the satrap surrendered to Alexander the Great.

abietic acid

the most abundant of several closely related organic acids that constitute most of [][rosin], the solid portion of the oleoresin of coniferous trees. Commercial abietic acid is usually a glassy or partly crystalline, yellowish solid that melts at temperatures as low as 85° C (185° F). It belongs to the diterpene group of organic compounds (compounds derived from four isoprene units). Rosin has been used for centuries for caulking ships. It is also rubbed on the bows of musical instruments to make them less slippery. In modern times methods have been developed for improving the properties of the rosin acids, which are soft, tacky, and low-melting and subject to rapid deterioration by oxidation in air. Stability is greatly increased by heat treatment. Rosin acids are converted into [][ester] gum by reaction with controlled amounts of glycerol or other polyhydric alcohols. Ester gum has drying properties and is used in paints, varnishes, and lacquers.

Abingdon

town ("parish"), [Vale of White Horse] district, administrative county of [Oxfordshire], historic county of [Berkshire], England. It lies south of Oxford at the confluence of the Rivers Thames and Ock. The town was founded by the Saxons and grew up around a Benedictine abbey established in 676. In 1556, after the abbey had been dissolved, Abingdon was granted its first royal charter. The abbey remains include a Perpendicular gateway and the restored Checker Hall, now used as an Elizabethan-style theatre. The arched bridge over the Thames (1416; widened 1929) provides a view of the Early English tower and Perpendicular spire of St. Helen's Church. The county hall (1677-80) houses a museum collection. St. Nicholas' Church, the west front of which was built in 1180, stands nearby. Schools in the town include Abingdon (Roysse's) School—one of the oldest public (independent) schools in England—and Radley College (1847). The town also has a number of light industries and is a popular Thames-side resort. Pop. (2001) 36,010.

Abington

town (township), Plymouth county, eastern [Massachusetts], U.S. It lies 19 miles (31 km) southeast of [Boston] and 4 miles (6 km) east of [Brockton]. Ames Nowell State Park is nearby (to the west). Known as Manamooskeagin ("Land of Many Beavers") to the Algonquian Indians, it was settled in 1668, incorporated in 1712, and named for Abington, England. An iron foundry was established there in 1769, and about 1815 Jesse Reed invented a machine that mass-produced tacks, thus enabling the footwear industry to thrive. Abington is reputed to have produced half of all the boots worn by the Union Army in the American Civil War. From 1846 to 1865 it was a centre of the [abolition movement]. The economy is now largely service-oriented, although there is some light manufacturing. Area 10 square miles (26 square km). Pop. (1990) 13,817; (2000) 14,605.

Acireale

town and episcopal see, eastern [Sicily], Italy, on terraces above the Ionian Sea at the foot of Mount Etna, 7 miles (11 km) northeast of Catania. Known as Aquilia by the Romans, the town was called Reale by Philip IV of Spain in 1642. The first part of its name is derived from the ancient Acis River, which according to legend welled forth at the death of the shepherd Acis, beloved by the Nereid Galatea. Much of the present town was built after the earthquake of 1693. Notable landmarks include the cathedral (1597-1618), with a modern facade; the Baroque church of San Sebastiano; the town hall (1659) containing a library, museum, and picture gallery; an observatory; a fruit experimental station; and the sulfur springs called Santa Venera. A noted spa since Roman times, Acireale is a climatic and mineral-water resort with a fine beach. Mineral water, wine, and citrus fruit are exported, and textiles and leather goods are produced. Pop. (2006 est.) mun., 52,490.

Activities of the Jadid reformers

Jadids organized "New Method" schools at the primary and secondary level, teaching pupils by modern pedagogical methods rather than by the rote learning that had been used in traditional schools. For the literate, Jadids published numerous short-lived newspapers and lithographed or printed many booklets. To reach the illiterate, Jadids created the first modern indigenous theatre, performing didactic plays intended to promote moral behaviour. These plays reached most of the principal towns of Turkistan, though in Bukhara and Khiva conservative Muslims delayed the entry of reformist theatre. The Jadids spread many ideas new to most Central Asians, such as women's emancipation, the improvement of public health, and local modernization and entrepreneurship. Reformers sought to end drug addiction, alcoholism, and pederasty. [Edward Allworth][Return to article]

[Édouard Manet]

French painter [Édouard Manet], born this day in 1832, defied traditional techniques of representation and chose modern, urban subjects, antagonizing the critics but paving the way for [Impressionism] and [Post-Impressionism]. [Édouard Manet] French painter [Édouard Manet], born this day in 1832, defied traditional techniques of representation and chose modern, urban subjects, antagonizing the critics but paving the way for Impressionism and Post-Impressionism.

[Thomas Nast]

German-born American cartoonist [Thomas Nast], born this day in 1840, created one of the most popular images of [Santa Claus] but was perhaps best known for his attack on the [Tammany Hall] political machine of [William M. Tweed]. Thomas Nast German-born American cartoonist Thomas Nast, born this day in 1840, created one of the most popular images of Santa Claus but was perhaps best known for his attack on the Tammany Hall political machine of William M. Tweed.

[Madeleine Albright]

[Madeleine Albright], born this day in Prague in 1937, earned a reputation as a savvy defender of American interests while a UN ambassador (1993-97) and was the first woman to serve as U.S. secretary of state (1997-2001). Madeleine Albright Madeleine Albright, born this day in Prague in 1937, earned a reputation as a savvy defender of American interests while a UN ambassador (1993-97) and was the first woman to serve as U.S. secretary of state (1997-2001).

[Anne Frank]

[![Photograph:Anne Frank, oil over a photograph.]] - Anne Frank, oil over a photograph. [Anne Frank]—a young Jewish girl whose diary of her family's two years in hiding during the German occupation of The Netherlands became a classic of war literature—was born this day in 1929 in [Frankfurt am Main], Germany. [Anne Frank] [![Photograph:Anne Frank, oil over a photograph.]] - Anne Frank, oil over a photograph. [Anne Frank]—a young Jewish girl whose diary of her family's two years in hiding during the German occupation of The Netherlands became a classic of war literature—was born this day in 1929 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany.

[Barbra Streisand]

[![Photograph:Barbra Streisand in The Prince of Tides (1991).]] - Barbra Streisand in *The Prince of Tides* (1991). American entertainer [Barbra Streisand]—one of the most popular singers of her generation, a star of stage and screen (especially in musicals), and one of the most powerful women in show business—was born this day in 1942. Barbra Streisand [![Photograph:Barbra Streisand in The Prince of Tides (1991).]] - Barbra Streisand in *The Prince of Tides* (1991). American entertainer Barbra Streisand—one of the most popular singers of her generation, a star of stage and screen (especially in musicals), and one of the most powerful women in show business—was born this day in 1942.

[Peter Paul Rubens]

Flemish painter [Peter Paul Rubens], the greatest exponent of [Baroque] painting's dynamism, vitality, and sensuous exuberance and perhaps best known for his religious and mythological compositions, was born this day in 1577. Peter Paul Rubens Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens, the greatest exponent of Baroque painting's dynamism, vitality, and sensuous exuberance and perhaps best known for his religious and mythological compositions, was born this day in 1577.

[Countee Cullen]

> Let art portray things as they are.\ > Countee Cullen, "The Dark Tower" Born this day in 1903, [Countee Cullen] was one of the finest American poets of the [Harlem Renaissance], noted for his fresh and sensitive treatment of racial themes and for the lyric, wistful beauty of his verse. [Countee Cullen] > Let art portray things as they are.\ > Countee Cullen, "The Dark Tower" Born this day in 1903, [Countee Cullen] was one of the finest American poets of the [Harlem Renaissance], noted for his fresh and sensitive treatment of racial themes and for the lyric, wistful beauty of his verse.

[Al Pacino]

American actor [Al Pacino], known for his intense, sometimes over-the-top acting style and for his gangster portrayals in *The Godfather* trilogy (1972-90) and *Scarface* (1983), was born in New York City this day in 1940. Al Pacino American actor Al Pacino, known for his intense, sometimes over-the-top acting style and for his gangster portrayals in *The Godfather* trilogy (1972-90) and *Scarface* (1983), was born in New York City this day in 1940.

[Lilla Cabot Perry]

American artist [Lilla Cabot Perry], born this day in 1848 and influenced heavily by painter [Claude Monet], emulated the innovations of French [Impressionism] in her art and was a major promoter of Impressionism in the U.S. Lilla Cabot Perry American artist Lilla Cabot Perry, born this day in 1848 and influenced heavily by painter Claude Monet, emulated the innovations of French Impressionism in her art and was a major promoter of Impressionism in the U.S.

[Antoni Gaudí]

[![Photograph:Antoni Gaudí's Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family (Sagrada Família), Barcelona, ...]] - Antoni Gaudí's Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family (Sagrada Família), Barcelona, ... Born this day in 1852, Catalan architect [Antoni Gaudí], whose distinctive style was typified by freedom of form and voluptuous colour and texture, spent much of his career building [Barcelona]'s church of the Holy Family. Antoni Gaudí [![Photograph:Antoni Gaudí's Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family (Sagrada Família), Barcelona, ...]] - Antoni Gaudí's Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family (Sagrada Família), Barcelona, ... Born this day in 1852, Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí, whose distinctive style was typified by freedom of form and voluptuous colour and texture, spent much of his career building Barcelona's church of the Holy Family.

[Catherine II]

[![Photograph:Catherine II (the Great) of Russia.]] - Catherine II (the Great) of Russia. [Catherine the Great], who engineered the abdication of her husband, [Peter III], to become empress of Russia (1762-96) and one of the most powerful women in history, was born in Prussia this day in 1729. Catherine II [![Photograph:Catherine II (the Great) of Russia.]] - Catherine II (the Great) of Russia. Catherine the Great, who engineered the abdication of her husband, Peter III, to become empress of Russia (1762-96) and one of the most powerful women in history, was born in Prussia this day in 1729.

[Charles Darwin]

[![Photograph:Charles Darwin, 1867.]] - Charles Darwin, *c.* 1867. English naturalist [Charles Darwin], who died this day in 1882, had a revolutionary effect on modern society when he published his theory of [evolution] by [natural selection] in his book *On the Origin of Species* (1859). [Charles Darwin] [![Photograph:Charles Darwin, 1867.]] - Charles Darwin, *c.* 1867. English naturalist [Charles Darwin], who died this day in 1882, had a revolutionary effect on modern society when he published his theory of evolution by natural selection in his book *On the Origin of Species* (1859).

[Edvard Grieg]

[![Photograph:Edvard Grieg.]] - Edvard Grieg. Composer [Edvard Grieg], a founder of the Norwegian nationalist school of music whose work is rooted in the country's national folk tradition and is noted for its refined lyrical sense, was born this day in 1843. Edvard Grieg [![Photograph:Edvard Grieg.]] - Edvard Grieg. Composer Edvard Grieg, a founder of the Norwegian nationalist school of music whose work is rooted in the country's national folk tradition and is noted for its refined lyrical sense, was born this day in 1843.

[El Cordobés]

[![Photograph:El Cordobés]] - El Cordobés [El Cordobés] ("The Córdovan"), believed to have been born this day in 1936 in Spain, became the highest-paid bullfighter of his day, thrilling crowds with his reflexes and stunts, such as kissing the bull between the horns. El Cordobés [![Photograph:El Cordobés]] - El Cordobés El Cordobés ("The Córdovan"), believed to have been born this day in 1936 in Spain, became the highest-paid bullfighter of his day, thrilling crowds with his reflexes and stunts, such as kissing the bull between the horns.

[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]

[![Photograph:Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, oil on canvas by Nikolai Kuznetsov, 1893.]] - Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, oil on canvas by Nikolai Kuznetsov, 1893. [Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]—the most popular Russian composer in history, whose impressive harmonies, openhearted melodies, and colourful orchestration provoke profound emotional responses—was born this day in 1840. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky [![Photograph:Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, oil on canvas by Nikolai Kuznetsov, 1893.]] - Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, oil on canvas by Nikolai Kuznetsov, 1893. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky—the most popular Russian composer in history, whose impressive harmonies, openhearted melodies, and colourful orchestration provoke profound emotional responses—was born this day in 1840.

[Salvador Dalí]

[![Photograph:Salvador Dalí in front of his painting The Madonna of Port ...]] - Salvador Dalí in front of his painting *The Madonna of Port* ... Spanish artist [Salvador Dalí], a leading [Surrealist] painter noted for his depiction of dreamworlds in which commonplace objects are juxtaposed or deformed in a bizarre and irrational fashion, was born this day in 1904. Salvador Dalí [![Photograph:Salvador Dalí in front of his painting The Madonna of Port ...]] - Salvador Dalí in front of his painting *The Madonna of Port* ... Spanish artist Salvador Dalí, a leading Surrealist painter noted for his depiction of dreamworlds in which commonplace objects are juxtaposed or deformed in a bizarre and irrational fashion, was born this day in 1904.

[Steffi Graf]

[![Photograph:Steffi Graf returning a shot during the Wimbledon Championships, 1995.]] - Steffi Graf returning a shot during the Wimbledon Championships, 1995. Born this day in 1969 was German tennis star [Steffi Graf], who dominated women's [tennis] in the late 1980s and '90s, winning singles titles at each grand slam event multiple times—including seven at [Wimbledon]. Steffi Graf [![Photograph:Steffi Graf returning a shot during the Wimbledon Championships, 1995.]] - Steffi Graf returning a shot during the Wimbledon Championships, 1995. Born this day in 1969 was German tennis star Steffi Graf, who dominated women's tennis in the late 1980s and '90s, winning singles titles at each grand slam event multiple times—including seven at Wimbledon.

[Paul Cézanne]

[![Photograph:The Basket of Apples, oil on canvas by Paul Cézanne, c. 1895; ...]] - *The Basket of Apples*, oil on canvas by Paul Cézanne, c. 1895; ... French painter [Paul Cézanne], who was born this day in 1839 and whose works and ideas influenced the aesthetic development of many 20th-century artists and art movements, was one of the greatest of the [Post-Impressionists]. [Paul Cézanne] [![Photograph:The Basket of Apples, oil on canvas by Paul Cézanne, c. 1895; ...]] - *The Basket of Apples*, oil on canvas by Paul Cézanne, c. 1895; ... French painter [Paul Cézanne], who was born this day in 1839 and whose works and ideas influenced the aesthetic development of many 20th-century artists and art movements, was one of the greatest of the Post-Impressionists.

[Captain Kidd]

[Captain Kidd], a British privateer and semilegendary pirate celebrated in literature as one of the most colourful outlaws of all time, was hanged in London this day in 1701 after being found guilty of murder and piracy. Captain Kidd Captain Kidd, a British privateer and semilegendary pirate celebrated in literature as one of the most colourful outlaws of all time, was hanged in London this day in 1701 after being found guilty of murder and piracy.

aardvark (Orycteropus afer)

*also called **antbear** * [![Photograph:Aardvark (Orycteropus afer).]] - Aardvark (*Orycteropus afer*). stocky African [mammal] found south of the Sahara Desert in savanna and semiarid areas. The name aardvark—Afrikaans for "earth pig"—refers to its piglike face and burrowing habits. The aardvark weighs up to 65 kg (145 pounds) and measures up to 2.2 metres (7.2 feet) long, including the heavy, 70-cm (28-inch) tail. The face is narrow with an elongated snout, very reduced eyes, and ears up to 24 cm (9.5 inches) long. The aardvark's coat is scant and yellowish gray; the face and tail tip may be whitish. The four toes on the front foot (five on the hind feet) are equipped with strong, flattened nail-like "hooves" resembling spades. The aardvark excavates branching burrows, usually 2-3 metres long but sometimes up to 13 metres, with several sleeping chambers. It abandons old burrows and digs new ones frequently, which thereby provides dens used by other species such as the [][African wild dog] (*Lycaon pictus*). The aardvark's diet consists almost entirely of ants and [][termites]. At night it travels 10-30 km (6-19 miles), ambling along familiar paths in a zigzag fashion, pausing frequently to sniff and press its snout against the soil. Fleshy sensory organs on the nasal septum probably detect tiny underground movements. With its strong claws the aardvark can rapidly open a cement-hard termite mound. The nostrils are squeezed shut to keep out flying dust. The sticky tongue, extending to 30 cm (nearly 12 inches) from the small mouth, is then used to lap up the insects. A thick hide protects the aardvark from insect bites and stings. If threatened while away from a sheltering burrow, an aardvark can dig its way out of sight in five minutes. An acute sense of hearing protects it from being surprised by predators, which include pythons, lions, leopards, and hyenas. If a predator tries to dig it out of its burrow, the aardvark rapidly moves soil to block the tunnel behind itself. When attacked it slashes with its formidable front claws.

acouchy (genus Myoprocta)

*incorrectly spelled **acouchi** or **acuchi** * either of two species of South American [rodents] that resemble the small [tropical-forest]-dwelling hoofed animals of Africa and Asia (see [royal antelope]; [chevrotain]). Weighing 1 to 1.5 kg (2.2 to 3.3 pounds), acouchys are 30 to 39 cm (12 to 15 inches) long, with a very short (4 to 8 cm), pencil-thin tail with white hairs on the underside and at the tufted tip. The legs are long and slender, and the three-toed hind feet end in hooflike claws. The coarse fur of the []red acouchy (*Myoprocta acouchy*) is dark chestnut red or orange on the sides of the body and legs and black or dark red on the rump; underparts range from dark red to orange. Upperparts of the []green acouchy (*M. pratti*) are covered by grizzled fur, each hair of which has several alternating black and yellow bands, giving the animal an overall green or olive-coloured appearance. Underparts are pale orange, sometimes with white patches. Both species live in mature tropical-lowland rainforest of the Amazon River basin from Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru to western and northern Brazil and the Guianas. Acouchys are terrestrial, active during the day, and usually solitary, bearing litters of one to three young. They eat fruit, seeds, and seedlings and bury nuts in the forest floor throughout their home ranges. Acouchys do not dig shelters but will use cavities constructed by other mammals, particularly armadillo burrows. During the night they rest in leaf nests inside hollow logs on the forest floor. When alarmed, acouchys flee, emitting birdlike whistles and sometimes covering long distances by jumping with both hind feet simultaneously, similarly to the escape behaviour of small African forest antelopes ([duikers]). Acouchys are related to [agoutis] (genus *Dasyprocta*), and both are classified in the family Dasyproctidae of the rodent suborder Hystricognatha. Some authorities assign acouchys to a subfamily (Dasyproctinae) within the agouti family, Agoutidae.

A Conversation with Lee Teng-hui

*Encyclopædia Britannica was honoured to have the opportunity to speak with Lee Teng-hui, who in March 1996 won a landslide victory in the first direct presidential elections in the Republic of China (Taiwan). The interview, which because of space considerations is printed here in a slightly abridged version of the written responses by President Lee, took place in Taipei on Oct. 22, 1996, and was conducted by Frank B. Gibney, president of the Pacific Basin Institute, Santa Barbara, Calif., and vice-chairman of the Encyclopædia Britannica Board of Editors.* "The President," a military aide announces in a parade-ground voice. The doors to the reception room open, and a large, rather commanding figure strides inside. He hardly needs the ringing introduction. Trim, tall (1.85 m--6 ft 1 in), and feisty at age 73, Lee Teng-hui has the kind of magnetism that makes people turn when he enters. He is enthusiastic and confident, as well he can be after some 40 years of academic lecturing, bureaucratic governance, and shrewd political management capped by his huge victory in the March 1996 presidential election. He is full of ideas. Once he is engaged in conversation, his words come rushing out--equally effective in Chinese, English, or Japanese. Lee reads widely in all three languages, and his conversation is peppered with an almost overpowering citation of statistics, as befits one of the Asia-Pacific region's leading agricultural economists. Lee was born on Jan. 15, 1923, near Tan-shui, Taiwan. He studied at Kyoto (Japan) Imperial University and National Taiwan University, Taipei (B.A., 1948), and then pursued degrees in agricultural economics at Iowa State University (M.A., 1953) and at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. (Ph.D., 1968). While teaching economics at National Taiwan and Chengchi universities from 1958 to 1978, he also served as a member of the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. He held the posts of mayor of Taipei (1978-81) and governor of Taiwan (1981-84) before serving as Pres. Chiang Ching-kuo's vice president. When Chiang died in January 1988, Lee became the first Taiwanese-born president of the Republic of China. The 21 million people of the Republic of China--Taiwan--represent a united and prosperous democracy with a dazzling postwar economic success story. Taiwan's gross national product of \$12,500 per capita is one of Asia's highest. "The Republic of China," the president has written, "is a sovereign state, with sovereign power in the hands of the people." Lee wants the world to recognize it as such, complete with restored membership in the UN, which it had to leave in 1971 when the "China seat" was given to the People's Republic of China (PRC).

acquired character

in biology, modification in structure or function acquired by an organism during its life, caused by environmental factors. With respect to higher organisms, there is no evidence that such changes are transmissible genetically—the view associated with Lamarckism—but, among protozoans and bacteria, certain induced changes are heritable.

[Halle Berry]

Born this day in 1966, [Halle Berry] in 2002 became the first African American to win the Academy Award for best actress, earning the honour for her nuanced portrayal of Leticia Musgrove in *Monster's Ball* (2001). Halle Berry Born this day in 1966, Halle Berry in 2002 became the first African American to win the Academy Award for best actress, earning the honour for her nuanced portrayal of Leticia Musgrove in *Monster's Ball* (2001).

[John Paul II]

Born this day in Poland in 1920, Pope [John Paul II] traveled widely during his pontificate (1978-2005), campaigning for human rights and world peace, and played a key role in the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991). John Paul II Born this day in Poland in 1920, Pope John Paul II traveled widely during his pontificate (1978-2005), campaigning for human rights and world peace, and played a key role in the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991).

[Pablo Casals]

Born this day in Spain in 1876 was the virtuoso [cellist] and conductor [Pablo Casals], a romantic who eschewed literal interpretations of modernism and was renowned for his innovative technique and consummate musicianship. Pablo Casals Born this day in Spain in 1876 was the virtuoso cellist and conductor Pablo Casals, a romantic who eschewed literal interpretations of modernism and was renowned for his innovative technique and consummate musicianship.

Abraham, Sir Edward Penley

British biochemist who worked as a researcher with Ernst Chain and Howard Florey (both of whom later shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine) on the clinical development of penicillin; he was later involved in the development of the class of antibiotics known as cephalosporins. Abraham, who donated most of the fortune he earned from his patents to the Edward Abraham Fund at the University of Oxford, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1958 and was knighted in 1980 (b. June 10, 1913, Southampton, Hampshire, Eng.—d. May 9, 1999, Oxford, Eng.).

activation

*also called **arousal** * in psychology, the stimulation of the cerebral cortex into a state of general wakefulness, or attention. Activation proceeds from various portions of the [brain], but primarily from the [reticular formation], the nerve network in the midbrain that monitors ingoing and outgoing sensory and motor impulses. Activation, however, is not the same as direct cortical stimulation by specific sense receptors, such as being awakened by noise. It involves, rather, a complex of impulses that are both internal and external to the body. [Electroencephalography] (EEG) measures the degree of arousal.

a cappella

(Italian: "in the church style"), performance of a polyphonic (multipart) musical work by unaccompanied voices. Originally referring to sacred choral music, the term now refers to secular music as well. The a cappella style arose about the time of the composer Josquin des Prez, in the late 15th century, and reached preeminence with Palestrina in the late 16th century in the music that he wrote for the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican. Because no independent instrumental parts were written, later scholars assumed that the choir sang unaccompanied, but the evidence is now that an organ or other instruments exactly "doubled" some or several of the vocal parts. By the 17th century, a cappella music was giving way to the cantata, for which parts were written specifically for instruments as well as for voices.

[Joaquín Balaguer]

Lawyer, writer, and diplomat [Joaquín Balaguer], born in the Dominican Republic this day in 1907, served as Hector Trujillo's vice president (1957-60) and subsequently as president of the country (1960-62; 1966-78; 1986-96). Joaquín Balaguer Lawyer, writer, and diplomat Joaquín Balaguer, born in the Dominican Republic this day in 1907, served as Hector Trujillo's vice president (1957-60) and subsequently as president of the country (1960-62; 1966-78; 1986-96).

Abeokuta

town, capital of [][Ogun] state, southwestern Nigeria. It is situated on the east bank of the Ogun River, around a group of rocky outcroppings that rise above the surrounding wooded savanna. It lies on the main railway (1899) from Lagos, 48 miles (78 km) south, and on the older trunk road from Lagos to Ibadan; it also has road connections to Ilaro, Shagamu, Iseyin, and Kétou (Benin). Abeokuta ("Refuge Among Rocks") was founded about 1830 by [Sodeke] (Shodeke), a hunter and leader of the [Egba] refugees who fled from the disintegrating Oyo empire. The town was also settled by missionaries (in the 1840s) and by Sierra Leone Creoles, who later became prominent as missionaries and as businessmen. Abeokuta's success as the capital of the Egbas and as a link in the Lagos-Ibadan oil-palm trade led to wars with [][Dahomey] (now Benin). In the battle at Abeokuta in 1851, the Egba, aided by the missionaries and armed by the British, defeated King Gezo's Dahomeyan army (unique in the history of western Africa for its common practice of using women warriors). Another Dahomeyan attack was repulsed in 1864. Troubles in the 1860s with the British in Lagos led the Egba to close the trade routes to the coast and to expel (1867) its missionaries and European traders. After the Yoruba civil wars (1877-93), in which Abeokuta opposed Ibadan, the Egba *alake* ("king") signed an alliance with the British governor, Sir Gilbert Carter, that recognized the independence of the Egba United Government (1893-1914). In 1914 the kingdom was incorporated into the newly amalgamated British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The Abeokuta riots of 1918 protested both the levying of taxes and the "indirect rule" policy of Lord [][Frederick Lugard], the British governor-general, which made the *alake*, formerly *primus inter pares* ("first among equals"), the supreme traditional leader to the detriment of the other quarter chiefs. Modern Abeokuta is an agricultural trade centre (rice, yams, cassava, corn [maize], palm oil and kernels, cotton, fruits, vegetables) and an exporting point for cocoa, palm produce, fruits, and kola nuts. Rice and cotton were introduced by the missionaries in the 1850s, and cotton weaving and dyeing (with locally grown indigo) are now traditional crafts of the town. Abeokuta is the headquarters for the federal Ogun-Oshin River Basin Development Authority with programs to harness land and water resources for Lagos, Ogun, and Oyo states for rural development. Irrigation, food-processing, and electrification projects are included. Local industry is limited but now includes fruit-canning plants, a plastics factory, a brewery, sawmills, and an aluminum-products factory. South of the town are the Aro granite quarries, which provide building materials for much of southern Nigeria, and a huge, modern cement plant at Ewekoro (18 miles [29 km] south). Abeokuta was a walled town, and relics of the old wall still exist. Notable buildings include the Ake (the residence of the *alake*), Centenary Hall (1930), and several churches and mosques. Secondary schools and primary teachers' colleges at Abeokuta are supplemented by the University of Agriculture (formerly the University of Lagos Abeokuta campus), which specializes in science, agriculture, and technology, and the Ogun State Polytechnic (1979; a college). Pop. (1996 est.) 427,400.

Abingdon

town, seat (1778) of Washington county, southwestern [Virginia], U.S. It lies in the [Blue Ridge] highlands of the [Appalachian Mountains], near the border with Tennessee, 15 miles (24 km) northeast of [Bristol]. Originally called "Wolf Hills" by frontiersman [Daniel Boone] as he passed through the area in 1760, it was the site of Black's Fort (1774), a settlers' haven from attacks by the [Cherokee]. It was incorporated as Abingdon in 1778; the name has been variously attributed to Lord Abingdon, Daniel Boone's home in Pennsylvania, and Martha Washington's hometown. During the [American Civil War] it suffered severely at the hands of Union troops under General George Stoneman. A resort town, Abingdon is also the state's largest burley tobacco market, and it holds livestock auctions. It is well known for its handicrafts and chinaware. The town is home to Barter Theatre (established 1933), the oldest and longest-running repertory theatre in the country. Virginia Highlands Community College was founded there in 1967. Nearby is Mount Rogers National Recreation Area. Pop. (1990) 7,003; (2000) 7,780.

Abdul Kalam, A.P.J.

In 2002 India made an unorthodox choice for president by electing a front-rank rocket scientist. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, who was nicknamed Missile Man, had just retired from the country's space and defense research programs when the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government put forward his name for the presidency in the July election. Kalam won in a landslide and was sworn in as India's 11th president on July 25. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born on Oct. 15, 1931, in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu state, India, to a Muslim family of modest means. He earned a degree in aeronautical engineering from the Madras Institute of Technology and joined the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in 1958. He soon moved to the Indian Space Research Organisation, where his brilliance and leadership attracted notice. He was project director of SLV-III, India's first indigenously designed and produced satellite launch vehicle. Rejoining DRDO in 1982 he planned the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, which produced the missiles Agni, Prithvi, Akash, Trishul, and Nag that became household names in India. From 1992 to 1997 Kalam was scientific adviser to the defense minister, and in November 1999 he was named principal scientific adviser to the government with the rank of cabinet minister. He was awarded two of the highest national honours, Padma Vibhushan in 1990 and Bharat Ratna in 1997. Kalam's interest was not confined to defense and space research. In 1998 he put forward a major plan for the application of science to problems of everyday life. He called it Technology Vision 2020 and described it as a road map for transforming India from a less-developed society into a developed one in 20 years. The plan called for, among other measures, increasing agricultural productivity, emphasizing technology as a vehicle for economic growth, and widening access to health care and education. When the time came to nominate a successor to outgoing Pres. K.R. Narayanan, the NDA found that the arithmetic in the electoral college did not guarantee a safe passage for its candidate unless a section of the opposition also supported him. The government's failure to halt sectarian rioting in the western state of Gujarat—during which a large number of persons, mostly Muslims, had been killed—had prompted accusations that the NDA was anti-Muslim. The NDA hit upon Kalam's name. His stature and popular appeal were such that even the main opposition party, the Indian National Congress, also proposed his candidacy. He bested Lakshmi Sehgal, a token candidate put up by the Left parties, by a vote of 4,152-459 when polling took place in Congress on July 15. In his pronouncements following his victory, Kalam reiterated his resolve to work for Technology Vision 2020. In his autobiography, *Wheels of Fire* (1999), he had made a strong plea against "the culture of working only for material possessions and rewards." H.Y. Sharada Prasad

A Vision for Canada's Railways

In 2003 many challenges faced Canada's railways, which had served for 150 years as Canada's spine, bringing together the scattered British North American colonies that made up the transcontinental country. The most important concern of all was to find a way for the railway to meet the mounting needs of traffic in the 1,320-km (820-mi) heavily populated central corridor that extends from Quebec City in the east through Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto to Windsor in the west. Should traffic in the corridor be turned over to the high-speed trains that operate in Western Europe, such as the TGV (Trains à Grande Vitesse), which hurtle down the tracks at 320 km/hr (200 mph) between the principal cities in France? A practical basis for a high-speed passenger rail service appeared on the horizon. Bombardier Inc., a Montreal-based builder of aircraft and transportation equipment, had designed a rapid eight-car set of vehicles, Acela, that operated with some success over Amtrak's lines in the northeastern United States. The company had also tested new locomotives and rolling stock similar in size to that of Acela but powered by 5,000-hp Pratt and Whitney aircraft engines. This equipment would not require the expensive electrification used by European trains. Urban transportation was another area experiencing change. Cities across Canada were forging ahead with integrated bus and light-rail transit systems. Ottawa was a good example. Its 900 buses, many traveling on dedicated routes, were merged with the diesel-powered O-Train, a line running from the southern outskirts of the city to near its downtown core. Plans were under way to expand the system to meet the needs of the city's 800,000 inhabitants. If the future of rail transportation in central Canada was indefinite, Canada's north offered exciting terrain for the adventurous rail traveler. From the Pacific to the Atlantic, a succession of railways built to open the north provided journeys into spectacular scenery. In the west, successors to the original transcontinental routes—the Rocky Mountaineer through Banff and the Canadian through Jasper—wind among the majestic Rocky Mountains. From Winnipeg a railway passes through rugged lake and forest country to reach the ocean port of Churchill on Hudson Bay. Ontario's two northern lines are the Algoma Central, which runs from Sault Ste. Marie through the Agawa Canyon, resplendent with hardwoods in the fall, and the Northland, which cuts through the mineral-rich Canadian Shield to Moosonee, close to an old fur-trading post on James Bay. In Quebec a line runs north from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the iron-ore deposits of Ungava and Labrador, where canoeists, fishermen, and hunters were brought into the last great wilderness region of eastern North America. David M.L. Farr

Abse, Dannie

born Sept. 22, 1923, Cardiff, Wales British poet, playwright, essayist, and novelist, known for the characteristically Welsh voice and sensibility of his poetry. Abse was reared in Cardiff. He trained as a physician and qualified as a doctor in 1950. From 1949 to 1954 he edited a literary magazine, *Poetry and Poverty,* and from 1951 to 1955 he served in the Royal Air Force. Thereafter he worked part-time as a physician at a London clinic while pursuing a freelance writing career. Best known for his poetry, Abse wrote his first book of verse, *After Every Green Thing* (1948), in a declamatory style. *Walking Under Water* (1952) followed. He established his mature voice and his reputation with *Tenants of the House* (1957), in which he addressed moral and political concerns with parables. *Poems, Golders Green* (1962) explores the poet's outsider identities: as a Welshman and Jew in London, as a suburban householder with a poet's temperament, and as a doctor in a gritty urban neighbourhood. With this volume, Abse's work became increasingly personal, a trend continued in *A Small Desperation* (1968) and the acclaimed *Funland* (1973), a nine-part extended allegory on the quest for meaning in a madhouse world. *Way Out in the Centre* (1981; U.S. title, *One-Legged on Ice*) further explores, with his characteristic dark wit, Abse's life as a doctor. *White Coat, Purple Coat: Collected Poems, 1948-1988* was published in 1989 and *Remembrance of Crimes Past* in 1990. The most noted of Abse's novels is *Ash on a Young Man's Sleeve* (1954). *There Was a Young Man from Cardiff* (1991) is a sequel. His theatrical works include *The Dogs of Pavlov* (1973), an exploration of how average men allow themselves to do evil, and *Pythagoras* (1979), in which he used archetypal characters to dramatize the conflict between the rational and the magical. He also wrote an autobiography of his early years, *A Poet in the Family* (1974), published several volumes of essays (many on medical themes), and edited poetry anthologies.

[Marc Chagall]

Born this day in 1887, French artist [Marc Chagall] created images based on emotional and poetic associations, and his early works, which predated [Surrealism], were among the first expressions of psychic reality in modern art. Marc Chagall Born this day in 1887, French artist Marc Chagall created images based on emotional and poetic associations, and his early works, which predated Surrealism, were among the first expressions of psychic reality in modern art.

[Henri Cartier-Bresson]

Born this day in 1908 in France, [Henri Cartier-Bresson] helped establish photojournalism as an art form, snapping spontaneous though impeccably composed and timed images that captured what he called the "decisive moment." Henri Cartier-Bresson Born this day in 1908 in France, Henri Cartier-Bresson helped establish photojournalism as an art form, snapping spontaneous though impeccably composed and timed images that captured what he called the "decisive moment."

[Pelé]

> Enthusiasm is everything. It must be taut and vibrating like a guitar > string.\ > Pelé Born this day in Brazil in 1940, [Pelé] became the most famous [football] (soccer) player in the sport's history, and, by the time of his retirement in 1977, he had arguably become the most famous athlete in the world. [Pelé] > Enthusiasm is everything. It must be taut and vibrating like a guitar > string.\ > Pelé Born this day in Brazil in 1940, [Pelé] became the most famous football (soccer) player in the sport's history, and, by the time of his retirement in 1977, he had arguably become the most famous athlete in the world.

[Andrew Jackson]

> One man with courage makes a majority.\ > Andrew Jackson Military hero and seventh [U.S. president] [Andrew Jackson], born this day in 1767, was the first president to come from west of the Appalachians and the first to gain office by a direct appeal to the mass of voters. [Andrew Jackson] > One man with courage makes a majority.\ > Andrew Jackson Military hero and seventh U.S. president [Andrew Jackson], born this day in 1767, was the first president to come from west of the Appalachians and the first to gain office by a direct appeal to the mass of voters.

Aaliyah

***Aaliyah Dana Haughton** * American rhythm and blues singer and actress (b. Jan. 16, 1979, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. Aug. 25, 2001, Abaco Islands, The Bahamas), was considered on the verge of superstardom after the success of her first two albums—*Age Ain't Nothing but a Number* (1994), with its hit singles "Back and Forth" and "At Your Best (You Are Love)," and *One in a Million* (1996)—and her Grammy nominations for her singles "Are You That Somebody?" (1998) and "Try Again" (2000), as well as her starring role in the movie *Romeo Must Die* (2000); she recently had released a third album, *Aaliyah,* had finished work on the film *Queen of the Damned,* and was beginning two sequels to the movie *The Matrix* (1999) when she was killed in a plane crash as she was leaving The Bahamas after filming a music video.

[Eero Saarinen]

Born this day in 1910 in Finland, [Eero Saarinen], the son of noted architect [Eliel Saarinen], was one of the leaders in a trend toward exploration and experiment in American architectural design in the 1950s. Eero Saarinen Born this day in 1910 in Finland, Eero Saarinen, the son of noted architect Eliel Saarinen, was one of the leaders in a trend toward exploration and experiment in American architectural design in the 1950s.

[Gough Whitlam]

Born this day in 1916, [Australian Labor] leader [Gough Whitlam] was dismissed as prime minister in 1975 after refusing to call new elections to end a parliamentary deadlock brought on by falling support for his administration. Gough Whitlam Born this day in 1916, Australian Labor leader Gough Whitlam was dismissed as prime minister in 1975 after refusing to call new elections to end a parliamentary deadlock brought on by falling support for his administration.

[Sir Isaac Newton]

> *F* = *G*(*m*~1~m~2~)/*R*^2^\ > Newton's law of gravitation [Sir Isaac Newton], whose *Principia* (1687) was one of the most important single works in the history of [modern science] and who was the culminating figure of the [scientific revolution] of the 17th century, died this day in 1727. [Sir Isaac Newton] > *F* = *G*(*m*~1~m~2~)/*R*^2^\ > Newton's law of gravitation [Sir Isaac Newton], whose *Principia* (1687) was one of the most important single works in the history of modern science and who was the culminating figure of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, died this day in 1727.

[T.E. Lawrence]

> All men dream, but not equally. Those who dream by night in the dusty > recesses of their minds wake in the day to find that it was vanity; > but the dreamers of the day are dangerous men, for they may act their > dream with open eyes, to make it possible. This I did.\ > T.E. Lawrence, *The Seven Pillars of Wisdom* Born this day in 1888 was [T.E. Lawrence], also called Lawrence of Arabia, best known for his legendary activities in the Middle East during World War I, which he recounted in *The Seven Pillars of Wisdom* (1926). [T.E. Lawrence] > All men dream, but not equally. Those who dream by night in the dusty > recesses of their minds wake in the day to find that it was vanity; > but the dreamers of the day are dangerous men, for they may act their > dream with open eyes, to make it possible. This I did.\ > T.E. Lawrence, *The Seven Pillars of Wisdom* Born this day in 1888 was [T.E. Lawrence], also called Lawrence of Arabia, best known for his legendary activities in the Middle East during World War I, which he recounted in *The Seven Pillars of Wisdom* (1926).

[Michelangelo]

> As when, O lady mine! / With chiselled touch / The stone unhewn and > cold / Becomes a living mould. / The more the marble wastes, / The > more the statue grows.\ > Michelangelo, sonnet Born this day in 1475 was Italian [Renaissance] artist [Michelangelo], who exerted an unparalleled influence on Western [sculpture], [painting], and [architecture] and whose works rank among the most famous in existence. [Michelangelo] > As when, O lady mine! / With chiselled touch / The stone unhewn and > cold / Becomes a living mould. / The more the marble wastes, / The > more the statue grows.\ > Michelangelo, sonnet Born this day in 1475 was Italian Renaissance artist [Michelangelo], who exerted an unparalleled influence on Western sculpture, painting, and architecture and whose works rank among the most famous in existence.

[Charles X]

> Can he believe that a coronation ceremony will keep him safe from all > misfortune? There is no longer any hand virtuous enough to cure > scrofula, or any holy phial beneficial enough to render kings > inviolable.\ > Chateaubriand, on the coronation of Charles X [Charles X], born this day in 1757, was the king of [France] (1824-30) whose reign dramatized the [Bourbons]' failure to reconcile monarchy by [divine right] with the spirit of democracy prevalent after the [French Revolution]. [Charles X] > Can he believe that a coronation ceremony will keep him safe from all > misfortune? There is no longer any hand virtuous enough to cure > scrofula, or any holy phial beneficial enough to render kings > inviolable.\ > Chateaubriand, on the coronation of Charles X [Charles X], born this day in 1757, was the king of France (1824-30) whose reign dramatized the [Bourbons]' failure to reconcile monarchy by divine right with the spirit of democracy prevalent after the [French Revolution].

[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]

> Canada is an immense and an exciting country, but it is not an easy > country to know. The great differences of geography, history and > economics within our country have produced a rich diversity of > temperament, viewpoint and culture.\ > Pierre Elliott Trudeau, introducing the Official Languages Bill, > October 17, 1968 [Pierre Elliott Trudeau], born this day in 1919, was the prime minister of [Canada] (1968-79; 1980-84) who defeated [Quebec] separatism, adopted bilingualism for Canada, and advocated on behalf of underdeveloped nations. [Pierre Elliott Trudeau] > Canada is an immense and an exciting country, but it is not an easy > country to know. The great differences of geography, history and > economics within our country have produced a rich diversity of > temperament, viewpoint and culture.\ > Pierre Elliott Trudeau, introducing the Official Languages Bill, > October 17, 1968 [Pierre Elliott Trudeau], born this day in 1919, was the prime minister of [Canada] (1968-79; 1980-84) who defeated Quebec separatism, adopted bilingualism for Canada, and advocated on behalf of underdeveloped nations.

[Isaac Newton]

> Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a > right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces > impressed thereon.\ > Sir Isaac Newton, *Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica* > (1687) [Isaac Newton], born in England this day in 1643, was a leader of the scientific revolution whose *Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy* (1687) is among the most important single works in the history of modern [science]. [Isaac Newton] > Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a > right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces > impressed thereon.\ > Sir Isaac Newton, *Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica* > (1687) [Isaac Newton], born in England this day in 1643, was a leader of the scientific revolution whose *Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy* (1687) is among the most important single works in the history of modern science.

[Thor Heyerdahl]

> I feel that I am a typical Norwegian. I feel that I have the same love > for nature, the mountains, the forests, the fjords, as all my fellow > Norwegians, the same sense for adventure and the same feeling for > brotherhood among different people. I cannot see that I am very > different from most of my countrymen.\ > Thor Heyerdahl Norwegian ethnologist and adventurer [Thor Heyerdahl], born this day in 1914, organized and led transoceanic expeditions in the hope of proving the possibility of ancient contacts between distant civilizations. [Thor Heyerdahl] > I feel that I am a typical Norwegian. I feel that I have the same love > for nature, the mountains, the forests, the fjords, as all my fellow > Norwegians, the same sense for adventure and the same feeling for > brotherhood among different people. I cannot see that I am very > different from most of my countrymen.\ > Thor Heyerdahl Norwegian ethnologist and adventurer [Thor Heyerdahl], born this day in 1914, organized and led transoceanic expeditions in the hope of proving the possibility of ancient contacts between distant civilizations.

[Aretha Franklin]

> I sing to people about what matters. I sing to the realists, people > who accept it like it is. I express problems. There are tears when > it's sad and smiles when it's happy. It seems simple to me, but to > some, feelings take courage.\ > Aretha Franklin American singer [Aretha Franklin], born this day in 1942 and crowned the "Queen of Soul," defined the golden age of 1960s [soul music] with hits such as "I Never Loved a Man (the Way I Love You)," "Respect," and "Think." [Aretha Franklin] > I sing to people about what matters. I sing to the realists, people > who accept it like it is. I express problems. There are tears when > it's sad and smiles when it's happy. It seems simple to me, but to > some, feelings take courage.\ > Aretha Franklin American singer [Aretha Franklin], born this day in 1942 and crowned the "Queen of Soul," defined the golden age of 1960s soul music with hits such as "I Never Loved a Man (the Way I Love You)," "Respect," and "Think."

[Charlotte Corday]

> I told my plans to no one. I was not killing a man, but a wild beast > that was devouring the French people.\ > Charlotte Corday [Charlotte Corday]—a young [Girondin] conservative who assassinated the French revolutionary [Jean-Paul Marat] in 1793 while he was bathing and who was subsequently tried, convicted, and guillotined—was born this day in 1768. [Charlotte Corday] > I told my plans to no one. I was not killing a man, but a wild beast > that was devouring the French people.\ > Charlotte Corday [Charlotte Corday]—a young Girondin conservative who assassinated the French revolutionary [Jean-Paul Marat] in 1793 while he was bathing and who was subsequently tried, convicted, and guillotined—was born this day in 1768.

[Sir Alfred Hitchcock]

> If I made *Cinderella*, the audience would immediately be looking for > a body in the coach.\ > Sir Alfred Hitchcock Film director [Sir Alfred Hitchcock]—a master of suspense who used innovative techniques and a sound grasp of human psychology to create such immensely popular movies as *Psycho* (1960)—was born in London this day in 1899. [Sir Alfred Hitchcock] > If I made *Cinderella*, the audience would immediately be looking for > a body in the coach.\ > Sir Alfred Hitchcock Film director [Sir Alfred Hitchcock]—a master of suspense who used innovative techniques and a sound grasp of human psychology to create such immensely popular movies as *Psycho* (1960)—was born in London this day in 1899.

[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]

> In music the passions, whether violent or not, should never be so > expressed as to reach the point of causing disgust; and music, even in > situations of the greatest horror, should never be painful to the ear, > but should flatter and charm it, and thereby always remain music.\ > Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Austrian composer [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart], who is widely recognized as one of the greatest composers in the history of [Western music] and who excelled at all the musical genres of his era, was born this day in 1756. [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] > In music the passions, whether violent or not, should never be so > expressed as to reach the point of causing disgust; and music, even in > situations of the greatest horror, should never be painful to the ear, > but should flatter and charm it, and thereby always remain music.\ > Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Austrian composer [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart], who is widely recognized as one of the greatest composers in the history of Western music and who excelled at all the musical genres of his era, was born this day in 1756.

[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]

> It would be some time before I fully realized that the United States > sees little need for diplomacy. Power is enough. Only the weak rely on > diplomacy....The Roman Empire had no need for diplomacy. Nor does the > United States.\ > Boutros Boutros-Ghali Born this day in 1922, Egyptian scholar [Boutros Boutros-Ghali], who served as secretary-general of the [United Nations] from January 1, 1992, to December 31, 1996, was the first Arab and first African to lead the UN. [Boutros Boutros-Ghali] > It would be some time before I fully realized that the United States > sees little need for diplomacy. Power is enough. Only the weak rely on > diplomacy....The Roman Empire had no need for diplomacy. Nor does the > United States.\ > Boutros Boutros-Ghali Born this day in 1922, Egyptian scholar [Boutros Boutros-Ghali], who served as secretary-general of the [United Nations] from January 1, 1992, to December 31, 1996, was the first Arab and first African to lead the UN.

[Mother Teresa]

> Like Jesus we belong to the world living not for ourselves but for > others. The joy of the Lord is our strength.\ > Mother Teresa Baptized in Macedonia this day in 1910, [Mother Teresa] founded the Order of the Missionaries of Charity, a [Roman Catholic] congregation of women dedicated to helping the poor, and later received the 1979 Nobel Prize for Peace. [Mother Teresa] > Like Jesus we belong to the world living not for ourselves but for > others. The joy of the Lord is our strength.\ > Mother Teresa Baptized in Macedonia this day in 1910, [Mother Teresa] founded the Order of the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic congregation of women dedicated to helping the poor, and later received the 1979 Nobel Prize for Peace.

[Marie Curie]

> Marie Curie is, of all celebrated beings, the one whom fame has not > corrupted.\ > Albert Einstein Polish-born French physicist [Marie Curie], famous for her groundbreaking work on [radioactivity] and winner of both the [Nobel Prize] for Physics and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, was born in Warsaw this day in 1867. [Marie Curie] > Marie Curie is, of all celebrated beings, the one whom fame has not > corrupted.\ > Albert Einstein Polish-born French physicist [Marie Curie], famous for her groundbreaking work on [radioactivity] and winner of both the [Nobel Prize] for Physics and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, was born in Warsaw this day in 1867.

[Robert Hawke]

> Mr. President, we meet at a time when the rural sectors of both of our > countries face serious difficulties. For us the corruption of > international markets is a matter of very grave concern. Australia is > an efficient, nonsubsidizing agricultural exporter. It exports 80 > percent of its rural production.\ > Robert Hawke to U.S. President Ronald Reagan at the White House, April > 17, 1986 Born this day in 1929, labour leader [Robert Hawke] was president of the [Australian Council of Trade Unions] and president of the [Australian Labor Party] before serving as prime minister of [Australia] from 1983 to 1991. [Robert Hawke] > Mr. President, we meet at a time when the rural sectors of both of our > countries face serious difficulties. For us the corruption of > international markets is a matter of very grave concern. Australia is > an efficient, nonsubsidizing agricultural exporter. It exports 80 > percent of its rural production.\ > Robert Hawke to U.S. President Ronald Reagan at the White House, April > 17, 1986 Born this day in 1929, labour leader [Robert Hawke] was president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions and president of the Australian Labor Party before serving as prime minister of [Australia] from 1983 to 1991.

[Richard M. Nixon]

> North Vietnam cannot defeat or humiliate the United States. Only > Americans can do that.\ > Richard M. Nixon, address to the United States on the War in Vietnam, > November 3, 1969 Born this day in 1913 was [Richard M. Nixon], the 37th [president of the United States] (1969-74), who held office during the [Vietnam War] and became, in the wake of the [Watergate Scandal], the only U.S. president to resign. [Richard M. Nixon] > North Vietnam cannot defeat or humiliate the United States. Only > Americans can do that.\ > Richard M. Nixon, address to the United States on the War in Vietnam, > November 3, 1969 Born this day in 1913 was [Richard M. Nixon], the 37th president of the United States (1969-74), who held office during the Vietnam War and became, in the wake of the Watergate Scandal, the only U.S. president to resign.

[Count Basie]

> Oh my, marvelous town, Kansas City. Clubs, clubs, clubs. I mean that > was all Kansas City was made up of. The cats just played. They played > all day and tomorrow morning they went home and went to bed. The next > day the same thing.\ > Count Basie American jazz musician [Count Basie], who was born this day in 1904, was noted for his spare, economical piano style and is regarded as one of the most important and influential bandleaders in the history of [jazz]. [Count Basie] > Oh my, marvelous town, Kansas City. Clubs, clubs, clubs. I mean that > was all Kansas City was made up of. The cats just played. They played > all day and tomorrow morning they went home and went to bed. The next > day the same thing.\ > Count Basie American jazz musician [Count Basie], who was born this day in 1904, was noted for his spare, economical piano style and is regarded as one of the most important and influential bandleaders in the history of [jazz].

[Harold Abrahams]

> Only think of two things—the report of the pistol and the tape. When > you hear the one, just run like hell till you break the other.\ > Advice given to Harold Abrahams by his coach Sam Mussabini British athlete [Harold Abrahams], born this day in 1899, won a gold medal in the 100-metre dash at the [1924 Olympic Games] in Paris, a victory that became the subject of the Academy Award-winning film *Chariots of Fire* (1981). [Harold Abrahams] > Only think of two things—the report of the pistol and the tape. When > you hear the one, just run like hell till you break the other.\ > Advice given to Harold Abrahams by his coach Sam Mussabini British athlete [Harold Abrahams], born this day in 1899, won a gold medal in the 100-metre dash at the [1924 Olympic Games] in Paris, a victory that became the subject of the Academy Award-winning film *Chariots of Fire* (1981).

[Charles V]

> The emperor gave a rare example to his successors...in so doing, he > proved himself to be a true Christian prince...may the Lord in all His > goodness now grant the emperor freedom.\ > St. Ignatius of Loyola on the abdication of Charles V in 1556 Born this day in 1500, [Charles V], who reigned as [Holy Roman emperor], king of Spain, and archduke of Austria, long struggled to preserve a Spanish and Habsburg empire that reached across Europe to Spanish America. [Charles V] > The emperor gave a rare example to his successors...in so doing, he > proved himself to be a true Christian prince...may the Lord in all His > goodness now grant the emperor freedom.\ > St. Ignatius of Loyola on the abdication of Charles V in 1556 Born this day in 1500, [Charles V], who reigned as Holy Roman emperor, king of Spain, and archduke of Austria, long struggled to preserve a Spanish and Habsburg empire that reached across Europe to Spanish America.

[Anwar el-Sādāt]

> There is no time to lose. I am ready to go to the ends of the earth if > that will save one of my soldiers, one of my officers, from being > scratched. I am ready to go to their house, to the Knesset, to discuss > peace with the Israeli leaders.\ > Anwar el-Sādāt Born this day in 1918, army officer and politician [Anwar el-Sādāt], who shared the 1978 [Nobel Prize] for Peace for his peace negotiations with [Israel], served as president of [Egypt] from 1970 until his assassination in 1981. [Anwar el-Sādāt] > There is no time to lose. I am ready to go to the ends of the earth if > that will save one of my soldiers, one of my officers, from being > scratched. I am ready to go to their house, to the Knesset, to discuss > peace with the Israeli leaders.\ > Anwar el-Sādāt Born this day in 1918, army officer and politician [Anwar el-Sādāt], who shared the 1978 Nobel Prize for Peace for his peace negotiations with Israel, served as president of [Egypt] from 1970 until his assassination in 1981.

[Charlemagne]

> This prince, though the hero of numerous romantic legends, appears > greater in history than in fiction....The historical representation is > doubtless the true one, for it is handed down in trustworthy records, > and is confirmed by the events of the age.\ > From *Legends of Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages* (1863), > by Thomas Bulfinch Born this day *c.* 742, [Charlemagne], [Holy Roman emperor] and king of the [Franks] and the [Lombards], united in one superstate practically all the Christian lands of western Europe and oversaw a cultural renaissance in his empire. Charlemagne > This prince, though the hero of numerous romantic legends, appears > greater in history than in fiction....The historical representation is > doubtless the true one, for it is handed down in trustworthy records, > and is confirmed by the events of the age.\ > From *Legends of Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages* (1863), > by Thomas Bulfinch Born this day *c.* 742, Charlemagne, Holy Roman emperor and king of the Franks and the Lombards, united in one superstate practically all the Christian lands of western Europe and oversaw a cultural renaissance in his empire.

[Sir Edmund Hillary]

> We didn't know if it was humanly possible to reach the top of Mt. > Everest. And even using oxygen as we were, if we did get to the top, > we weren't at all sure whether we wouldn't drop dead or something of > that nature.\ > Sir Edmund Hillary Explorer [Sir Edmund Hillary]—who in 1953, along with [Tenzing Norgay], was the first to reach the summit of [Mount Everest], the highest mountain in the world—was born this day in 1919 in Auckland, New Zealand. [Sir Edmund Hillary] > We didn't know if it was humanly possible to reach the top of Mt. > Everest. And even using oxygen as we were, if we did get to the top, > we weren't at all sure whether we wouldn't drop dead or something of > that nature.\ > Sir Edmund Hillary Explorer [Sir Edmund Hillary]—who in 1953, along with Tenzing Norgay, was the first to reach the summit of [Mount Everest], the highest mountain in the world—was born this day in 1919 in Auckland, New Zealand.

[Abraham Lincoln]

> We know how to save the Union. The world knows we do know how to save > it. We—even we here—hold the power, and bear the responsibility. In > giving freedom to the slave, we assure freedom to the free—honorable > alike in what we give, and what we preserve. We shall nobly save, or > meanly lose, the last best hope of earth. Other means may succeed; > this could not fail. The way is plain, peaceful, generous, just—a way > which, if followed, the world will forever applaud, and God must > forever bless.\ > Abraham Lincoln, Annual Message to Congress, 1862 Born this day in 1809, [Abraham Lincoln], the 16th [U.S. president] (1861-65), preserved the Union during the [American Civil War], brought about the [emancipation] of slaves, and was an eloquent spokesman for democracy. [Abraham Lincoln] > We know how to save the Union. The world knows we do know how to save > it. We—even we here—hold the power, and bear the responsibility. In > giving freedom to the slave, we assure freedom to the free—honorable > alike in what we give, and what we preserve. We shall nobly save, or > meanly lose, the last best hope of earth. Other means may succeed; > this could not fail. The way is plain, peaceful, generous, just—a way > which, if followed, the world will forever applaud, and God must > forever bless.\ > Abraham Lincoln, Annual Message to Congress, 1862 Born this day in 1809, [Abraham Lincoln], the 16th U.S. president (1861-65), preserved the Union during the [American Civil War], brought about the [emancipation] of slaves, and was an eloquent spokesman for democracy.

[William Blake]

English poet and painter [William Blake], who died this day in 1827, created a hand-illustrated series of lyric and epic poems that form one of the most strikingly original bodies of work in the Western cultural tradition. William Blake English poet and painter William Blake, who died this day in 1827, created a hand-illustrated series of lyric and epic poems that form one of the most strikingly original bodies of work in the Western cultural tradition.

[Winston Churchill]

> We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds. > We shall fight in the fields, and in the streets, we shall fight in > the hills. We shall never surrender!\ > Winston Churchill to the House of Commons, 1940 British statesman, orator, and author [Winston Churchill], who as [prime minister] (1940-45, 1951-55) rallied the British people during [World War II] and led his country from the brink of [defeat to victory], died this day in 1965. Winston Churchill > We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds. > We shall fight in the fields, and in the streets, we shall fight in > the hills. We shall never surrender!\ > Winston Churchill to the House of Commons, 1940 British statesman, orator, and author Winston Churchill, who as prime minister (1940-45, 1951-55) rallied the British people during [World War II] and led his country from the brink of defeat to victory, died this day in 1965.

A Kiwi a Day

Introduction ------------ [Fruit], the Doctor, and You by Susan M. Kleiner > When the oranges are golden, physicians' faces grow pale.\ > —Japanese proverb

AC/DC

Australian [][heavy metal] band whose theatrical, high-energy shows placed them among the most popular stadium performers of the 1980s. The principal members were Angus Young (b. March 31, 1955, Glasgow, Scot.), Malcolm Young (b. Jan. 6, 1953, Glasgow), Bon Scott (original name Ronald Belford Scott; b. July 9, 1946, Kirriemuir, Angus, Scot.—d. Feb. 21, 1980, London, Eng.), Brian Johnson (b. Oct. 5, 1948, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, Eng.), Phil Rudd (original name Phillip Rudzevecuis; b. May 19, 1954, Melbourne, Vic., Australia), and Cliff Williams (b. Dec. 14, 1949, Romford, Essex, Eng.). The Young brothers formed AC/DC in Sydney, Australia, in 1973 with Angus (famous for his schoolboy short-trousers outfit) on lead guitar and Malcolm on rhythm guitar. The rest of the band's lineup changed when the Youngs moved to Melbourne, and AC/DC's [blues]-based records and live appearances made them favourites in Australia by the mid-1970s. After relocating to London in 1976 and solidifying their lineup (with Scott as vocalist, Rudd on drums, Williams on bass, and the Youngs), AC/DC found success in Britain with *Let There Be Rock* (1977) and internationally with *Highway to Hell* (1979). AC/DC's rise was hampered by Scott's alcohol-related death in February 1980, but replacement Johnson's falsetto fit in well with the group's tight, clean metal punch and their raucous bad-boy image. The band's next album, *Back in Black* (1980), sold more than 10 million copies in the United States alone, and *For Those About to Rock* (1981) was also a million-seller. The early to mid-1980s was the band's peak period as a live group; a number of personnel changes occurred after that time. [Gillian G. Gaar]

[Baron Georges Cuvier]

French zoologist [Baron Georges Cuvier]—whose work, which included classifying animals based on their internal structure and not their outward appearance, laid the foundation of [comparative anatomy]—was born this day in 1769. Baron Georges Cuvier French zoologist Baron Georges Cuvier—whose work, which included classifying animals based on their internal structure and not their outward appearance, laid the foundation of comparative anatomy—was born this day in 1769.

[Corazon Aquino]

Three years after her husband's assassination, [Corazon Aquino], born this day in 1933, was elected president of the [Philippines] in February 1986, restoring democracy after the long dictatorship of [Ferdinand Marcos]. Corazon Aquino Three years after her husband's assassination, Corazon Aquino, born this day in 1933, was elected president of the Philippines in February 1986, restoring democracy after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.

[Dwight D. Eisenhower]

[![Photograph:Dwight D. Eisenhower ("Ike") campaigning for the U.S. presidency in 1952.]] - Dwight D. Eisenhower ("Ike") campaigning for the U.S. presidency in 1952. [Dwight D. Eisenhower], born this day in 1890, served as Supreme Allied Commander in western Europe during [World War II], overseeing the [Normandy Invasion] in June 1944, and was elected to two terms (1953-61) as [U.S. president]. Dwight D. Eisenhower [![Photograph:Dwight D. Eisenhower ("Ike") campaigning for the U.S. presidency in 1952.]] - Dwight D. Eisenhower ("Ike") campaigning for the U.S. presidency in 1952. Dwight D. Eisenhower, born this day in 1890, served as Supreme Allied Commander in western Europe during World War II, overseeing the Normandy Invasion in June 1944, and was elected to two terms (1953-61) as U.S. president.

Abe, Shinzo

[![Photograph:Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe]] - Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe The election of Shinzo Abe to the presidency of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) on Sept. 20, 2006, and, six days later, his elevation to the prime ministership of Japan marked the culmination of the near-meteoric rise of a "political blue blood." While it took Abe's predecessor, the political outsider Junichiro Koizumi, 29 years to traverse the distance from first election win to the top job, Abe accomplished it in just 13 years. Abe had never led a government ministry; still, with the direct blessing of the popular Koizumi, Abe received a 66% majority of party legislators for the LDP presidency and the approval of 71% of the members of the lower house of the Diet (parliament) to head the government. At 52, he was Japan's youngest prime minister since the end of World War II. Abe was born on Sept. 21, 1954, in Tokyo, into a family of politicians and public servants. His grandfather, Nobusuke Kishi, was prime minister from 1957 to 1960; a great uncle, Eisaku Sato, also held that post from 1964 to 1972, and Shintaro Abe, Shinzo's father, might also have done so had pancreatic cancer not cut short his career. After graduation in 1977 from Seikei University, Tokyo, Abe spent two years studying political science at the University of Southern California and worked for one year for Kobe Steel USA in New York City. He returned to Japan and spent two more years with Kobe Steel before becoming executive assistant to his father, then foreign minister, in 1982. He won his first election and took over his father's seat in the lower house in 1993. He was made deputy chief cabinet secretary in 2000 and was promoted by Koizumi to chief cabinet secretary in 2005.

[Jim Henson]

[![Photograph:Jim Henson.]] - Jim Henson. American puppeteer [Jim Henson], born this day in 1936, was the creator of the Muppets (a meld of "[marionettes]" and "[puppets]"), whose characters included Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Big Bird, and the Cookie Monster. Jim Henson [![Photograph:Jim Henson.]] - Jim Henson. American puppeteer Jim Henson, born this day in 1936, was the creator of the Muppets (a meld of "marionettes" and "puppets"), whose characters included Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Big Bird, and the Cookie Monster.

[Michael Faraday]

[![Photograph:Michael Faraday.]] - Michael Faraday. [Michael Faraday], born this day in 1791, was an English scientist whose pioneering work in [electromagnetism] included producing an [electric current] from a magnetic field and inventing the first [electric motor] and dynamo. Michael Faraday [![Photograph:Michael Faraday.]] - Michael Faraday. Michael Faraday, born this day in 1791, was an English scientist whose pioneering work in electromagnetism included producing an electric current from a magnetic field and inventing the first electric motor and dynamo.

[Mikhail Gorbachev]

[![Photograph:Mikhail Gorbachev.]] - Mikhail Gorbachev. Born this day in 1931, [Mikhail Gorbachev], the general secretary of the [Communist Party of the Soviet Union] (1985-91) and president of the [Soviet Union] (1990-91), instituted reforms that led to the end of the [Cold War]. Mikhail Gorbachev [![Photograph:Mikhail Gorbachev.]] - Mikhail Gorbachev. Born this day in 1931, Mikhail Gorbachev, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1985-91) and president of the Soviet Union (1990-91), instituted reforms that led to the end of the Cold War.

[Milton Friedman]

[![Photograph:Milton Friedman.]] - Milton Friedman. American economist and educator [Milton Friedman], who was one of the leading proponents of [monetarism] in the second half of the 20th century and who was awarded the 1976 Nobel Prize for Economics, was born this day in 1912. Milton Friedman [![Photograph:Milton Friedman.]] - Milton Friedman. American economist and educator Milton Friedman, who was one of the leading proponents of monetarism in the second half of the 20th century and who was awarded the 1976 Nobel Prize for Economics, was born this day in 1912.

[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]

[![Photograph:Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Mahatma.]] - Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Mahatma. Born this day in 1869, [Mahatma Gandhi] was the leader of the [Indian] nationalist movement against British rule and is esteemed internationally for his doctrine of [nonviolence] in pursuit of social and political change. [Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi] [![Photograph:Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Mahatma.]] - Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Mahatma. Born this day in 1869, [Mahatma Gandhi] was the leader of the [Indian] nationalist movement against British rule and is esteemed internationally for his doctrine of nonviolence in pursuit of social and political change.

[Wenceslas II]

[![Photograph:Wenceslas II, 14th-century manuscript illumination; in the Heidelberg University Library, Germany.]] - Wenceslas II, 14th-century manuscript illumination; in the Heidelberg University Library, Germany. Born on this day in 1271, [Wenceslas II], son of [Otakar II], succeeded to the Bohemian throne at age seven, and under his rule [Bohemia] extended its influence to [Poland] (of which Wenceslas became king in 1300) and to [Hungary]. Wenceslas II [![Photograph:Wenceslas II, 14th-century manuscript illumination; in the Heidelberg University Library, Germany.]] - Wenceslas II, 14th-century manuscript illumination; in the Heidelberg University Library, Germany. Born on this day in 1271, Wenceslas II, son of Otakar II, succeeded to the Bohemian throne at age seven, and under his rule Bohemia extended its influence to Poland (of which Wenceslas became king in 1300) and to Hungary.

[Kim Campbell]

[Progressive Conservative] [Kim Campbell], who became [Canada]'s first woman prime minister and its first leader from the West Coast when she succeeded [Brian Mulroney] in 1993, was born this day in 1947 in British Columbia. [Kim Campbell] Progressive Conservative [Kim Campbell], who became Canada's first woman prime minister and its first leader from the West Coast when she succeeded Brian Mulroney in 1993, was born this day in 1947 in British Columbia.

Abukuma-sammyaku

(Japanese: Abukuma Mountains), range in northern Honshu, Japan, extending for 106 miles (170 km) north to south and paralleling the Pacific coast of Fukushima Prefecture (*ken*), Tōhoku Region (*chihō*). Its southern end extends into Ibaraki Prefecture of Kantō Region. The mountain range is 30 miles wide, and the individual peaks are sphenoidal, or wedge shaped. They consist of schistose granite and granodiorite, occasionally accompanied by slate, sandstone, and limestone. The mountains are also referred to as the Abukuma-kōgen (Abukuma Plateau) because much of the original surface in the south has been obliterated by erosion and broken by several parallel fault valleys that run from north-northwest to south-southeast. []Ōtakine-san (Mt. Ōtakine) is the highest point in the range; it rises to 3,914 feet (1,193 m) above the surrounding eroded surfaces, which average 2,950 feet (900 m) in elevation. Since ancient times a main highway has followed the pass between these mountains and the Mikuni-sammyaku from the Kantō Plain to Tōhoku Region. The eastern piedmont hills contain the Jōban coalfields, which are developing as a new industrial district.

Achaean League

3rd-century-BC confederation of the towns of []Achaea in [][ancient Greece]. The 12 Achaean cities of the northern [][Peloponnese] had organized a league by the 4th century BC to protect themselves against piratical raids from across the Corinthian Gulf, but this league fell apart after the death of Alexander the Great. The 10 surviving cities renewed their alliance in 280 BC, and under the leadership of [][Aratus of Sicyon], the league gained strength by the inclusion of his city, and later other non-Achaean cities, on equal terms. The league's activity initially centred on the expulsion of the [][Macedonians] and the restoration of Greek rule in the Peloponnese. After this was successfully accomplished in about 228 BC, Achaea faced the danger of complete disintegration before the assaults of the [][Spartan] king Cleomenes III, who also aimed at control of the Peloponnese. To counteract the Spartan threat, Aratus allied the league with Macedon, and Antigonus III Doson of Macedon and his troops subdued Sparta, making it a Macedonian ally and renewing the Macedonian hold over Greece (224-221). In the Second Macedonian War, Achaea joined []Rome (198) in an alliance against Macedon, and this new policy led to the incorporation of nearly the whole Peloponnese into the Achaean League. But the league's success eventually resulted in friction with both Sparta (which had been drafted into the league in 192) and with expansionist Rome, and war broke out between the league and Rome in 146 BC. Rome was soon victorious, and it dissolved the Achaean League in 146. A smaller league, however, was set up soon afterward and continued into the Roman imperial age. At the head of the Achaean League were two generals (*strategoi*) until a single general was substituted in 255 BC. The general was the annually elected head of the league's army, and a particular general could not be immediately reelected. The general headed the league's administrative board, whose 10 members in turn presided over the various []city-states' representative councils and assemblies. These bodies of citizenry could vote on matters submitted to them by the general. The minimum voting age in the assemblies was 30 years of age. Under the Achaean League's federal constitution, its city-state members had almost complete autonomy within the framework of the league's central administration; only matters of foreign policy, war, and federal taxes were referred to the general and the board for decision making.

Abacha, Sani

Nigerian military leader (b. Sept. 20, 1943, Kano, Nigeria--d. June 8, 1998, Abuja, Nigeria), participated in the overthrow of three successive military governments before gaining control of the country himself in 1993. Having entered the army at age 18, Abacha was educated at military schools in Nigeria, England, and the United States and rose to brigadier by 1980. He participated in the ouster of Pres. Alhaji Shehu Shagari (December 1983) and was chosen to announce the new leadership of Mohammed Buhari, who named Abacha to the Supreme Military Council. In August 1985, however, Abacha helped to overthrow Buhari's government and install Ibrahim Babangida, who named Abacha army chief of staff (1985), chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989), and minister of defense (1990). When Babangida annulled the 1993 general election--in which [Moshood Abiola] (*q.v.*) was the apparent winner--Abacha took advantage of public outrage to depose Babangida. In late 1993 Abacha declared himself president and promised restoration of democracy. His presidency, however, soon turned into a ruthless dictatorship. Under his rule Nigerians saw profits from the country's vast oil supply dwindle as their leader's own wealth grew. Abacha siphoned off as much as \$4 billion, and those who spoke out against him were either executed or jailed. He eliminated all elected institutions and assemblies, fired a significant portion of the military, hired a personal security force of approximately 2,000 men, and took control of the press. Though he sent troops to restore democracy in Liberia and Sierra Leone, he was unwilling to support it at home. The elections he had promised for 1996 did not take place. One by one the parties contesting the elections scheduled for August 1998 declared Abacha their candidate for president. He died following an apparent heart attack.

abyssal plain

flat seafloor area at an abyssal depth (3,000 to 6,000 m [10,000 to 20,000 feet]), generally adjacent to a continent. These submarine surfaces vary in depth only from 10 to 100 cm per kilometre of horizontal distance. Irregular in outline but generally elongate along continental margins, the larger plains are hundreds of kilometres wide and thousands of kilometres long. In the North Atlantic the []Sohm Plain alone has an area of approximately 900,000 square km (350,000 square miles). The plains are largest and most common in the Atlantic Ocean, less common in the Indian Ocean, and even rarer in the Pacific, where they occur mainly as the small, flat floors of marginal seas or as the narrow, elongate bottoms of trenches. The plains are thought to be the upper surfaces of land-derived sediment that accumulates in abyssal depressions, thus smoothing out a preexisting hilly or otherwise irregular topography. Seismic profiles (cross sections) of abyssal plains reveal accumulations of sediment averaging one kilometre in thickness, deposited on undulating topography. Incomplete burial of preexisting relief may result in the presence of isolated volcanic hills or hill groups that rise abruptly out of some abyssal plains. Sediment from the continental margins accretes at steep continental slopes, and occasional submarine slumping of this coarse material creates dense, sediment-laden slurries, called [turbidity currents], that flow down the slopes in obedience to gravity. Part of the turbidity-current sediment settles out at the bases of the continental slopes, creating continental rises of lesser gradient, but some of the coarse sediment reaches the abyssal depressions. Horizontal silty, sandy, and even gravelly beds that are fractions of a centimetre to several metres thick comprise 2 to 90 percent of abyssal-plain sediment. Many such layers demonstrably are of shallow-water organisms—*e.g.,* the microscopic protozoan Foraminifera. An individual layer may be progressively finer grained from bottom to top; this grading reflects the bed's origin as the deposit of a single turbidity current. The coarse layers are interbedded with homogeneous deposits of fine-grained clay and the microscopic remains of organisms that inhabit the waters overlying the abyssal plains. Between turbidity-current episodes these fine-grained sediments are believed to fall through the water column particle by particle, accumulating at exceedingly slow rates (a millimetre to several centimetres per 1,000 years). Alternatively, it has been proposed that deep-sea clay deposits may be brought to abyssal plains continuously by slowly flowing, diffusely turbid bottom waters that originate in turbulent, shallow nearshore areas.

Åbo, Treaty of

(1743), peace settlement that concluded the [Russo-Swedish War] of 1741-43 by obliging [Sweden] to cede a strip of southern [Finland] to Russia and to become temporarily dependent on Russia. As a result of the Great Northern War (Treaty of Nystad, 1721), Sweden had lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part of Karelia to Russia. In 1741 Sweden reached a secret understanding (through French mediators) with [][Elizabeth], a daughter of Peter I the Great; Elizabeth agreed to return the Baltic territories to Sweden in exchange for Swedish support in her efforts to seize the Russian throne from the infant emperor Ivan VI. In July 1741 the Swedes declared war on Russia, announcing that they would withdraw when Elizabeth became the Russian empress. Although they lost a major battle at Vilmanstrand (August 1741), the Swedes advanced toward St. Petersburg; their threat to the Russian capital enabled Elizabeth to stage a successful coup d'etat (Dec. 6 [Nov. 25, old style], 1741); thereupon the Swedes retreated into Finland. But Elizabeth reneged on the agreement. Russian troops conquered Helsingfors and Åbo (modern Turku, then the capital of Finland) and occupied a large portion of Finland. Hostilities ended in 1742; Russia, taking advantage of a succession crisis in Sweden, offered to return most of Finland if Sweden would accept the Russian-supported candidate—Adolf Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp-Eutin—as heir apparent. The Swedes agreed; the final settlement, signed at Åbo (August 1743), gave Russia a strip of southern Finland that included the cities of Vilmanstrand and Frederikshamn. Russian troops were to leave the remainder of Finland when Adolf Frederick was officially designated crown prince; in the meantime, Russian forces were to be allowed to occupy Sweden to make sure that nothing interfered with his selection. Russia was thus able to exert a tremendous influence on Swedish affairs. But after the peace settlement, Russian influence was short-lived; all the Russian troops were withdrawn from Sweden by July 1744, and Adolf Frederick quickly ended his dependence on Russia. The territorial provisions of the treaty were longer lasting. In 1788, while Russia was at war with Turkey, Sweden tried to alter the treaty's provisions. King [][Gustav III], demanding the return of Karelia and Finland, declared war on Russia (June 1788). Although the Swedes presented a threat to St. Petersburg and won a major victory at Svenskund (July 9-10, 1790, new style), the Treaty of Värälä (August 1790) restored the prewar (1788) borders, which remained as they had been set by the Treaty of Åbo until 1809 (Treaty of Frederikshamn).

Ableman v. Booth

(1859), case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld both the constitutionality of the [Fugitive Slave Act] and the supremacy of the federal government over state governments. Sherman Booth was an abolitionist newspaper editor in Wisconsin who had been sentenced to jail by a federal court for assisting a runaway slave—a clear violation of the 1850 [][Fugitive Slave Act], which required all Americans to cooperate in the capture and return of escaped slaves. Wisconsin (as well as several other Northern states), however, had responded to the federal act by passing a "personal liberty law," severely impeding enforcement by federal authorities of the Fugitive Slave Act within its borders. As a consequence, Booth was released on a writ of habeas corpus, issued by a judge of the Wisconsin Supreme Court. U.S. District Marshal Ableman, however, obtained a writ of error from the U.S. Supreme Court in order to have the state court's action reviewed. The Supreme Court rendered a unanimous opinion reversing the Wisconsin court. Chief Justice [][Roger B. Taney]'s opinion denied the right of state courts to interfere in federal cases, prohibited states from releasing federal prisoners through writs of habeas corpus, and upheld the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Act.

Achinese War

(1873-1904), an armed conflict between [The Netherlands] and the Muslim sultanate of Acheh (now [][Aceh]) in northern Sumatra that resulted in Dutch conquest of the Achinese and, ultimately, in Dutch domination of the entire region. In 1871 The Netherlands and Britain had signed a treaty that recognized Dutch influence in northern Sumatra in return for Dutch confirmation of Britain's right of equal trade in the Indies. The Dutch, considering Acheh as within their sphere of influence, decided to conquer the area and sent two expeditions to Acheh in 1873. The palace was seized and shortly afterward the Achinese sultan died. The Dutch suspended military operations and concluded a treaty with the new sultan, who recognized Dutch sovereignty over the area. He was unable to control his subjects, however, and Dutch forces became involved in a prolonged guerrilla war in the countryside. This war, however, drained the colonial treasury, and public opinion in The Netherlands became increasingly critical of the colonial administration. The administration later realized that their ignorance of the region had led them to commit serious errors. C. [][Snouck Hurgronje], professor of Islāmic studies at the University of Leyden, was invited to undertake a thorough study of Acheh and published a book in 1893-94 on the Achinese. A "castle strategy," which provided fortified bases for the Dutch troops, was then introduced. Under the leadership of []J.B. van Heutsz, who was appointed military and civil governor of Acheh in 1899, the kingdom was quickly subdued. The conquest of the entire region was accomplished by van Heutsz in 1904.

Acacian Schism

(484-519), in Christian history, split between the patriarchate of Constantinople and the Roman See, caused by an edict by Byzantine patriarch [Acacius] that was deemed inadmissible by Pope [][Felix III.] With the support of the Byzantine emperor Zeno, Acacius in 482 drew up an edict, the *[Henotikon]* (Greek: "Edict of Union"), by which he attempted to secure unity between []orthodox Christians and monophysites. The *Henotikon*'s theological formula incorporated the decisions of the general Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) and recognized []Christ's divinity, but it omitted any reference to the orthodox distinction of Christ's human and divine essences, as enunciated by the Council of Chalcedon (451), and in so doing made important concessions to the monophysites. The *Henotikon* was widely accepted in the East but proved unacceptable to Rome and the Western church. Consequently, Acacius was deposed (484) by Pope Felix III in an excommunication that was reaffirmed and broadened in 485 to embrace all of Acacius' accomplices, including a substantial part of the Byzantine hierarchy. The condemnation by Pope Felix precipitated the Acacian Schism, which was not resolved until 519.

Abe Kobo

(ABE KIMIFUSA), Japanese novelist, short-story writer, and playwright (b. March 7, 1924, Tokyo, Japan--d. Jan. 22, 1993, Tokyo), created portrayals of alienation and loss of identity in modern life that reached a wide audience in postwar Japan and later throughout the world. His writings commonly depicted loss and loneliness among the desolation of urban life (one of his characters changes into a plant; another moves into a box to be free of the world). He read such Western writers as Kafka and Dostoyevsky and was often compared to the former. Abe grew up largely in Manchuria, when that part of China was under Japanese military occupation, where his father taught at a medical school. (Kobo is the rendering in Chinese of Kimifusa.) He himself graduated (1948) in medicine from the University of Tokyo, although he never practiced. His earliest published writings appeared in the 1940s, and he established a reputation with the novel *Owarishi michi no shirube ni* ("The Road Sign at the End of the Street"), published in 1948. His best-known work was the novel *Suna no onna* (1962), published in English in 1964 as *The Woman in the Dunes.* The book was translated into some 20 languages, and Abe wrote the screenplay for a prizewinning film version. In all, he published 13 novels and more than 50 short stories, as well as several stage plays and radio and television dramas. It was estimated that worldwide his books sold more than nine million copies. He won a number of awards and honours, both in Japan and abroad.

acetylcholine

(ACh), an ester of choline and acetic acid that is the [][transmitter] substance at many neural, or nerve, synapses and at the motor end plate of vertebrate muscles (*see* [end-plate potential]). When a nerve impulse arrives at the nerve ending, ACh, which is stored there in vesicles, is released and combines with a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane or the[][end-plate membrane] of a muscle fibre. This bonding changes the permeability of the membrane, and a change in the nature of a generator potential results. The effects of successive nerve impulses accumulate if they arrive at a sufficiently high frequency. The ACh is destroyed by an enzyme, [acetylcholinesterase], and thus is effective only briefly. Inhibitors of the enzyme, however, prolong the lifetime of ACh itself. ACh affects a number of body systems including the cardiovascular system by acting as a [vasodilator], by decreasing cardiac rate, and by decreasing cardiac contraction; the gastrointestinal system by such activities as increasing peristalsis in the stomach and by increasing the amplitude of digestive contractions; and the urinary tract by such actions as decreasing the capacity of the bladder and increasing the voluntary voiding pressure. It also affects the respiratory system and stimulates secretion by all glands that receive parasympathetic nerve impulses. [![Art:Organization of the autonomic nervous system, showing the key role of acetylcholine in the ...]] - Organization of the autonomic nervous system, showing the key role of acetylcholine in the ... ACh was first isolated around 1914; its functional significance was first established in about 1921 by [][Otto Loewi], a German physiologist and later (1936) Nobel laureate. Loewi demonstrated that ACh is the substance liberated when the vagus nerve is stimulated, causing slowing of the heartbeat. Subsequently he and others showed that ACh is also liberated as a transmitter at the motor end plate of striated (voluntary) muscles of vertebrates, and it has since been identified as a transmitter at many neural synapses and in many invertebrate systems as well. ACh is also known to play an important role in memory and learning and is in abnormally short supply in the brains of those with [][Alzheimer's disease].

Action Française

(French: "French Action"), influential right-wing antirepublican group in France during the first 40 years of the 20th century. *[Action Française]* was also the name of a daily newspaper (published from March 21, 1908, to Aug. 24, 1944) that expressed the group's ideas. The Action Française movement originated at the close of the 19th century to champion the antiparliamentarian, anti-Semitic, and strongly nationalist views inspired by the controversy over the Dreyfus Affair. Its leader, Charles [][Maurras], formulated the doctrine of integral nationalism, which sought a restoration of the monarchy because this was considered the only institution capable of unifying strife-torn French society. Action Française was widely supported by Roman Catholics, small businessmen, and professional men, and though the movement was based on a return to the past, it was revolutionary in advocating the violent overthrow of the parliamentary Third Republic (1870-1940). The disruptive tactics of the Action Française and its youth group, the [Camelots du Roi] ("Hucksters of the King"), brought it to prominence among right-wing groups prior to World War I. The Action Française reached its apogee following World War I, when nationalist feeling was strong, but suffered a severe setback in 1926, when it was publicly condemned by the papacy. Yet it was still powerful enough to lead a serious attack on the republic in 1934. Because of its association with the German collaborationist Vichy government (1940-44), the Action Française was discredited and ceased to exist after World War II.

acolyte

(from Greek *akolouthos,* "server," "companion," or "follower"), in the [][Roman Catholic church], a person is installed in a ministry in order to assist the deacon and priest in liturgical celebrations, especially the eucharistic liturgy. The first probable reference to the office dates from the time of Pope Victor I (189-199), and it was mentioned frequently in Roman documents after the 4th century. Acolytes also existed in North Africa but were unknown outside Rome and North Africa until the 10th century, when they were introduced throughout the Western Church. The [][Council of Trent] (1545-63) defined the order and hoped to reactivate it on the pastoral level, but it became only a preparatory rite, or minor order, leading to the priesthood. A directive of Pope [][Paul VI] (effective Jan. 1, 1973) decreed that the office of acolyte should no longer be called a minor order but a ministry and that it should be open to laymen. In the Eastern Church, the order of acolytes was not accepted. In Protestant churches, mainly [][Anglican] and [][Lutheran], acolytes are generally laypersons who light the candles at church services.

Aalst

*(Flemish),French **Alost,** * [![Photograph:Marketplace, Aalst, Belgium, with (centre) the belfry of the town hall]] - Marketplace, Aalst, Belgium, with (centre) the belfry of the town hall municipality, East Flanders province, north-central Belgium, on the Dender River, 15 miles (24 km) northwest of Brussels. The town hall (begun in the middle of the 12th century), with its 52-bell carillon, is the oldest in Belgium, and its archives include 12th-century manuscripts. Ravaged by fire in 1360, the town hall was subsequently rebuilt and its 13th-century belfry restored in the 15th century. The first printing shop in the Low Countries was established there in 1473 by Thierry Martens (later a professor at the Catholic University of Louvain). The French took Aalst in 1667 during the War of Devolution that gave southern Flanders to France. The Germans occupied the town in both world wars. Industry is dominated by the manufacture of textiles, clothing, and textile machinery. The surrounding region supplies hops for long-established breweries. The unfinished Gothic St. Martin's Church (begun *c.* 1480) has vault paintings, a picture by Rubens, and a remarkable tabernacle (1605) containing sculptures executed by Hieronymus Duquesnoy the Elder. Pop. (1983 est.) mun., 78,068.

Aargau

*(German), French **Argovie,** * canton, northern [Switzerland]. It borders Germany to the north and is bounded by the demicanton of Basel-Landschaft and by the cantons of Solothurn and Bern to the west, Lucerne to the south, and Zug and Zürich to the east. It forms the northeastern section of the great Swiss Plateau between the Alps and the Jura Mountains, taking in the lower course of the Aare River, whence its name. Its valleys alternate with pleasantly wooded hills. In 1415 the region was taken by the Swiss Confederation from the Habsburgs, whose ancestral seat was near [Aarau] (*q.v.*), now the cantonal capital. Bern kept the southwestern portion. In 1798 the Bernese part became Aargau canton of the Helvetic Republic, and the remainder formed the canton of Baden. In 1803 the two halves (and Frick, ceded to the Helvetic Republic by Austria in 1802) were united and admitted to the Swiss Confederation as Aargau canton. One of the most fertile parts of Switzerland, Aargau includes among its principal economic activities dairying, fruit and cereal growing, and straw plaiting. Industries include electrical engineering, food processing, and the manufacture of machines, chemicals, and metal and electrical products, precision instruments, and cement. The canton is also the site of nuclear power stations. The picturesque landscape, ancient castles, and rich museums of the canton attract considerable tourist traffic, as do the hot springs at Schinznach Bad Baden and Zurzach. The population is almost exclusively German speaking. A small majority of the people are Roman Catholic. Area 542 square miles (1,404 square km). Pop. (2007 est.) 574,813.

Adams, Don

***Donald James Yarmy** * American actor and comedian (b. April 13, 1923, New York, N.Y.—d. Sept. 25, 2005, Los Angeles, Calif.), portrayed the bumbling Maxwell Smart, Agent 86, in 138 episodes of the television spy-spoof series *Get Smart* (1965-70) and in a subsequent feature film, made-for-TV movie, and another, short-lived series. He employed a number of ludicrous gadgets, including a dial phone hidden in his shoe, and with his nasal voice and clipped delivery, he gave the public such catchphrases as "Sorry about that, Chief," "Missed it by that much," and "Would you believe...?" He won three Emmy Awards (1967-69). Adams was also the voice of the title character in the Inspector Gadget cartoons.

Adams, Eddie

***Edward Thomas Adams** * American photojournalist (b. June 12, 1933, New Kensington, Pa.—d. Sept. 19, 2004, New York, N.Y.), won hundreds of awards during his 45-year career and counted 13 wars among the events he covered but was most renowned for the Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph he took in 1968 at the moment a South Vietnamese general shot a Viet Cong prisoner to death on the streets of Saigon. More important to him, however, was the fact that his series of photos of Vietnamese refugees who had sailed to Thailand only to have Thai marines tow their small boat back out to sea helped persuade the administration of Pres. Jimmy Carter to accept nearly 200,000 boat people in the U.S.

Abu Ali Mustafa

***Mustafa az-Zibri** * Palestinian nationalist (b. 1938, Arabeh, Palestine—d. Aug. 27, 2001, Ram Allah, West Bank), was a cofounder and, from July 2000, secretary-general of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a radical faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He was born Mustafa az-Zibri and later took the nom de guerre Abu Ali Mustafa. As a young man he joined George Habash's Arab National Movement, and in 1967 he and Habash formed the Marxist-oriented PFLP, based in Damascus, Syria. The PFLP, which staunchly rejected PLO peace talks with Israel, was believed to have been responsible for several terrorist attacks and hijackings. Mustafa eventually acknowledged the Palestinian Authority, however, and in September 1999 he unexpectedly returned to the West Bank. He was killed in an Israeli rocket attack on his offices.

Adair, Red

***Paul Neal Adair** * American firefighter (b. June 18, 1915, Houston, Texas—d. Aug. 7, 2004, Houston), showed remarkable daring and creativity in fighting oil blowouts and fires. He took his first job in the oil industry in 1938 and served during World War II with the 139th Bomb Disposal Squad in Japan. After returning to Houston, he began working as an oil-field firefighter, and in 1959 he started the Red Adair Co. His reputation as an exceptionally talented firefighter was established in 1962 when his team extinguished the "Devil's Cigarette Lighter," a gas fire that had been raging in the desert of Algeria for six months. This daring feat was reenacted in the film *Hellfighters* (1968), in which John Wayne portrayed Adair. His teams were credited with fighting more than 2,000 fires in his career, including the Bay Marchand blaze off the coast of Louisiana in 1970, the IXTOC blowout in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979, and the 1988 Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea. In 1991 Adair was asked to help cap the oil fires set by Iraqi troops fleeing Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War. Although it was thought that controlling these fires would take years to accomplish, Adair's team capped 117 wells and aided other teams in completing the job in eight months. Adair retired from firefighting in 1994.

Abu Nidal

***Sabri al-Banna** * Palestinian militant (b. 1937, Jaffa, Palestine—d. Aug. 16?, 2002, Baghdad, Iraq), was believed to have masterminded countless deadly attacks for nearly two decades, from the early 1970s to the 1990s. Abu Nidal (he took the nom de guerre in the early 1960s) was originally a member of Yasir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, but he broke with the PLO in 1974 to form the more radical Fatah Revolutionary Council. Among the many attacks attributed to Fatah were the bombing of a TWA flight in 1974 that killed 88 and the 1982 shooting of Israel's ambassador to London, which triggered Israel's invasion of Lebanon that year. Abu Nidal reportedly became a fanatic gunman for hire, working in Libya, Syria, and Iraq. The PLO sentenced him to death in absentia for plotting to assassinate Arafat. Abu Nidal was reported dead numerous times, and the circumstances surrounding the most recent reports of his death remained mysterious, though Iraq officially declared that he had committed suicide.

Abzug, Bella

**née* **Bella Savitsky** * born July 24, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S. died March 31, 1998, New York City U.S. congresswoman (1971-77) and lawyer who founded several liberal political organizations for women and was a prominent opponent of the [][Vietnam War] and a supporter of equal rights for women. The daughter of Russian-Jewish émigrés, Bella Savitsky attended Hunter College (B.A., 1942) and Columbia University Law School, where she specialized in labour law and became editor of the *Columbia Law Review*. She earned her L.L.B. in 1947 and was admitted to the New York bar the same year. In 1945 she married Martin M. Abzug.

Ackerman, Diane

**née* **Fink** * born Oct. 7, 1948, Waukegan, Ill., U.S. American writer whose works often reflect her interest in natural science. Ackerman was educated at Pennsylvania State University (B.A., 1970) and Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (M.F.A., 1973; M.A., 1976; Ph.D., 1978). From 1980 to 1983 she taught English at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and from 1984 to 1986 she directed the writers' program and was writer in residence at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. From 1988 to 1994 she was a staff writer at [*The New Yorker*] magazine. Ackerman's fascination with nature and science pervades much of her work; she considers amino acids, quasars, and corpuscles to be as much in the realm of poetic experience as anything else in the universe. Her poetry includes *Poems* (1973; a chapbook, with Jody Bolz and Nancy Steele), *The Planets: A Cosmic Pastoral* (1976), *Wife of Light* (1978), *Lady Faustus* (1983), *Jaguar of Sweet Laughter: New and Selected Poems* (1991), *Beyond the Map* (1995; with others), and *I Praise My Destroyer* (1998). Ackerman wrote a series of nine radio programs for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation under the title *Ideas into the Universe* (1975) and she was a contributor to *Other Worlds* (1975) by [Carl Sagan]. She also wrote *Twilight of the Tenderfoot: A Western Memoir* (1980) and the play *Reverse Thunder* (1988).

Abate, Niccolò dell'

*Abate also spelled **Abbate** * born *c.* 1509, Modena, Duchy of Modena died 1571, Fontainebleau, France [![Photograph:The Story of Aristaeus, oil painting by Niccolò dell'Abate; in ...]] - *The Story of Aristaeus*, oil painting by Niccolò dell'Abate; in ... painter of the Bolognese school who, along with others, introduced the post-Renaissance Italian style of painting to France and helped to inspire the French classical school of [landscape] painting.

Acropolites, George

*Acropolites also spelled **Akropolites** * born 1217, Constantinople, Byzantine Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey] died 1282, Constantinople Byzantine scholar and statesman, the author of *[]Chronike Syngraphe* ("Written Chronicle"), a history of the Byzantine Empire from 1203 to 1261. He also played a major diplomatic role in the attempt to reconcile the Greek and Latin churches. Acropolites was reared at the imperial court, then at Nicaea in Asia Minor. Entrusted with important state missions under the emperor [John III Ducas Vatatzes] and his successors [Theodore II Lascaris] and [][Michael VIII Palaeologus], he was in 1255 made grand logothete (chancellor). Named governor of the western provinces by Theodore II, Acropolites was engaged (1256) as commander in the field against Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus. He was later captured but released, and he returned to Constantinople when it was retaken from the Crusaders (1261). He represented Michael VIII in the negotiations for the reunion of the Western and Byzantine churches that led to the Second Council of [Lyon] (1274), at which, in the emperor's name, he acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John II, emperor of Trebizond (Trabzon), and died soon after his return.

Abubakar, Abdusalam

*Abdusalam also spelled **Abdusalami** or **Abdulsalam** * born June 13, 1942, Minna, Nigeria Nigerian military leader, who served as head of state (1998-99). Hailing from the middle belt of the country, Abubakar joined the army in 1975 and received his formal military training in the United States. He commanded Nigeria's contingent of United Nations peacekeeping troops in Lebanon in 1981. By the late 1980s he was a senior officer and in 1993 was named defense chief of staff by General [][Sani Abacha], who became Nigeria's military ruler in that year. [![Photograph:Outgoing Nigerian president General Abdusalam Abubakar (second from right) hands the government's ...]] - Outgoing Nigerian president General Abdusalam Abubakar (second from right) hands the government's ... Following the sudden death of Abacha in June 1998, Abubakar was sworn in as Nigeria's head of state. Like many other Nigerian military leaders, he promised a return to civilian government, but, unlike all except [Olusegun Obasanjo], he kept his promise. Although Abubakar dissolved the political parties Abacha had established (Abacha had been a presidential candidate for every party), he did establish a plan for multiparty elections, and he set May 29, 1999, as the swearing-in date for the new civilian president. Confidence in Abubakar's plan was strengthened when Nobel laureate [Wole Soyinka] returned home after four years in self-exile. As promised, presidential elections were held in January 1999, and Abubakar handed the government over to the winner, Obasanjo, on the promised date. He retired from the military and returned home to [Minna].

Abercrombie, James

*Abercrombie also spelled **Abercromby** * born 1706, Glassaugh, Banffshire, Scot. died April 23/28, 1781, Stirling, Stirlingshire British general in the French and Indian Wars, commander of the British forces in the failed attack on the French at [][Ticonderoga]. A lieutenant colonel of the Royal Scots early in his military career, Abercrombie was promoted to colonel in 1746 and served in the Flemish campaign in the War of Austrian Succession. Promoted to major general in 1756, he was ordered to accompany Lord Loudoun to America as his second in command. Abercrombie's first independent command came in December 1757, when William Pitt, at the insistence of George II, made him commander in chief. His title notwithstanding, his actions were largely determined by the ministry in London. With Augustus Lord Howe as his second in command, Abercrombie was directed to take Fort Ticonderoga by way of preparation for an assault on Montreal. Although he had a force of 15,000 British and colonial troops, Abercrombie was defeated by General Montcalm's army of 3,600 at Ticonderoga in July 1758. In September, Pitt recalled Abercrombie and gave his command to Jeffrey Amherst.

Abu ʾl-Faḍl ʿAllāmī

*Abu ʾl-Faḍl also spelled **Abu-l-faẓl** * born Jan. 14, 1551, Āgra, India died Aug. 22, 1602 historian, military commander, secretary, and theologian to the Mughal emperor [][Akbar]. Abu ʾl-Faḍl ʿAllāmī studied with his father, Sheikh []Mubārak Nāgawrī, a distinguished scholar, and after teaching in his father's school was presented to Akbar in 1574 by the poet [Fayzī], Abu ʾl-Faḍl's older brother. Through his criticism of the traditional Muslim religious leaders, he influenced the development of Akbar's religious synthesis. He opposed the narrow-mindedness of the religious leaders and their preoccupation with outward forms instead of the transcendent God. Abu ʾl-Faḍl had immense influence at court. Appointed a military commander in the Deccan in 1599, he distinguished himself both as a soldier and as an administrator. He was called back to court during a rebellion of Akbar's son Salīm (afterward the emperor [][Jahāngīr]) but, at the instigation of Salīm, was stopped en route and assassinated.

Accius, Lucius

*Accius also spelled **Attius** * born 170 BC, Pisaurum, Umbria [Italy] died *c.* 86 BC one of the greatest of the Roman tragic poets, in the view of his contemporaries. His plays (more than 40 titles are known, and about 700 lines survive) were mostly free translations from Greek tragedy, many from Euripides, with violent plots, flamboyant characterizations, and forceful rhetoric. His tragedies were performed until the end of the republic (*c.* 30 BC). Their themes were those of classical legend, particularly the Troy cycle, but Accius also composed two historical plays, *Decius* and *Brutus*, based on Roman history. He also wrote several treatises: the *Didascalica*, a work of at least nine books on the history of Greek and Latin poetry, and *Annales*, which seems to have dealt with Roman religious festivals. Gellius, Varro, and other later grammarians refer to his observations on grammar and orthography. Cicero records having met Accius in his youth and having seen his plays, which he admired and often quoted, including the famous line from Accius' *Atreus*, "*Oderint, dum metuant!*" ("Let them hate so long as they fear"), a motto that is said to have appealed to the tyrant Caligula.

Acheulean industry

*Acheulean also spelled **Acheulian,** * first standardized tradition of toolmaking of *[][Homo erectus]* and early *[][Homo sapiens]*. Named for the type site, Saint-Acheul, in Somme *département,* in northern France, Acheulean tools were made of stone with good fracture characteristics, including chalcedony, jasper, and flint; in regions lacking these, quartzite might be used. During the Acheulean period, which lasted from 1.5 million to 200,000 years ago, the presence of good tool stone was probably an important determining factor in the distribution of early humans. In the later stages they learned to bring stone from distant areas and thus became freer in their choice of homesites. "Tool kits" that differ in tool types reflect the varying adaptations made by early Stone Age humans to different environments. The most characteristic Acheulean tools are termed [hand axes] and cleavers. Considerable improvement in the technique of producing hand axes occurred over the long period; anthropologists sometimes distinguish each major advance in method by a separate number or name. Early Acheulean tool types are called [][Abbevillian] (especially in Europe); the last Acheulean stage is sometimes called [Micoquian. Industries] that existed at the same time and overlapped in geographic range, but specialized in flake tools and lacked hand axes, are known as [][Clactonian] (England) and [][Tayacian] (western and central Europe). Acheulean industries are found in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia as far east as Calcutta (East Asia was characterized by a tool tradition called the [][chopper chopping-tool industry]). The earliest hand axes, such as those found with *Homo erectus* in Bed II at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, were crude pointed bifaces: chips were removed from both sides of a core by rapping it against a set "anvil" stone to form a sinuous cutting edge all around. In the next step a hammerstone replaced the "anvil," and the whole surface of the core was flaked away to form an oval implement with relatively straight edges. Small flakes were sometimes removed from the edges to further straighten them. Later still, the hammerstone was replaced by bone or wood "hammers," which removed smaller, flatter flakes and resulted in a smoother tool with a sharp, straight edge. A sinuous edge could be produced purposefully, resulting in a "saw." In the late Acheulean, hand axes were pointed, and the butt end was often only roughly finished. Cleavers were large tools with one end squared off to form an axelike cutting edge.

Acontius, Jacobus

*Aconcio also spelled **Aconzio** , Italian **Giacomo Aconcio** * born September 7, 1492, Trent [now Trento, Italy] died 1566?, England advocate of religious toleration during the [Reformation] whose revolt took a more extreme form than that of Lutheranism. Acontius served as secretary to Cristoforo Madruzzo, a liberal cardinal. When the more conservative [Paul IV] became pope, Acontius repudiated Roman Catholic doctrine, left Italy, and eventually found refuge in England. He arrived soon after the accession of Queen [Elizabeth I] (1558).

Adamkus, Valdas

*Adamkus originally **Adamkavecius** * born November 3, 1926, Kaunas, Lithuania Lithuanian American who was president of Lithuania from 1998 to 2003. During World War II Adamkus fought with Lithuanian insurrectionists against Soviet rule, published an underground newspaper during the Nazi occupation, and then resumed the fight against the returning Soviet army. In 1944 he fled to Germany, where he attended the University of Munich. In 1949 he immigrated with his family to the United States, settling in a Lithuanian American community in Chicago, where in 1960 he graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology with a degree in civil engineering. In the 1950s and '60s he was active in émigré politics. Adamkus began a career with the U.S. [][Environmental Protection Agency] (EPA) upon its inception in 1970. In 1971 he was chosen the deputy administrator for the Midwest region and 10 years later was appointed regional administrator. Among his principal achievements was a program that improved the water quality of the Great Lakes. He also helped to address environmental problems in eastern Europe by supplying consultative and other services. When he retired from the EPA in 1997, he had the longest tenure of any senior executive.

Abu Dhabi

*Arabic **Abū Ẓaby,** * [![Photograph:View of central Abu Dhabi, looking southwest along Corniche Road]] - View of central Abu Dhabi, looking southwest along Corniche Road town, capital of []Abu Dhabi emirate, one of the United Arab Emirates (formerly Trucial States, or Trucial Oman), and the national capital of that federation. The town occupies most of a small triangular island of the same name, just off the Persian Gulf coast and connected to the mainland by a short bridge. Abu Dhabi was formerly an undeveloped town of only local importance, but the emirate's oil revenues have enabled it to develop into a modern city with a fully developed infrastructure. No settlement existed at Abu Dhabi town before 1761, when tribesmen of the [Āl bū Falāh] clan of the Banī Yās, rulers of Abu Dhabi then as now, settled there. They moved their headquarters to this coastal islet from the inland Līwā (al-Jiwāʾ) oases in 1795. Through most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the town, though capital of one of the chief sheikhdoms of the Trucial Coast, yielded pride of place in trade and economic importance to Dubayy town and ash-Shāriqah town, capitals of neighbouring Trucial sheikhdoms. At the beginning of the 20th century, Abu Dhabi town's population was estimated at 6,000; pearl diving from the rich offshore banks and some local trade (chiefly in the hands of Iranians and Hindus) sustained the economy. Pearling declined with the development of the Japanese cultured-pearl industry and the worldwide economic depression beginning in 1929.

Abd al-Aziz

*Arabic **in full ʿabd Al-ʿazīz Ibn Al-ḥasan Ibn Muḥammad Al-ḥasanī Al-ʿalawī** * born Feb. 24, 1878, or Feb. 18, 1881 died June 10, 1943, Tangier, Mor. sultan of Morocco from 1894 to 1908, whose reign was marked by an unsuccessful attempt to introduce European administrative methods in an atmosphere of increasing foreign influence. Abd al-Aziz was proclaimed sultan upon the death of his father, Hassan I, but did not begin direct rule until after the death in 1900 of his grand vizier, Ba Ahmed (Ahmad ibn Musa). Upon his actual accession, Abd al-Aziz sought European advice in an attempt to modernize the country and in particular to reform the methods of taxation. These endeavours, defeated because of the complete lack of administrators trained in modern practices, caused great resentment among influential notables of the old school. Rival European interests in North Africa complicated the issue, and in 1907 Abd al-Aziz' brother, [][Abd al-Hafid] (Moulay Hafid), fomented a rebellion in Marrakech. He defeated Abd al-Aziz in battle on Aug. 19, 1908. Two days later the sultan abdicated. Pensioned by his brother, he spent the rest of his life at Tangier. The Franco-Spanish occupation of Morocco followed his abdication by four years.

Ābādān

*Arabic **ʿAbbādān** * city, extreme southwestern Iran. The city is situated in [Khūzestān], part of the oil-producing region of Iran. []Ābādān lies on an island of the same name along the eastern bank of the Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab (river), 33 miles (53 km) from the [Persian Gulf]. The city thus lies along Iran's border with Iraq. Ābādān Island is bounded on the west by the Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab and on the east by the Bahmanshīr, which is an outlet of the Kārūn River. The island is 42 miles (68 km) long and from 2 to 12 miles (3 to 19 km) wide. Reputedly founded by a holy man, ʿAbbād, in the 8th century, Ābādān was a prosperous coastal town in the ʿAbbāsid period and was known for its salt and woven mats. But the extension of the delta of the Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab by silt deposition caused the coast of the Persian Gulf to gradually recede from Ābādān. By the time the town was visited by the Arab geographer Ibn Baṭṭūṭah in the 14th century, it was described as little more than a large village in a flat, salty plain. Persia and the Ottomans long disputed Ābādān's possession, but Persia acquired it in 1847. Its village status remained unchanged until the early 20th century, when rich oilfields were discovered in Khūzestān. In 1909 the [][Anglo-Persian Oil Company] (its Iranian properties were nationalized in 1951 as the National Iranian Oil Company) established its pipeline terminus refinery at Ābādān. The refinery began operating in 1913, and by 1956 Ābādān had become a city of more than 220,000 inhabitants, with an economy almost entirely based on petroleum refining and shipping. The refinery complex was served by pipelines running from oil fields to the north, and pipelines were subsequently constructed from Ābādān to Tehrān and to Shīrāz. By the late 1970s the city's oil refinery was perhaps the largest in the world.

Abd al-Hafid

*Arabic **ʿabd Al-ḥafīd** * born 1875 or 1880, Fès, Mor. died April 4, 1937, Enghien-les-Bains, Fr. sultan of Morocco (1908-12), the brother of Sultan [][Abd al-Aziz], against whom he revolted beginning in 1907. Appointed caliph of Marrakech by Abd al-Aziz, Abd al-Hafid had no difficulty there in rousing the Muslim community against his brother's Western ways. With Marrakech his, Abd al-Hafid routed his brother's forces and pensioned off the sultan. Recognized as sultan by the Western powers (1909), Abd al-Hafid invoked French aid against another pretender in 1912 and then was forced to recognize a French protectorate over Morocco.

ab ovo

*Latin"from the egg"* in literature, the practice of beginning a poetic narrative at the earliest possible chronological point. The Latin poet and critic [Horace] approvingly notes in *[Ars poetica]* that [Homer] does not begin a tale of the Trojan War with the twin egg from which Helen was born but rather in the middle of events.

Abū Niḍāl

*Arabic"Father of the Struggle"byname of **Ṣabrī Khalīl al-Bannāʾ** * born May 1937, Jaffa, Palestine [now Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel] died August 16?, 2002, Baghdad, Iraq militant leader of the Fatah Revolutionary Council, more commonly known as the []Abū Niḍāl Organization (ANO), or Abū Niḍāl Group, a Palestinian organization that engaged in numerous acts of terrorism beginning in the mid-1970s. Abū Niḍāl and his family fled [Palestine] after the 1948 war following the creation of the state of [Israel], and for the next 20 years he lived in Jordan and Saudi Arabia. In the late 1960s he joined [][Yāsir ʿArafāt's] guerrilla group, [Fatah], a component of the [Palestine Liberation Organization] (PLO), which had as its aim wresting Palestine from Israeli control. He left the group in 1973 because of his dissatisfaction with moderates within Fatah who were willing to pursue diplomatic solutions to the Palestinian question. His new organization, no longer associated with Fatah, operated out of Iraq, then Syria, and finally Libya, usually with the support of those governments. Many of his targets were fellow Palestinians whose political views were at odds with his own, and at a 1974 tribunal the [][PLO] condemned Abū Niḍāl as an extremist, sentencing him to death in absentia.

Abydos

*Egyptian **Abdu** , Coptic **Ebot** , modern **al-ʿArabat al-Madfuna** * prominent sacred city and one of the most important archaeological sites of ancient Egypt. The site, located in the low desert west of the Nile near al-Balyanā, was a royal necropolis of the first two dynasties and later a pilgrimage centre for the worship of [][Osiris]. The history of Abydos is intimately associated with the political and religious development of Egypt itself and dates to the beginnings of Egyptian history. Excavations there at the end of the 19th century by []Emile-Clément Amélineau and Sir Flinders []Petrie uncovered a series of pit tombs, the stelae (standing stone slabs) of which marked them as apparently belonging to the kings of the first two dynasties of Egypt. Doubt has subsequently been raised as to whether these tombs were the actual burial places of the pharaohs whose names they bore: in Ṣaqqārah, a series of mastaba tombs were found that contained objects bearing the same royal names, and the far greater size of these tombs and the richness of their contents and decoration have led many scholars to suppose that these are the real resting places of the early kings and that the custom of constructing a sham burial, or cenotaph, at Abydos was practiced as early as the Archaic period. Some of the 2nd-dynasty pharaohs, however, may in fact have been buried at Abydos, where imposing brick funerary enclosures were built at the northwestern end of the necropolis area; one of these structures covers nearly 2 acres (0.8 hectare). The tutelary deity of the necropolis city was the jackal god, called [Khenti-amentiu] in the Old Kingdom; in the 5th dynasty, his cult was gradually absorbed by that of the god Osiris, and the city soon became the focal point of the cult of Osiris. Abydos became a place of pilgrimage for pious Egyptians, who desired above all else to be buried as close as possible to the recognized tomb of Osiris, which was located at Abydos. For those who could not afford the expense of being buried there, stelae were set up, inscribed with the dead man's name and titles and a prayer to the god. Thousands of these stelae have been found in the city's cemeteries.

Acadia

*French **Acadie,** * North American Atlantic seaboard possessions of [France] in the 17th and 18th centuries. Centred in what is now Nova Scotia, Acadia was probably intended to include the other present Maritime Provinces of Canada as well as parts of Maine [U.S.] and Quebec. The first organized French settlement in Acadia was founded in 1604 on an island in Passamaquoddy Bay, on the present U.S.-Canadian border, by Pierre de Monts and Samuel de Champlain. In 1605 the colony was moved to Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia), and that settlement became the centre of Acadia's future. Because the French claimed for Acadia lands that had also been claimed by England, the colony was continually contested by both nations. In 1613 Port Royal was destroyed, and its inhabitants were dispersed by an English military expedition from Virginia. In 1621 King James I of [][England] (VI of Scotland) awarded the lands of Acadia to Sir William Alexander for the purpose of founding the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1632 his son King Charles I ceded Acadia back to France, and, under the Company of New France, a renewed period of French colonization followed. A bitter struggle for power broke out in 1636 between two of the leading French officials of the colony—a struggle that eventually resulted in a local civil war. Acadia was under English rule from 1654 to 1670 and then reverted again to French rule and remained under French control for the next 40 years.

Aachen

*French **Aix-la-Chapelle** , Dutch **Aken** * [![Video:The cathedral in Aachen, Germany, and the throne of Charlemagne.]] - The cathedral in Aachen, Germany, and the throne of Charlemagne. ![Map/Still] city, [North Rhine-Westphalia] *Land* (state), western [Germany]. Its municipal boundaries coincide on the west with the frontiers of [Belgium] and [The Netherlands]. It was a royal residence of the emperor [][Charlemagne], and it served as the principal coronation site of Holy Roman emperors and of German kings from the Middle Ages to the Reformation. The [][Palatine Chapel], a masterpiece of Carolingian architecture, is incorporated within [][Aachen Cathedral], which was designated a UNESCO [][World Heritage site] in 1978.

accordion

*French **accordéon** , German **Akkordeon** or **Handharmonika** , Italian **armonica a manticino** * [![Photograph:Italian accordion, 19th century]] - Italian accordion, 19th century free-reed portable musical instrument, consisting of a treble casing with external piano-style keys or buttons and a bass casing (usually with buttons) attached to opposite sides of a hand-operated bellows. The advent of the accordion is the subject of debate among researchers. Many credit [C. Friedrich L. Buschmann], whose *Handäoline* was patented in Berlin in 1822, as the inventor of the accordion, while others give the distinction to [Cyril Demian] of Vienna, who patented his *Accordion* in 1829, thus coining the name. A modification of the *Handäoline,* Demian's invention comprised a small manual bellows and five keys, although, as Demian noted in a description of the instrument, extra keys could be incorporated into the design. Numerous variations of the device soon followed.

a lo divino

*Spanish"in the sacred style" or "in sacred terms"* in Spanish literature, the recasting of a secular work as a religious work, or, more generally, a treatment of a secular theme in religious terms through the use of [allegory], symbolism, and [metaphor]. Adaptations *a lo divino* were popular during the [Golden Age] of Spanish literature during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Academy

*Greek **Academeia,** Latin **Academia,** * in ancient Greece, the academy, or college, of philosophy in the northwestern outskirts of Athens, where [][Plato] acquired property about 387 BC and used to teach. At the site there had been an olive grove, park, and gymnasium sacred to the legendary Attic hero Academus (or Hecademus). The designation academy, as a school of philosophy, is usually applied not to Plato's immediate circle but to his successors down to the Roman Cicero's time (106-43 BC). Legally, the school was a corporate body organized for worship of the Muses, the scholarch (or headmaster) being elected for life by a majority vote of the members. Most scholars infer, mainly from Plato's writings, that instruction originally included mathematics, dialectics, natural science, and preparation for statesmanship. The Academy continued until AD 529, when the emperor Justinian closed it, together with the other pagan schools. The Academy philosophically underwent various phases, arbitrarily classified as follows: (1) the Old Academy, under Plato and his immediate successors as scholarchs, when the philosophic thought there was moral, speculative, and dogmatic, (2) the Middle Academy, begun by [][Arcesilaus] (316/315-*c.* 241 BC), who introduced a nondogmatic skepticism, and (3) the New Academy, founded by [][Carneades] (2nd century BC), which ended with the scholarch [][Antiochus of Ascalon] (d. 68 BC), who effected a return to the dogmatism of the Old Academy. Thereafter, the Academy was a centre of Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism until it was closed in the 6th century AD.

Achaean

*Greek **Achaios,** * any of the ancient Greek people, identified in Homer, along with the Danaoi and the Argeioi, as the Greeks who besieged Troy. Their area as described by Homer—the mainland and western isles of Greece, Crete, Rhodes, and adjacent isles, except the Cyclades—is precisely that covered by the activities of the [Mycenaeans] in the 14th-13th century BC, as revealed by archaeology. From this and other evidence, some authorities have identified the Achaeans with the Mycenaeans. Other evidence suggests that the Achaeans did not enter Greece until the so-called Dorian invasions of the 12th century BC. It seems at least possible that Homer's Achaean chiefs, with their short genealogies and their renown for infiltrating into Mycenaean kingships by way of military service and dynastic marriages, held power in the Mycenaean world only for a few generations in its last, warlike, and semibarbarous phase, until replaced by the Dorians, their relatively close kindred. The Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese in historic times were reckoned by Herodotus to be descendants of these earlier Achaeans. The name Ahhiyawā, occurring in Hittite documents of the 14th and 13th centuries BC, has sometimes been identified with the Achaeans, but this is disputed.

acropolis

*Greek"city at the top"* [![Photograph:The Acropolis, Athens.]] - The Acropolis, Athens. [![Photograph:The Acropolis and surrounding area, Athens.]] - The Acropolis and surrounding area, Athens. central, defensively oriented district in ancient Greek cities, located on the highest ground and containing the chief municipal and religious buildings. Because the founding of a city was a religious act, the establishment of a local home for the gods was a basic factor in Greek city planning. From both a religious and a military point of view, a hilltop site was highly desirable: militarily, because an acropolis had to be a citadel; religiously, because a hill was imbued with natural mysteries—caves, springs, copses, and glens—that denoted the presence of the gods. [![Video:Athens and the Acropolis, including the Parthenon and the Erechtheum.]] - Athens and the Acropolis, including the Parthenon and the Erechtheum.

Adamnán, The Vision of

*Irish **Fís Adamnáín** * in the Gaelic literature of Ireland, one of the earliest and most outstanding medieval Irish visions. This graceful prose work dates from the 10th century and is preserved in the later *The Book of the Dun Cow* (c. 1100). Patterned after pagan voyages (*immrama*) to the otherworld, *The Vision of [][Adamnán]* vividly describes the journey of Adamnán's soul—guided by an angel—first through a delightful, fragrance-filled heaven, through the seven stages through which a sinful soul passes to reach perfection, and then through the monster-ridden Land of Torment. The work is often attributed, erroneously, to [St. Adamnan], the abbot of Iona.

Accursius, Franciscus

*Italian **Francesco Accorso** * born *c.* 1182, Bagnolo, Tuscany [Italy] died *c.* 1260, Bologna Italian legal scholar and leading jurist of the 13th century who was responsible for the renovation of [][Roman law]. He was the last of a series of legal glossators (annotators) of Justinian's compilation of Roman law. A professor at the University of Bologna, Accursius had access to the many legal works of the Romans that had been brought from Ravenna in the 11th century, when the institution at Bologna was first established as a law school. This circumstance enabled Accursius to compile the authoritative *[Glossa ordinaria]*, also called the *Glossa magna* (the "Great Gloss"; 1220-50), which so far surpassed the glosses of earlier scholars that those works were rendered obsolete. For the next 500 years the *Glossa* of Accursius remained an indispensable complement to the texts of Roman law. His work made Roman law a popular course of study during the Renaissance period. Accursius's interpretations of Roman law also influenced the development of later European legal codes, among them the Code Napoléon, or French Civil Code, enacted in the early 19th century.

abbot

*Late Latin and Greek **Abbas,** * the superior of a monastic community that follows the Benedictine Rule (Benedictines, Cistercians, Camaldolese, Trappists) and of certain other orders (Premonstratensians, canons regular of the Lateran). The word derives from the Aramaic *ab* ("father"), or *aba* ("my father"), which in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) and in New Testament Greek was written *abbas.* Early Christian Egyptian monks renowned for age and sanctity were called *abbas* by their disciples, but, when monasticism became more organized, superiors were called *proestos* ("he who rules") in the East and the Latin equivalent, *praepositus,* in the West. St. [][Benedict of Nursia] (*c.* 480-*c.* 547) restored the word *abbas* in his rule, and to this early concept of spiritual fatherhood through teaching he added the concept of *patria potestas,* authority wielded by a father according to Roman law. Thus, the abbot has full authority to rule the monastery in both temporal and spiritual matters. An abbot is elected by the chapter of the monastery in secret ballot. He must be at least 30 years old, of legitimate birth, professed at least 10 years, and an ordained priest. He is elected for life except in the English congregation, where he is elected for a term of 8-12 years. The election must be confirmed by the Holy See or by some other designated authority. The bishop of the diocese in which the monastery is situated confers the abbatial blessing, assisted by two abbots.

Achaea

*Modern Greek **Akhaï´a** * [![Photograph:Donkeys descending a village in Akhai¨´a (site of ancient Achaea), Greece]] - Donkeys descending a village in Akhai¨´a (site of ancient Achaea), Greece *nomós* (department) and historic region of Greece on the north coast of the [Peloponnese], south of the Gulf of Corinth. In ancient times it was bounded on the west by [Elis] (modern Ilía), on the south by Mount Erymanthus and Arcadia, and on the east by [Sicyon] (modern Sikión). The hilly coastal region almost corresponds to the modern *nomós* of Akhaï´a, whose administrative capital is [Pátrai], although the eastern boundary now falls west of Mount Kyllene (Killíni Óros). The highway and railway from Athens to Pátrai follow the north coast of the Peloponnese. Early in the 4th century BC the 12 cities of Achaea formed the [][Achaean League], a military alliance. In Hellenistic times, the league admitted non-Achaean allies and became the chief political power in Greece. It went over to Rome in 198 BC but was dissolved by the Romans in 146 BC, after which it was annexed to the Roman province of Macedonia. In 27 BC it became the centre of the Roman senatorial province of Achaea, which included all of Greece south of Thessaly. After various invasions and dismemberments in the Middle Ages, Achaea was conquered by the Turks in 1460. It was in the monastery of Ayía Lavra near Kalávrita in this province that the standard of the Greek Revolution was raised in 1821. Achaea was liberated from the Turks in 1828.

Achelous River

*Modern Greek **Akhelóös Potamós,** also called **Aspropótamos,** * one of the longest rivers in Greece, rising in the Pindus Mountains of central Epirus (Ípiros) and dividing Aetolia from Acarnania. It debouches into the Ionian Sea after a course of 140 mi (220 km), mostly through gorges. Well above Agrínion two hydroelectric dams were built to harness the waters of the river and its tributaries. One is at Kastraki; the other, at Kremasta, is the highest (490 ft [150 m]) earth-fill dam in Europe. At the mouth of the river, where it is less than 2 ft deep, a number of small islands, the Ekhinádhes, have been enveloped by the silt. The name Aspropótamos (White River) is given to several other rivers in Greece, and the name Achelous appears in cult and in Greek mythology as that of the typical river god.

Achaemenes

*Old Persian **Hakhamanish** * died *c.* 460 BC, , Papremis, Egypt son of the Achaemenid king Darius I of Persia. After the first rebellion of Egypt (484), Achaemenes was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt by his brother Xerxes I; he also commanded the Egyptian contingent of the Achaemenid fleet defeated by the Greeks at the [][Battle of Salamis] (480). Little more is known of Achaemenes' career until he was defeated and slain in battle by [Inaros], the leader of the second rebellion of Egypt against Achaemenid rule.

Achaemenes

*Old Persian **Hakhamanish** * flourished 7th century BC eponymous ancestor of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty; he was the father of [][Teispes] (Chishpish) and an ancestor of Cyrus II the Great and Darius I the Great. Although Achaemenes probably ruled only [Parsumash], a vassal state of the kingdom of Media, many scholars believe that he led armies from Parsumash and [][Anshan] (Anzan, northwest of Susa in Elam) against the Assyrian king [][Sennacherib] in 681.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

*Pali"Basket of Special Doctrine" or "Further Doctrine", Sanskrit **Abhidharma Pitaka** * the third—and historically the latest—of the three "baskets," or collections of texts, that together compose the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, the form predominant in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). The other two collections are *Sutta* ("Discourse"; Sanskrit *Sutra*) and *Vinaya* ("Discipline") *Pitaka*s. Unlike *Sutta* and *Vinaya*, the seven *Abhidhamma* works are generally claimed to represent not the words of the Buddha himself but those of disciples and great scholars. Nevertheless, they are highly venerated, particularly in [][Myanmar] (Burma). The *Abhidhamma* texts are not systematic philosophical treatises but a detailed scholastic reworking, according to schematic classifications, of doctrinal material appearing in the *Sutta*s. As such they represent a development in a rationalistic direction of summaries or numerical lists. The topics dealt with in *Abhidhamma* books include ethics, psychology, and epistemology. As the last major division of the canon, the *Abhidhamma* corpus has had a checkered history. It was not accepted as canonical by the Mahasanghika (Sanskrit: Great Community) school, the forerunners of Mahayana. Another school included within it most of the *Khuddaka Nikaya* ("Short Collection"), the latest section of the *Sutta Pitaka*.

Abhidhammavatara

*Pali"Introduction to the Abhidhamma"* the earliest effort at systematizing, in the form of a manual, the doctrines dealt with in the *Abhidhamma* (scholastic) section of the Theravada Buddhist canon. The *Abhidhammavatara* was written in Pali, apparently in the 5th century, by the poet and scholar [Buddhadatta] in the region of the Kaveri River, in southern India. Following the closing of the canon in the final centuries BC, a number of commentaries (known in Pali as *atthakatha*) on particular canonical texts appeared and culminated in those produced by Buddhadatta's contemporary, Buddhaghosa. In the *Abhidhammavatara* Buddhadatta then both summed up and gave an original systematization to that part of the commentary literature dealing with *Abhidhamma.* (Among his other works is the *Vinaya-vinicchaya* ["Analysis of the Vinaya"], which similarly summarizes the commentaries on the *vinaya* [monastic discipline] section of the canon.) The *Abhidhammavatara* is written largely in verse and has 24 chapters. To a certain extent it was superseded in the 12th century by Anuruddha's *Abhidhammattha-sangaha*.

A-ch'eng

*Pinyin **Acheng,** formerly **(until 1909) Ashihho,** * city in Heilungkiang *sheng* (province), China. Located southeast of Harbin (Ha-erh-pin) in the basin of the A-shih River, it is a collecting and commercial centre for a rich agricultural district that provides part of Harbin's food supply. A-ch'eng is also an industrial centre with brickworks, engineering works specializing in electrical equipment and other machinery, and various industries based on local agricultural production, such as breweries, sugar refineries, and a flax-processing plant. A-ch'eng also developed a small iron industry in the late 1950s. Most of its industries are closely integrated with those in Harbin. To the south of A-ch'eng are the remains of an ancient walled city known as []Pai-ch'eng, or Pei-ch'eng. This site is thought to be the remains of []Hui-ning, which was the capital of the Chin (Juchen) dynasty from 1122 to 1234 and a subsidiary capital after 1173. Pop. (1989 est.) 188,600.

Acre River

*Portuguese **Rio Acre,** * river, chiefly in western Brazil, rising on the Peruvian border, along which it continues eastward to form part of the Brazil-Bolivia border. Turning north at Brasiléia, the remainder of its 400-mi (645-km) course flows in a north-northeasterly direction, through the Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas, to join the Rio Purus, a tributary of the Amazon, at Bôca do Acre. It was formerly called the Aquiri.

Abhidhammattha-sangaha

*PǦli"Summary of the Meaning of Abhidhamma"* a highly popular primer, or digest, of the *Abhidhamma* corpus (the scholastic section of the canon) of the Theravada tradition. The *Abhidhammattha-sangaha* was composed in India or in Myanmar (Burma), the chief centre for *Abhidhamma* studies. Written in Pali by the monk []Anuruddha, it dates from no earlier than the 8th century and probably from the 11th or 12th. The *Abhidhammattha-sangaha* is a handbook rather than an expository work; it is extremely condensed, dealing in fewer than 50 pages with the entire contents of the seven texts of the *Abhidhamma Pitaka*. It is the most widely read work of its kind, is held in very high esteem, especially in Myanmar and Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and has been the subject of an extensive exegetical literature in the centuries since its composition. The subject matter of the *Abhidhammattha-sangaha* includes enumerations of 89 classes of consciousness, 52 mental properties in various combinations, the qualities of matter, the kinds of relations between phenomena, the varieties of rebirth, and a number of meditation exercises. The purpose of the analysis contained within the *Abhidhammattha-sangaha* is to elicit a realization of the impermanence of all things, leading to enlightenment and emancipation.

Acmeist

*Russian **Akmeist,** plural **Akmeisty,** * member of a small group of early-20th-century Russian poets reacting against the vagueness and affectations of Symbolism. It was formed by the poets Sergey Gorodetsky and Nikolay S. [][Gumilyov]. They reasserted the poet as craftsman and used language freshly and with intensity. Centred in St. Petersburg, the Acmeists were associated with the review *Apollon* (1909-17). In 1912 they founded the [Guild of Poets], whose most outstanding members were [][Anna Akhmatova] and Osip [][Mandelshtam]. Because of their preoccupation with form and their ivory-tower aloofness, the Acmeists were regarded with suspicion by the Soviet regime. Gumilyov was executed in 1921 for his alleged activities in an anti-Soviet conspiracy. Akhmatova was silenced during the most productive years of her life, and Mandelshtam died either in or en route to a Siberian labour camp.

abhiseka

*Sanskrit **Abhiṣeka** * ("sprinkling"), in esoteric Buddhism, a purificatory or initiatory rite in which a candidate is sprinkled with water or other liquid, signifying a change in status. Originally, abhiseka was an integral part of the ancient Indian royal consecration rite. Water from the four oceans was poured out of golden jars onto the head of the seated monarch during his accession ceremony and also during the investiture ceremony of his heir apparent. In Tantric, or esoteric, Buddhism, the abhiseka rite is a necessary prelude to initiation into mystical teaching or rites. Four classes of abhiseka are known, each of them associated with one of the four Tantras (teachings) suitable to four groups of people with progressively superior levels of sensibility. They are the master consecration, secret consecration, knowledge of prajna ("wisdom"), and the fourth consecration.

Abhisamayalambkaraloka

*Sanskrit"Illumination of the Abhisamayalambkara"* important contribution to exegetical literature on the *Prajnaparamita*- ("Perfection of Wisdom") *sutra*s of the [Mahayana] Buddhist tradition and one of the texts most often studied in Tibetan monasteries. The *Prajnaparamita-sutra*s, with their emphasis on the doctrine of ontological "emptiness" and the attainment of nirvana through perfect wisdom, had been systematized in a terse commentary known as the *Abhisamayalambkara*. (*Abhisamaya* means either "insight" or "uniting" and designates Buddhist training toward enlightenment; *alambkara* is a literary form in verse.) This latter text required its own commentaries, which continued to be produced in Tibet into modern times. It was paraphrased in the present treatise, the *Abhisamayalambkaraloka*, which also offered a detailed commentary on the *Ashtasahasrika* ("8,000-Verse") *Prajnaparamita*. The author was Haribhadra. He wrote around AD 750, and his text was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan in the 10th or 11th century.

abhijna

*Sanskrit"supernatural knowledge", Pali **abhinna** * in Buddhist philosophy, miraculous power obtained especially through meditation and wisdom. Usually five kinds of *abhijna* are enumerated: the ability (1) to travel any distance or take on any form at will, (2) to see everything, (3) to hear everything, (4) to know another's thoughts, and (5) to recollect former existences. A sixth miraculous power, freedom by undefiled wisdom, is exclusively the prerogative of buddhas and [arhat]s (saints). An earlier enumeration of three knowledges consists of this sixth *abhijna* together with the powers of recollecting previous existences and of seeing everything and thus knowing the future destinies of all beings. The first five *abhijna*s enumerated in Buddhism are identical with the *[][siddhi]*s (miraculous powers) known to Indian ascetics in general. Patanjali, for example, mentions them in his *Yoga-sutra* (the classical exposition of [Yoga]) as magical virtues of meditation. Goblins and deities are said to be endowed naturally with such powers.

Aconcagua, Mount

*Spanish **Cerro Aconcagua** * [![Map/Still]] [![Photograph:Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas, Argentina.]] - Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas, Argentina. mountain in Argentina. It is commonly regarded as the highest summit in the Western Hemisphere, rising 22,834 feet (6,959 metres) above sea level. Aconcagua lies in the Southern Andes, its peak being in Mendoza province in northwestern Argentina, but its western flanks build up from the coastal lowlands of Chile, just north of Santiago. It is of volcanic origin, but it is not itself an active volcano. The first attempted ascent, made in 1883, failed; the summit was first reached in 1897 by Matthias Zurbriggen.

26th of July Movement

*Spanish **Movimiento 26 de Julio** * revolutionary movement led by [][Fidel Castro] that overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1959). Its name commemorates an attack on the Santiago de Cuba army barracks on July 26, 1953. The movement began formally in 1955 when Castro went to Mexico to form a disciplined guerrilla force. The leaders of the movement remaining in Cuba to carry out sabotage and political activities were Frank País, Armando Hart, and Enrique Oltuski. At this time the movement espoused a reform program that included distribution of land to peasants, nationalization of public services, industrialization, honest elections, and mass education. In early 1957, with Castro back in Cuba fighting in the Sierra Maestra, "Civic Resistance" groups were organized in the cities, and numerous middle-class and professional persons gravitated toward Castro. In 1958 the movement joined in a "Junta of Unity" with most other groups opposing Batista. After Castro's victory, the 26th of July Movement was integrated into the Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas in 1961.

Aberdare

*Welsh **Aberdâr** * town ("community"), [Rhondda Cynon Taff] county borough, historic county of [Glamorgan] (Morgannwg), Wales, on the River Cynon. The community dates from the Middle Ages. Its Saint John's Church was built about 1189. Aberdare's main growth in the 19th century was based on iron ore (first ironworks 1799) and coal, particularly steam coal for export after 1836. A branch (1811) of the Glamorganshire Canal and, later, railways provided outlets to the South Wales coast. In the 20th century the town's iron industry ceased, and coal mining declined in the vicinity. Aberdare now serves as the chief shopping and service centre for the Cynon valley. Modern industries include the manufacture of cables, smokeless fuel, and, at Hirwaun to the northwest, light engineering and electrical products. Pop. (2001) 31,705.

Abergavenny

*Welsh **Y Fenni** * town ("community"), historic and present county of [Monmouthshire] (Sir Fynwy), Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Gavenny and Usk. The strategic nature of this site, guarding a main valley corridor between the Black Mountains and the Brecon Beacons into South Wales, was recognized by the Romans, who built the fortress of Gobannium, and by the Normans, who built an 11th-century castle. The market town that grew under the castle's protection was attacked at various times over the next 500 years. Abergavenny held important cattle and horse fairs in the 18th and 19th centuries and developed some flannel making; it never participated in the industrial growth of the coalfield towns to the west. Now a service centre and an attractive holiday resort, it has also become a residential base for commuters employed in other Monmouthshire towns nearby. Pop. (2001) 9,628.

In the popular mind the Emancipation Proclamation transformed the [American Civil War] from a struggle to preserve the Union into a crusade for human freedom. But at the time of its issuance, its actual provisions had already largely been enacted into law by Congress, which had provided for the freeing of those enslaved by owners hostile to the Union, the prohibition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the territories, and the freeing of soldiers who had been enslaved. The Emancipation Proclamation actually did not free a single slave, since the regions in which it authorized emancipation were under Confederate control, and in the border states where emancipation might have been effected, it was not authorized. It did, however, tremendously boost Union morale, breed disaffection in the South, and bolster support for the Union cause in Europe. The real significance of the document lay in the political factors that brought it to fruition and in the delicate political balance it preserved. By the summer of 1862, Pres. [Abraham Lincoln] had exhausted all other schemes short of full emancipation. African Americans in the North had objected to his offer of colonization; the border states disapproved of his proposal of compensated emancipation; and Abolitionists were demanding a more radical course. The military position of the North had deteriorated when on July 22, 1862, Lincoln called together his Cabinet to discuss emancipation. The president later described this fateful day in a conversation with the painter Francis B. Carpenter, who in 1864 painted *The First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation Before the Cabinet*. "Things had gone on from bad to worse," said Lincoln to Carpenter, "until I felt that we had reached the end of our rope... We had about played our last card, and must change our tactics, or lose the game!" Lincoln had prepared a draft of the proclamation before the Cabinet meeting, "without consultation with or the knowledge of the Cabinet." The majority of the Cabinet were enthusiastic, including Secretary of State [William Seward], who nevertheless raised an objection to its timing. Seward argued that Lincoln should postpone the proclamation until the Union had achieved some military success, stating that otherwise "it may be viewed as the last measure of an exhausted government, a cry for help." Lincoln heeded this advice. After the decisive [Battle of Antietam] (September 17) stopped Gen. [Robert E. Lee]'s advance upon Washington, Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation, and the Emancipation Proclamation as reprinted here was issued on January 1, 1863, under the heading, "By the President of the United States of America: A Proclamation."

*Whereas,* on the 22nd day of September, in the year of our Lord 1862, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit: > That on the 1st day of January, in the year of our Lord 1863, all > persons held as slaves within any state or designated part of a state, > the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United > States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the > executive government of the United States, including the military and > naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of > such persons and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or > any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. > > That the executive will, on the 1st day of January aforesaid, by > proclamation, designate the states and parts of states, if any, in > which the people thereof, respectively, shall then be in rebellion > against the United States; and the fact that any state or the people > thereof shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress > of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a > majority of the qualified voters of such states shall have > participated shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, > be deemed conclusive evidence that such state and the people thereof > are not then in rebellion against the United States. Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this 1st day of January, in the year of our Lord 1863, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of 100 days from the day first above mentioned, order and designate as the states and parts of states wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States the following, to wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are for the present left precisely as if this proclamation were not issued.

Acts of the Apostles, The

*abbreviation **Acts,** * fifth book of the New Testament, a valuable history of the early Christian church. Acts was written in Greek, presumably by the Evangelist [][Luke], whose gospel concludes where Acts begins, namely, with Christ's Ascension into heaven. Acts was apparently written in Rome, perhaps between AD 70 and 90, though some think a slightly earlier date is also possible. After an introductory account of the descent of the [][Holy Spirit] on the Apostles at Pentecost (interpreted as the birth of the church), Luke pursues as a central theme the spread of Christianity to the Gentile world under the guiding inspiration of the Holy Spirit. He also describes the church's gradual drawing away from Jewish traditions. The missionary journeys of []St. Paul are given a prominent place, because this close associate of Luke was the preeminent Apostle to the Gentiles. Without Acts, a picture of the primitive church would be impossible to reconstruct; with it, the New Testament letters of Paul are far more intelligible. Acts concludes rather abruptly after Paul has successfully preached the gospel in Rome, then the acknowledged centre of the Gentile world.

Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem

*also called **(until 1971) Lew Alcindor,** byname of **Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.** * born April 16, 1947, New York, N.Y., U.S. collegiate and professional basketball player, who as a 7-ft-1.75-in centre dominated the game throughout the 1970s and early '80s. Alcindor played for Power Memorial Academy on the varsity for four years, and his total of 2,067 points set a New York City high school record. His offensive skill was so developed coming out of high school that the collegiate basketball rules committee, fearing he would be able to score at will, made [dunking] illegal prior to his enrollment at the [][University of California] at Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1965. Despite the new rule, he set a UCLA scoring record with 56 points in his first game. Playing for coach [John Wooden], Alcindor helped lead UCLA to three National Collegiate Athletic Association championships (1966-68), and during his stay at UCLA the team lost only two games. The no-dunking rule was rescinded after Alcindor graduated. Alcindor joined the National Basketball Association (NBA) []Milwaukee Bucks in 1969 and was Rookie of the Year in 1970. In 1971 the Bucks won the NBA championship, and Alcindor led in scoring (2,596 points) and game-point average (31.7); he also led in these statistics in 1972 (2,822 points; 34.8). In 1971 Alcindor, who had converted to Islam while at UCLA, took his Arabic name. In 1975 he was traded to the [Los Angeles Lakers], who won the NBA championship in 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, and 1988. In 1984 he surpassed Wilt Chamberlain's career scoring total of 31,419 points.

acetone

*also called **2-propanone** , or **dimethyl ketone (CH~3~COCH~3~)** * organic solvent of industrial and chemical significance, the simplest and most important of the aliphatic (fat-derived) ketones. Pure acetone is a colourless, somewhat aromatic, flammable, mobile liquid that boils at 56.2° C (133° F). Acetone is capable of dissolving many fats and resins as well as cellulose ethers, cellulose acetate, nitrocellulose, and other cellulose esters. Because of the latter quality, acetone is used extensively in the manufacture of artificial fibres (such as some rayons) and explosives. It is used as a chemical intermediate in pharmaceuticals and as a solvent for vinyl and acrylic resins, lacquers, alkyd paints, inks, cosmetics (such as nail polish remover), and varnishes. It is used in the preparation of paper coatings, adhesives, and heat-seal coatings and is also employed as a starting material in the synthesis of many compounds. In the United States, which is the largest producer of industrial acetone, the cumene hydroperoxide process and the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol are the chief processes used in commercial production.

Aberdeenshire

*also called **Aberdeen** * [![Photograph:Duff House, designed by William Adam, in Banff, Aberdeenshire, Scot.]] - Duff House, designed by William Adam, in Banff, Aberdeenshire, Scot. council area and historic county of eastern [Scotland]. It projects shoulderlike eastward into the North Sea and encompasses coastal lowlands in the north and east and part of the [Grampian Mountains] in the west. The council area and the historic county occupy somewhat different areas. The city of [Aberdeen] is part of the historic county of Aberdeenshire but constitutes an independent council area that forms an enclave within the council area of Aberdeenshire. The rest of the historic county lies within the council area of the same name, which also incorporates the entire historic county of [Kincardineshire] and the northeastern portion of the historic county of [Banffshire]. Although Aberdeenshire lies north of the Highland boundary fault, it mainly comprises an agricultural lowland drained by rivers that generally flow east. The land is in the rain shadow of the Grampians, resulting in a generally dry climate with parts of the coast receiving less than 25 inches (640 mm) of precipitation annually. Temperatures are warm for the latitude, but exposure to cold winds from the north and east produces winters that are harsh by British standards.

Abhidharmakosha

*also called **Abhidharmakosha-shastra (Sanskrit: "Treasury of Higher Law")** , Chinese **A-p'i-ta-mo Chü-she Lun** , Japanese **Abidatsuma-kusha-ron** * encyclopaedic compendium of *Abhidharma* (scholasticism). Its author, [][Vasubandhu], who lived in the 4th or 5th century in the northwestern part of India, wrote the work while he was still a monk of the [][Sarvastivada] (Doctrine That All Is Real) order, before he embraced Mahayana, on whose texts he was later to write a number of commentaries. As a Sarvastivada work the *Abhidharmakosha* is one of few surviving treatments of scholasticism not written in Pali and not produced by Theravadins, who follow the Pali canon. The product of both great erudition and considerable independence of thought, the *Abhidharmakosha* authoritatively completed the systematization of Sarvastivada doctrine. Translated into Chinese within a century or two of its creation, the *Abhidharmakosha* has been used in China, Japan, and Tibet both as a standard introduction to Hinayana Buddhism and as a great authority in matters of doctrine. In China it provided the basis for the Abhidharma (Chinese Chü-she; Japanese Kusha) sect. The work has inspired numerous commentaries. It also provides scholars with a unique amount of information on the doctrinal differences between ancient Buddhist schools.

Abraham bar Hiyya

*also called **Abraham Bar Hiyya Ha-nasi (Hebrew: "the Prince")** * born *c.* 1065 died *c.* 1136 Spanish Jewish philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician whose writings were among the first scientific and philosophical works to be written in Hebrew. He is sometimes known as Savasorda, a corruption of an Arabic term indicating that he held some civic office in the Muslim administration of Barcelona. In addition to translating scientific books from Arabic into Latin and Hebrew, Abraham also wrote a number of original works, among them a scientific encyclopaedia (the first in the Hebrew language) and a book on mathematics, *Ḥibbur ha-Meshiḥah ve-ha-Tishboret* ("Treatise on Measurement and Calculation"), which, in its Latin translation, *[]Liber Embadorum* (1145), became a principal textbook in western European schools. Other notable works by Abraham include the philosophical treatise *Hegyon ha-Nefesh ha-Aẓuva* (*[]Meditation of the Sad Soul*), which dealt with the nature of good and evil, ethical conduct, and repentance; and *[]Megillat ha-Megalleh* ("Scroll of the Revealer"), in which he outlined his view of history, based on astrology and purporting to forecast the messianic future.

Acoemeti

*also called **Acoemetae (Medieval Latin)** , Late Greek **Akoimetoi** * monks at a series of 5th- to 6th-century Byzantine monasteries who were noted for their choral recitation of the divine office in constant and never interrupted relays. Their first monastery, at Constantinople, was founded in about 400 by []St. Alexander Akimetes, who, after long study of the Bible, put into practice his conviction that God should be perpetually praised; he arranged for relays of monks to relieve one another without pause in the choir offices. They also practiced absolute poverty and were vigorous missionaries. The idea of ceaseless singing, new to Eastern monasticism, attracted so many monks from other convents that hostility toward Alexander developed. Driven from Constantinople, he founded another monastery in Bithynia. After his death, in about 430, his successor, Abbot John, transferred the foundation to Irenaion (modern Tchiboukli) on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, where the local people gave the monks the name of Acoemeti ("Sleepless Ones"). In their enthusiastic attacks on the Monophysites, the Acoemeti lapsed into the Nestorian heresy, and little is heard of them after the 6th century, when they were excommunicated by Pope John II. Later (the date is unknown), they moved their monastery to Constantinople, and they are known to have been in existence as late as the 12th century.

ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān I

*also called **Ad-dākhīl Raḥmān** * flourished 750-788 member of the Umayyad ruling family of Syria who founded an [][Umayyad dynasty] in Spain. When the ʿAbbāsids overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in 750 and sought to kill as many members of the Umayyad family as possible, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān fled, eventually reaching Spain. The Iberian Peninsula had for some time been occupied by Muslim Arab forces, and he recognized political opportunity for himself in the rivalries of the Qais and Yaman, the dominant Arab factions there. By shifting alliances and using mercenary support, he placed himself in a position of power, attacking and defeating the Governor of al-Andalus in 755 and making [][Córdoba] his capital. As news of his success spread eastward, men who had previously worked in the Umayyad administrative system came to Spain to work with ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, and his administrative system came to resemble that formerly operative in Damascus. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān secured his realm against external attack by defeating armies sent by Charlemagne and the ʿAbbāsid caliph. Although he faced a series of rebellions by Muslim Spaniards, Berbers from the mountainous areas, and various Arab clans, his authority and dynasty remained firmly in power.

Abraham, Plains of

*also called **Heights Of Abraham,** French **Plaines D'abraham,** * plains in Québec region, southern Quebec province, Canada. The plains lie at the western edge of the old walled city, overlooking the St. Lawrence River. The plateau was the scene of a battle (Sept. 13, 1759) between the French under the Marquis de Montcalm and the British under James Wolfe in which both leaders were killed but which secured Quebec for the British. Named for Abraham Martin, a ship's pilot who formerly owned part of the land, the plains are now a national historic park.

ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī

*also called **Buākhar** * army of Saharan blacks organized in Morocco by the ʿAlawī ruler [][Ismāʿīl] (reigned 1672-1727). Earlier rulers had recruited black slaves (Arabic: *ʿabīd*) into their armies, and these men or their descendants eventually formed the core of Ismāʿīl's guard. The *ʿabīd* were sent to a special camp at []Mechraʿ er-Remel to beget children. The communal children, male and female, were presented to the ruler when they were about 10 years old and proceeded to a prescribed course of training. The boys acquired such skills as masonry, horsemanship, archery, and musketry, whereas the girls were prepared for domestic life or for entertainment. At the age of 15 they were divided among the various army corps and married, and eventually the cycle would repeat itself with their children. Ismāʿīl's army, numbering 150,000 men at its peak, consisted mainly of the "graduates" of the Mechraʿ er-Remel camp and supplementary slaves pirated from black Saharan tribes, all foreigners whose sole allegiance was to the ruler. The *ʿabīd* were highly favoured by Ismāʿīl, well paid, and often politically powerful; in 1697-98 they were even given the right to own property.

ʿAbbās II

*also called **Doʿabbās Ḥilmī Pasha** * born July 14, 1874, Alexandria, Egypt died December 20, 1944, Geneva, Switz. last khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, from 1892 to 1914, when British hegemony was established. His opposition to British power in Egypt made him prominent in the nationalist movement. At the beginning of his reign, ʿAbbās attempted to rule independently of Lord [][Cromer], the British agent and consul general in Egypt. Encouraged by popular discontent with the increasing British influence over Egypt and by the enthusiastic support of the nationalists, he appointed a prime minister who was well-known for his opposition to the British. When in 1894 he criticized the military efficiency of the British troops, Lord Cromer took steps to curb the viceroy's independence of action.

1054, Schism of

*also called **East-West Schism** * event that precipitated the final separation between the [][Eastern] Christian [][churches] (led by the patriarch of Constantinople, [][Michael Cerularius]) and the [Western Church] (led by Pope [][Leo IX]). The mutual excommunications by the Pope and the Patriarch that year became a watershed in church history. The excommunications were not lifted until 1965, when Pope [][Paul VI] and Patriarch [][Athenagoras], following their historic meeting in Jerusalem in 1964, presided over simultaneous ceremonies that revoked the excommunication decrees. The relation of the [][Byzantine] Church to the Roman may be described as one of growing estrangement from the 5th to the 11th century. In the early church three bishops stood forth prominently, principally from the political eminence of the cities in which they ruled—the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. The transfer of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople and the later eclipse of Alexandria and Antioch as battlegrounds of Islam and Christianity promoted the importance of Constantinople. Concurrently, the theological calmness of the West, in contrast to the often violent theological disputes that troubled the Eastern patriarchates, strengthened the position of the Roman popes, who made increasing claims to preeminence. But this preeminence, or rather the Roman idea of what was involved in it, was never acknowledged in the East. To press it upon the Eastern patriarchs was to prepare the way for separation; to insist upon it in times of irritation was to cause a schism. The theological genius of the East was different from that of the West. The Eastern theology had its roots in Greek philosophy, whereas a great deal of Western theology was based on Roman law. This gave rise to misunderstandings and at last led to two widely separate ways of regarding and defining one important doctrine—the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father or from the Father and the Son—with the Roman churches, without consulting the East, incorporating the Son into their creed. The Eastern churches also resented the Roman enforcement of clerical celibacy, the limitation of the right of confirmation to the bishop, and the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist.

acorn worm

*also called **Enteropneust,** * [![Photograph:Acorn worm (Dolichoglossus kowalewskii)]] - Acorn worm (*Dolichoglossus kowalewskii*) any of the soft-bodied invertebrates of the class Enteropneusta, phylum Hemichordata. The front end of these animals is shaped like an acorn, hence their common name. The "acorn" consists of a proboscis and a collar that may be used to burrow into soft sand or mud. The animals vary in length from about 5 cm (about 2 inches) in certain *[]Saccoglossus* species to more than 180 cm (about 6 feet) in *[Balanoglossus gigas].* Acorn worms live along the seashore and in water to depths of more than 3,200 m (10,500 feet). Most live in U-shaped burrows, but some deepwater species swim freely over the bottom. They filter food from seawater that passes into the mouth and out through the gill slits. Some species secrete a slime that is swept into the mouth by cilia, or tiny hairs, carrying food particles with it.

acetylene

*also called **Ethyne,** * the simplest and best-known member of the hydrocarbon series containing one or more pairs of carbon atoms linked by triple bonds, called the acetylenic series, or alkynes. It is a colourless, inflammable gas widely used as a fuel in [oxyacetylene welding] and cutting of metals and as raw material in the synthesis of many organic chemicals and plastics; its chemical formula is C~2~H~2~. Pure acetylene is a colourless gas with a pleasant odour; as prepared from calcium carbide it usually contains traces of phosphine that cause an unpleasant garliclike odour. Acetylene can be decomposed to its elements with the liberation of heat. The decomposition may or may not give rise to explosion, depending on conditions. Pure acetylene under pressure in excess of about 15 pounds per square inch or in liquid or solid form explodes with extreme violence. Mixtures of air and acetylene are explosive over a wide range, from about 2.5 percent air in acetylene to about 12.5 percent acetylene in air. When burned with the correct amount of air, acetylene gives a pure, white light, and for this reason it was at one time used for illumination in locations where electric power was not available, *e.g.,* buoys, miners' lamps, and road signals. The combustion of acetylene produces a large amount of heat, and, in a properly designed torch, the oxyacetylene flame attains the highest flame temperature (about 6,000° F, or 3,300° C) of any known mixture of combustible gases.

Aché

*also called **Guayakí,** * nomadic South American Indian people living in eastern [][Paraguay]. The Aché speak a Tupian dialect of the Tupi-Guaranian language family. They live in the densely forested, hilly region between the Paraguay and Paraná rivers. In pre-Spanish times, the Aché lived a more settled, agricultural life in a less harsh environment, but the activities of the Spanish and of the other tribes in the area pushed them into the hill country. The Aché probably numbered fewer than 1,000 individuals in the late 20th century. During and after the Spanish period, the Aché lived in bands of about 20 people, moving daily in search of forest game, which they hunted with bows and arrows, spears, traps, and pits. They fished in the rivers with bows and arrows, dams, and nets and harvested wild fruits and other plants, as well as grubs. Always an elusive people, the Aché were poorly known until the latter half of the 20th century, when the Paraguayan government's pacification program encouraged them to settle in permanent villages or camps. It was not until this time that social scientists were able to investigate and confirm scattered but persistent reports that some Aché groups had practiced [][cannibalism] well into the second half of the 20th century.

ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-ʿAbbās

*also called **Ibn Abbās** , byname **Al-ḥibr ("the Doctor")** , or **Al-baḥr ("the Sea")** * born *c.* 619 died 687/688, aṭ-Ṭāʾif, Arabia a Companion of the prophet Muḥammad, one of the greatest scholars of early Islām, and the first exegete of the Qurʾān. In the early struggles for the caliphate, Ibn ʿAbbās supported ʿAlī and was rewarded with the governorship of Baṣra. Subsequently he defected and withdrew to Mecca. During the reign of Muʿāwiyah he lived in the Hejaz, but frequently travelled to Damascus, the capital. After the death of Muʿāwiyah, he opposed ʿIbn az-Zubayr, whom he refused to recognize as caliph, and was forced to flee to aṭ-Ṭāʾif, where he died.

Ābu

*also called **Mount Ābu,** * [![Photograph:Carved ceiling of the assembly hall in the Vimala Vasahī temple at Dilwara, near Ābu, ...]] - Carved ceiling of the assembly hall in the Vimala Vasahī temple at Dilwara, near Ābu, ... city, southwestern Rājasthān state, northwestern India. It is situated on the slopes of [Mount Ābu], an isolated feature of the Arāvali Range. The city is a noted hill resort, and the Jaina temples at nearby Dilwara, built of white marble, are famous. []Tejpāl temple, built about AD 1200, is known for the delicacy and richness of its carving, especially for that on the underside of its dome. The earlier [Vimala Vasahī] temple, built about 1031, is simpler and bolder in style. Ābu was the headquarters of the British Rājputāna States Agency and has a police-training college. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 15,547.

Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir

*also called **Munshi Abdullah Bin Abdul Kadir** * born 1796, Malacca, Malaya died 1854, Jiddah, Turkish Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] Malayan-born writer who, through his autobiographical and other works, played an important role as a progenitor of modern Malay literature. Of mixed Arab (Yemeni) and Tamil descent, and Malayo-Muslim culture, Abdullah was born and grew up in a Malacca newly British, and he spent most of his life interpreting Malay society to Westerners and vice versa. Styled *munshi* (teacher) from an early age, in recognition of his teaching Malay to Indian soldiers of the Malacca garrison (and later to a whole generation of British and American missionaries, officials, and businessmen), he rapidly became an indispensable functionary in the fledgling Straits Settlements. He was copyist and Malay scribe for [][Sir Stamford Raffles], was translator of the Gospels and other texts into Malay for the London Missionary Society in Malacca from 1815, and 20 years later served as printer to the press of the American Board of Missions in Singapore.

Abū Kālījār al-Marzubān ibn Sulṭān ad-Dawlah

*also called **Muḥyīʾad-dīn** * born , May/June 1009, Basra, Iraq died October 1048, Khannāb, near Kermān, Iran ruler of the Būyid dynasty from 1024, who for a brief spell reunited the Būyid territories in Iraq and Iran. When his father, []Sulṭān ad-Dawlah, died in December 1023/January 1024, Abū Kālījār's succession to the sultan's Iranian possessions of Fārs and Khuzistan was challenged by his uncle []Abū al-Fawāris, the ruler of Kerman, to the west. By 1028 Abū Kālījār was victorious and added Kerman to his domains. In the meantime (1027) he had attacked the Iraqi lands of another uncle, []Jalāl ad-Dawlah, and had precipitated a civil war between the Iraqi and the Iranian branches of the Būyid family that lasted until 1037, when the two made peace. With the death of Jalāl ad-Dawlah in March 1044, Abū Kālījār was recognized as the Būyid ruler in Iraq.

Abkhazo-Adyghian languages

*also called **Northwest Caucasian Languages,** * group of languages spoken primarily in the northwestern part of the Caucasus Mountains. The languages of this group—Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyghian, Kabardian (Circassian), and the nearly extinct Ubykh—are noted for the great number of distinctive consonants and limited number of distinctive vowels in their sound systems.

Adam's Bridge

*also called **Rama's Bridge,** * chain of shoals, between the islands of Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rāmeswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The bridge is 30 miles (48 km) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). Some of the sandbanks are dry, and nowhere are the shoals deeper than 4 feet (1 m); thus, they seriously hinder navigation. Dredging operations, now abandoned, were begun as early as 1838 but never succeeded in maintaining a channel for any vessels except those of light draft. Geologic evidence suggests that Adam's Bridge represents a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka. Traditionally, it is said to be the remnant of a huge causeway constructed by [][Rāma], the hero of the Hindu epic *Rāmāyaṇa,* to facilitate the passage of his army from India to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) for the rescue of his abducted wife, Sītā. According to Muslim legend, Adam crossed there to Adam's Peak, Ceylon, atop which he stood repentant on one foot for 1,000 years.

accent

*also called **Stress,** * in music, momentary emphasis on a particular rhythmic or melodic detail; accent may be implied or specifically indicated, either graphically for example, \>, —) or verbally (*sforzato*, abbreviated *sfz*). In metrically organized music, accents serve to articulate rhythmic groupings, especially in dances where regular accentuation facilitates the patterning of steps. As a rule, the heaviest accent falls on the first beat of the measure (actually it is the accent that determines where the measure begins). In compound metres a lesser accent marks the beginning of the second half of the measure (*e.g.*, the third beat in ^^4^^/~~4~~ or the fourth in ^^6^^/~~8~~). Entire measures, also, may be subject to greater or lesser accentuation, which contributes vitally to meaningful phrasing, especially in periodically structured music. Dynamic accents, realized through a temporary increase in sonorous volume, are to be distinguished from agogic accents, produced by slight durational extensions. Regular implied accents may be temporarily displaced through the process known as [syncopation] (*q.v.*). In a typical instance, the accent on the first beat will be suppressed by a quarter rest followed by a half note (in ^^4^^/~~4~~). Or, instead of being replaced by a rest, the first beat may be tied across the bar line to the last note of the preceding measure.

30 Doradus

*also called **Tarantula Nebula (catalog number NGC 2070)** * [![Photograph:The inner part of the 30 Doradus Nebula, the most luminous nebula in the entire Local Group of ...]] - The inner part of the 30 Doradus Nebula, the most luminous nebula in the entire Local Group of ... immense ionized-hydrogen region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way system (in which the Earth is located). The nebula consists of a cloud of interstellar gas—principally hydrogen—lit from within by young, hot stars that ionize the gas around them. As the atoms in the gas recombine, they emit visible light. The total mass of the nebula is about 1,000,000 solar masses, and its diameter is 170 parsecs (550 light-years), making it the largest region of ionized gas in the entire [Local Group] (*q.v.*) of galaxies.

ʿAbd al-Wādid Dynasty

*also called **Zayyānid Dynasty** , or **Banū Zayyān** * dynasty of Zanātah Berbers (1236-1550), successors to the Almohad empire in northwestern Algeria. In 1236 the Zanātahs, loyal vassals to the Almohads, gained the support of other Berber tribes and nomadic Arabs and set up a kingdom at Tilimsān ([][Tlemcen]), headed by the Zanātah *amīr* []Yaghmurāsan (ruled 1236-83). Yaghmurāsan was able to maintain internal peace through the successful control of the rival Berber factions, and, in the face of the Marīnid threat in the west, he formed an alliance with the Sultan of Granada and the King of Castile. After his death, however, the Marīnid sultan Abū Yaʿqūb besieged Tilimsān for eight years (1298-1306). The city was finally taken in 1337 by Abū al-Ḥasan, and a 10-year period of Marīnid domination followed. Recaptured by the ʿAbd al-Wādids in 1348, Tilimsān was again stormed by the Marīnids in 1352, who ruled for another seven years. ʿAbd al-Wādid attempts at expansion eastward into Ḥafṣid Tunis also proved disastrous, and, for a time in the early 15th century, they were virtual vassals of the Ḥafṣid state. The kingdom's chronic weakness may be traced to its lack of geographical and cultural unity, the absence of fixed frontiers, and constant internal rebellions. It further suffered from a shortage of manpower, having to rely on intractable Arab nomads for soldiers. Its economic prosperity was based on the position of Tilimsān along the trade route between the Mediterranean ports and Saharan oases. The ʿAbd al-Wādid state collapsed in 1550, when Tilimsān was seized by the Ottoman Turks after a half century of alternating Spanish-Turkish suzerainty.

abolitionism

*also called **abolition movement** * (c. 1783-1888), in western Europe and the Americas, the movement chiefly responsible for creating the emotional climate necessary for ending the transatlantic [][slave trade] and chattel slavery. With the decline of Roman slavery in the 5th century, the institution waned in western Europe and by the 11th century had virtually disappeared. Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa beginning in 1420, however, created an interest in slavery in the recently formed colonies of North America, South America, and the West Indies, where the need for plantation labour generated an immense market for slaves. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, an estimated total of 12 million [][Africans] were forcibly transported to the Americas. [![Photograph:Abolitionist Wendell Phillips speaking against the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 at an antislavery ...]] - Abolitionist Wendell Phillips speaking against the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 at an antislavery ... Despite its brutality and inhumanity, the slave system aroused little protest until the 18th century, when rationalist thinkers of the [][Enlightenment] began to criticize it for its violation of the rights of man, and Quaker and other evangelical religious groups condemned it for its un-[][Christian] qualities. By the late 18th century, moral disapproval of slavery was widespread, and antislavery reformers won a number of deceptively easy victories during this period. In Britain, [][Granville Sharp] secured a legal decision in 1772 that West Indian planters could not hold slaves in Britain, since slavery was contrary to English law. In the [][United States], all of the states north of Maryland abolished slavery between 1777 and 1804. But antislavery sentiments had little effect on the centres of slavery themselves: the great plantations of the Deep South, the West Indies, and South America. Turning their attention to these areas, British and American abolitionists began working in the late 18th century to prohibit the importation of African slaves into the British colonies and the United States. Under the leadership of [][William Wilberforce] and [][Thomas Clarkson], these forces succeeded in getting the slave trade to the British colonies abolished in 1807. The United States prohibited the importation of slaves that same year, though widespread smuggling continued until about 1862. Antislavery forces then concentrated on winning the emancipation of those populations already in slavery. They were triumphant when slavery was abolished in the British West Indies by 1838 and in French possessions 10 years later. [![Photograph:The title page of The Confessions of Nat Turner (1832), an account of ...]] - The title page of *The Confessions of Nat Turner* (1832), an account of ...

Abū Bakr

*also called **al-Ṣiddīq (Arabic: "the Upright")** * born *c.* 573 died August 23, 634 [![Photograph:Abū Bakr (second figure on left), miniature from an illuminated manuscript; in the British ...]] - Abū Bakr (second figure on left), miniature from an illuminated manuscript; in the British ... [][Muhammad]'s closest companion and adviser, who succeeded to the Prophet's political and administrative functions, thereby initiating the office of the caliphate.

Achilles tendon

*also called **calcaneal tendon** * strong tendon at the back of the heel that connects the calf muscles to the heel. The tendon is formed from the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (the calf muscles) and is inserted into the heel bone. The contracting calf muscles lift the heel by this tendon, thus producing a foot action that is basic to walking, running, and jumping. The Achilles tendon is the thickest and most powerful tendon in the body. If the tendon is cut, use of the leg for running or jumping is lost. The tendon is named after the ancient Greek mythological figure [][Achilles] because it lies at the only part of his body that was still vulnerable after his mother had dipped him (holding him by the heel) into the River Styx.

achondroplasia

*also called **chondrodystrophia fetalis** * genetic disorder characterized by an abnormality in the conversion of [cartilage] into [bone]. As a consequence, bones that depend on cartilage models for development, particularly long bones such as the [femur] and [humerus], cannot grow. Achondroplasia is the most common cause of [dwarfism]. In those afflicted with the disorder, the limbs are very short (fingers reach only to the hips), but the trunk is almost normal in size. The head is enlarged because of some overgrowth of the vault bones following premature closure of sutures at the base of the skull. Other manifestations of achrondoplasia include a bulging forehead, saddle nose, protruding jaw, deeply incurved lower back with prominent buttocks, and a narrow chest; women with the disorder may have narrow pelvises and, subsequently, difficulty in childbirth. Achondroplasia is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait; about 80 percent of cases of the disorder result from new genetic mutations rather than from the parental transmission of defective genes. Affected individuals are of normal intelligence and have otherwise normal health.

acetic acid

*also called **ethanoic acid (CH~3~COOH)** * the most important of the carboxylic acids. A dilute solution of acetic acid produced by fermentation and oxidation of natural carbohydrates is called [][vinegar] (*q.v.*); a salt, ester, or acylal of acetic acid is called [acetate]. Industrially, acetic acid is used in the preparation of metal acetates, used in some printing processes; vinyl acetate, employed in the production of plastics; cellulose acetate, a major ingredient in photographic films and textiles; and volatile organic esters (such as ethyl and butyl acetates), which are widely used as solvents for resins, paints, and lacquers. Biologically, acetic acid is an important metabolic intermediate, and it occurs naturally in body fluids and plant juices. Besides that produced as vinegar, vast amounts of acetic acid are prepared synthetically. In one common process acetylene is hydrated to acetaldehyde, which is then oxidized to acetic acid. Ethyl alcohol also is converted industrially to acetic acid by oxidation. Pure acetic acid, often called glacial acetic acid, is a corrosive, colourless liquid (boiling point 117.9° C; melting point 16.6° C), completely miscible with water.

3-D

*also called **stereoscopic,** * motion-picture process that gives a three-dimensional quality to film images. It is based on the fact that humans perceive depth by viewing with both eyes. In the 3-D process, two cameras or a twin-lensed camera are used for filming, one representing the left eye and the other the right. The two lenses are spaced about 2 ^^1^^/~~2~~ inches (6.3 cm) apart, the same as the separation between a person's eyes. The resulting images are simultaneously projected onto the screen by two synchronized projectors. The viewer must wear differently tinted or polarized glasses so that the left- and right-eye images are visible only to the eye for which they are intended. The viewer actually sees the images separately but perceives them in three dimensions because, for all practical purposes, the two slightly different images are fused together instantly by his mind. Studios and independent producers experimented with 3-D throughout the 1920s and '30s. Many of the technical problems were later solved by the Natural Vision process, which used striated polarized lenses (with similarly striated viewing glasses for the audience) that made it possible to film in natural colour and correctly applied the convergence principle of the human eye in the filming. The first 3-D film in [Natural Vision] was *[]Bwana Devil* (1952), which was followed by several hastily shot action films. It is generally believed that the popularity of 3-D in the United States subsided after about a year because of the low quality of the films presented. Filmmakers in Italy, Germany, The Netherlands, Great Britain, and other countries experimented with 3-D at about the same time as did those in the United States, but its popularity in Europe soon faded when the illusion of depth was no longer a novelty. The process experienced a minor revival beginning in the 1970s.

Act of Parliament clock

*also called **tavern clock** * [![Photograph:Act of Parliament clock, painted wood with gilt enrichments, English, mid-18th century; in the ...]] - Act of Parliament clock, painted wood with gilt enrichments, English, mid-18th century; in the ... weight-driven wall clock with a large wooden, painted or lacquered dial. More correctly, it is called a tavern clock. Clocks of this type were displayed by innkeepers and got their name from the passage of a five-shilling duty on clocks in Great Britain, introduced in 1797 by the English prime minister [William Pitt the Younger]. (Many clocks were disposed of by their owners, who consequently relied more on clocks in public places, and the effect on the clock-making industry was so disastrous that the act was repealed the following year.) Actually, these clocks were first made before the mid-18th century and were in use in servants' quarters of large houses as well as taverns. [Jonathan D. Betts]

Abbas, Mahmoud

*also known as **Abu Mazen** * born 1935, Zefat, Palestine [now in Israel] [![Photograph:Mahmoud Abbas, 2004.]] - Mahmoud Abbas, 2004. Palestinian politician, who served briefly as prime minister of the [Palestinian Authority] in 2003 and was elected its president in 2005 following the death of [Yāsir ʿArafāt]. Abbas, born in the Arab-Jewish town of [Zefat], fled with his family to Syria during the 1948 [Arab-Israeli war]. Despite the family's refugee status, Abbas earned a law degree from the University of Damascus. In the late 1950s Abbas was one of the founders of [][Fatah], which spearheaded the Palestinian armed struggle and came to dominate the [][Palestine Liberation Organization] (PLO). As head of the PLO's international department in the late 1970s, Abbas was instrumental in forging contacts with Israeli peace groups. In 1982 Abbas was awarded a doctorate in history from Moscow State University; his dissertation, which examined Nazism and Zionism, later was decried by Jewish groups as a work of [Holocaust] denial, and in the 1990s he distanced himself from some of its more controversial elements.

Åbenrå

*also spelled **Aabenraa** * city, seat of Sønderjylland *amtskommune* (county commune), southeastern Jutland, Denmark, at the head of Åbenrå Fjord. First mentioned in the 12th century when attacked by the Wends, it was granted a charter (1335) and grew from a fishing village into a thriving port in the 17th and 18th centuries. Medieval landmarks include the St. Nicholas Church (a 13th-century church; restored 1949-56) and Brøndlund Slot (a fortress, begun 1411, rebuilt 1807). The city was German from 1864 until a plebiscite in 1920 and was known as Apenrade. Åbenrå is a marketing centre with a large import trade and the largest port in southeastern Jutland. Local industries include machinery production, food processing, pipe-organ building, and fishing. Pop. (2000 est.) city, 16,126; mun., 22,020.

Aare River

*also spelled **Aar,** * tributary of the Rhine and the longest stream (183 miles [295 km]) entirely within Switzerland; it drains an area of 6,865 square miles (17,779 square km). The river rises in the Aare Glacier of the Bernese Alps in Bern canton, below the Finsteraarhorn and west of the Grimsel Pass, in the south-central part of Switzerland. As the Aare flows north past Meiringen, the river cuts through the scenic Aare Gorge. After turning west, it expands into the glacial Lake Brienz. The river is canalized at Interlaken above its entry into Lake Thun, at the lower end of which the river flows northwest in a deeply entrenched valley and almost encircles the medieval core of the city of Bern. It turns west to Lake Wohlen and then flows north to Aarberg, where it is diverted west by the Hagneck Canal into Lake Biel. Continuing northeastward, the river parallels the foot of the Jura Mountains. Below Brugg, the Reuss and Limmat rivers join the Aare before it enters the Rhine River at Koblenz, Switz.

ʿAbd Allāh

*also spelled **Abdullah** , in full **ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz** * born *c.* 1923 king of Saudi Arabia from 2005. As crown prince (1982-2005), he had served as the country's de facto ruler following the 1995 stroke of his half brother King [][Fahd] (reigned 1982-2005). ʿAbd Allāh was one of King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's 37 sons. For his support of Crown Prince [Fayṣal] (1964-75) during Fayṣal's power struggle with King [Saʿūd] (1953-64), ʿAbd Allāh was rewarded in 1962 with command of the Saudi National Guard. In 1975 King [Khālid] (1975-82), Fayṣal's successor, appointed him deputy prime minister, and in 1982 King Fahd appointed him crown prince and first deputy prime minister. In 1995 Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and ʿAbd Allāh briefly served as regent the following year. Although Fahd subsequently returned to power, ʿAbd Allāh ran the daily affairs of the country and became king after Fahd died in 2005. ʿAbd Allāh was committed to preserving Arab interests, but he also sought to maintain strong ties with the West, especially with the [United States]. In 2001 relations between the two countries grew strained over Saudi claims that the U.S. government was not evenhanded in its approach to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. The situation worsened later in the year, following the [September 11 attacks] against the United States and the subsequent revelation that most of the attackers were Saudi nationals. ʿAbd Allāh condemned the attacks and, in a move to improve relations, proposed a peace initiative that was adopted at the 2002 Arab summit meeting. The plan called upon Israel to withdraw from the occupied territories (the [Gaza Strip], [West Bank], and [Golan Heights]) and promised in return a full Arab normalization of relations with the Jewish country. Tensions between the United States and Saudi Arabia resurfaced, however, after ʿAbd Allāh refused to support a U.S.-led [][attack on Iraq] or to allow the use of Saudi military facilities for such an act. (*See* [Iraq War].)

Abijah

*also spelled **Abia,** Hebrew **Abiyyah, or Abiyyahu** * ("Yahweh Is My Father"), any of nine different persons mentioned in the Bible, of whom the most noteworthy are the following: (1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (II Chronicles 12:16, 13), who reigned about two years (*c*. 915-913 BC). (2) The second son of Samuel (I Samuel 8:2; I Chronicles 6:28), who, with his brother Joel, served as a judge at Beersheba. The elders of Israel made the pair's misconduct a pretext for demanding a king (I Samuel 8:4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I, king of Israel; he died young (I Kings 14). (4) Head of the eighth order of priests (I Chronicles 24:10), the order to which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke 1:5).

Abkhazia

*also spelled **Abkhaziya,** * republic in northwestern Georgia, between the Black Sea (south) and the crest line of the Greater Caucasus range (north). Bordering the eastern shores of the Black Sea, the republic consists of a narrow coastal lowland broken by mountain spurs, followed by a hilly foreland zone of eroded marine and river terraces that merge into the steep slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. The sharp relief in close proximity to the sea gives Abkhazia a wet climate. Near-subtropical conditions prevail in the lowland, where the average January temperature remains above freezing point and annual rainfall is 47 to 55 inches (1,200 to 1,400 mm). On the mountain slopes, climatic conditions are more severe and rainfall is heavier. Wide areas of the lowland and foreland zones have been cleared of the forests of oak, beech, and hornbeam that once covered [][Abkhazia].

Abenaki

*also spelled **Abnaki** or **Wabanaki** * [![Photograph:Abenaki traditional dance troupe performing a friendship dance in Montpelier, Vt.]] - Abenaki traditional dance troupe performing a friendship dance in Montpelier, Vt. [Algonquian]-speaking North American Indian tribe that united with other tribes in the 17th century to furnish mutual protection against the [Iroquois Confederacy]. The name refers to their location "toward the dawn." In its earliest known form, the [Abenaki Confederacy] consisted of tribes or bands living east and northeast of present-day New York state, including Abenaki, [Passamaquoddy] and [Penobscot] in present-day Maine, [Malecite] and [Micmac] in present-day Maritime Provinces, and Cowasuck, Sokoki, and others in present-day Vermont and New Hampshire. Later the confederacy included some tribes as far south as present-day Delaware. Traditional Abenaki social organization consisted of relatively small kin-based bands led by a civil chief who advised the group and facilitated consensus-based decision making; there was usually a separate war chief. A general council of all adult men and women decided matters relating to war; a smaller council of chiefs and representatives from each family decided other questions of importance to the group. In order to cement relations between bands and with other tribes, the Abenaki engaged in a form of institutionalized comradeship that united two men for life in ritual brotherhood.

abraxas

*also spelled **Abrasax,** * [![Photograph:Abraxas stone]] - Abraxas stone sequence of Greek letters considered as a word and formerly inscribed on charms, amulets, and gems in the belief that it possessed magical qualities. In the 2nd century AD, some Gnostic and other dualistic sects, which viewed matter as evil and the spirit as good and held that salvation came through esoteric knowledge, or gnosis, personified Abraxas and initiated a cult sometimes related to worship of the sun god. [][Basilides] of Egypt, an early 2nd-century Gnostic teacher, viewed Abraxas as the supreme deity and the source of divine emanations, the ruler of all the 365 heavens, or circles of creation—one for each day of the year. The number 365 corresponds to the numerical value of the seven Greek letters that form the word abraxas.

Abraha

*also spelled **Abreha** * flourished 6th century AD Ethiopian Christian viceroy of Yemen in southern Arabia. Abraha was viceroy of the principality of Sabaʾ in Yemen for the (Christian) emperors of Ethiopia. A zealous Christian himself, he is said to have built a great church at Sanaa and to have repaired the principal irrigation dam at the Sabaean capital of Maʾrib. Abraha is chiefly famous, however, for the military expedition that he led northward against the city of [][Mecca] in the same year as Muhammad's birth, about 570. Though it was supported by elephants, the expedition failed, and Muslims believe that Mecca escaped capture only through a miracle. Abraha's rule ended in 575 when the Persian Sāsānians invaded the region and brought the Sabaean kingdom to an end.

Abū al-Qāsim

*also spelled **Abul Kasim** , in full **Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn ʿAbbās az-Zahrāwī** , Latin **Albucasis** * born *c.* 936, , near Córdoba [Spain] died *c.* 1013 Islām's greatest medieval surgeon, whose comprehensive medical text, combining Middle Eastern and Greco-Roman classical teachings, shaped European surgical procedures until the Renaissance. Abū al-Qāsim was court physician to the Spanish caliph ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān III an-Nāṣir and wrote []*At-Taṣrīf liman ʿajazʿan at-Taʾālīf,* or *At-Taṣrīf* ("The Method"), a medical work in 30 parts. While much of the text was based on earlier authorities, especially the *Epitomae* of the 7th-century Byzantine physician Paul of Aegina, it contained many original observations, including the earliest known description of [][hemophilia]. The last chapter, with its drawings of more than 200 instruments, constitutes the first illustrated, independent work on surgery.

Abūʾl-Wafāʾ

*also spelled **Abul Wefa** , in full **Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-ʿAbbās Abūʾl-Wafāʾ al-Būzjānī** * born 940, Buzjan, Iran died 998, Baghdad, Iraq a distinguished Muslim astronomer and mathematician, who made important contributions to the development of [][trigonometry]. Abūʾl-Wafāʾ worked in a private observatory in Baghdad, where he made observations to determine, among other astronomical parameters, the obliquity of the [ecliptic], the length of the seasons, and the latitude of the city. He also worked with astronomers in [Khwārezm] (now in Uzbekistan) to determine the difference in longitude between the two localities by means of the simultaneous observation of a lunar eclipse. He did not, as is sometimes claimed, discover the inequality in the Moon's motion later called variation, but in his work on astronomy he utilized all six trigonometric functions and calculated tables for them. He discovered a new method for calculating the sine of ^^1^^/~~2~~° correct to the equivalent of eight decimal places, and he anticipated modern usage by suggesting the circle of unit radius for defining trigonometric functions. He simplified ancient methods of spherical trigonometry and proved the law of sines for general spherical triangles.

Abū Ṣīr

*also spelled **Abusir,** * ![Map/Still] ancient site between [Al-Jīzah] (Giza) and [Ṣaqqārah], northern [Egypt], where several 5th-dynasty (c. 2465-c. 2325 BC) kings built their [pyramids]. The pyramids were poorly constructed (in comparison with Egyptian monuments of similar types) and are now in a state of disrepair. The adjoining mortuary temples are notable for their elaborate sculptured wall reliefs and columns in the forms of palm, lotus, and papyrus plants. Near their pyramids a number of the kings, including [Userkaf] and [Neuserre], built sanctuaries with [obelisks] dedicated to [Re], the sun god. In 1979 Abū Ṣīr and other sites in the area—[Dahshūr], Ṣaqqārah, [Abū Ruwaysh], [Memphis], and the [Pyramids of Giza]—were collectively inscribed on UNESCO's [][World Heritage List]. Numerous excavations in the area have yielded disturbed (usually plundered) remains, but in 1998 a team of archaeologists from [Charles University], Czech Republic, uncovered the intact sarcophagus of []Iufaa, a priest and palace administrator who lived about 525 BC. Additional Reading {#92943.toc} ------------------

Abu Simbel

*also spelled **Abū Sunbul** * [![Photograph:Colossal statues of Ramses II seated at the main entrance to the Great Temple at Abu Simbel near ...]] - Colossal statues of Ramses II seated at the main entrance to the Great Temple at Abu Simbel near ... ![Map/Still] site of two temples built by the Egyptian king [][Ramses II] (reigned 1279-13 BC), now located in Aswān *muḥāfaẓah* (governorate), southern [Egypt]. In ancient times the area was at the southern frontier of pharaonic Egypt, facing Nubia. The four colossal statues of Ramses in front of the main temple are spectacular examples of ancient Egyptian art. By means of a complex engineering feat in the 1960s, the temples were salvaged from the rising waters of the [Nile River] caused by erection of the [Aswan High Dam].

Aceh

*also spelled **Acheh,** **Achin,** or **Atjeh** , in full **Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam** or English **State of Aceh, Abode of Peace** * semiautonomous province of [Indonesia], forming the northern extremity of the island of [Sumatra]. Aceh is surrounded by water on three sides: the Indian Ocean to the west and north and the Strait of Malacca to the east. Its boundary with [Sumatera Utara] (North Sumatra) province to the southeast extends north-south from Salahaji on the northeastern coast just north of Aru Bay to a point on the southwestern coast about midway between Singkilbaru and Barus. The capital is [Banda Aceh]. Pole, a Buddhist state that flourished about AD 500 in northern Sumatra, was visited by Arab, Indian, and Chinese merchants and pilgrims. In the 13th century Aceh became the first Muslim stronghold in the Indonesian archipelago. It was later visited by English explorers (in 1591) and by the Dutch. Its power reached its height in the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-36). In that period there were frequent wars with the Portuguese at Malacca, and the Portuguese fleet was defeated at Bintan in 1614. The Dutch (1599) and the English (1602) tried unsuccessfully to establish trading settlements in Aceh. After a short-lived alliance (1641) with the Dutch, the sultanate of Aceh declined in influence. Following the Napoleonic Wars, when the East Indies were restored to The Netherlands, the British tried to keep Dutch influence out of Aceh, and an 1824 treaty stipulated that no hostile actions be undertaken. That reservation was withdrawn in 1873, upon which the Dutch tried to conquer Aceh. More than 25 years of open warfare (the [][Achinese War]) ensued between the Achinese and the Dutch. Tuanku Danel Syah, the Achinese sultan, finally surrendered to the Dutch in 1903 and was exiled in 1905. Until the end of Dutch colonial rule, however, the area was never fully pacified.

Acholi

*also spelled **Acoli** , also called **Gang** or **Shuli** * ethnolinguistic group of northern [Uganda] and southernmost [Sudan]. Numbering more than one million at the turn of the 21st century, they speak a Western [Nilotic language] of the Eastern Sudanic branch of the [Nilo-Saharan family] and are culturally and historically related to their traditional enemies, the neighbouring [Lango]. The Acholi are the descendants of a variety of Luo-speaking peoples who are believed to have migrated from adjacent areas of the southern Sudan into what is now the Acholi district of Uganda three or four centuries ago. The Acholi have small chiefdoms of one or more villages, each with several patrilineal clans. Chiefs are chosen from one lineage. The Acholi live in small hamlets among patrilineal kin. They keep sheep and cattle but are not as committed to pastoralism as some other Nilotic peoples are. Millet is the staple food of the Acholi, and tobacco is grown for trade. Corn (maize), sorghum, beans, squash, peanuts (groundnuts), and other savanna crops also are grown. Hunting tracts are owned by clans. Stream and swamp fishing are important. The Acholi were considered a martial people by the British, and many joined the military. Under the Ugandan president [][Idi Amin] (1971-79), the Acholi were severely persecuted and their men systematically executed for their past association with the colonial army and for their support of President [Milton Obote] (1962-71, 1980-85).

Adalbert

*also spelled **Adelbert** * born *c.* 1000 died March 16, 1072, Goslar, Saxony [now in Germany] German archbishop, the most brilliant of the medieval prince bishops of Bremen, and a leading member of the royal administration. The youngest son of Frederick, Count of Goseck (on the Saale River), Adalbert attended the cathedral school at Halberstadt, becoming subsequently subdeacon and, in 1032, canon. In May 1043 he was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen by the German king, later the Holy Roman emperor Henry III. High in the emperor's favour, Adalbert tried to increase the influence of his archbishopric and to make Bremen a patriarchal see for northern Europe. Pope Leo IX, however, though he made Adalbert his vicar for the northern countries in 1053, never allowed him to exercise the authority that he desired.

Adamnan, Saint

*also spelled **Adomnan,** also called **Eunan** * born *c.* 625, County Donegal, Ire. died 704, ; feast day September 23 abbot and scholar, particularly noted as the biographer of St. Columba. Nothing is known of Adamnan's early life. In 679 he was elected abbot of Iona, the ninth in succession from St. Columba, the founder. While on a visit to Northumbria, he adopted the Roman rules on the tonsure and for determining the date of Easter that had been accepted for England at the Synod of Whitby in 663/664. He failed, however, to enforce the changes at Iona. He then traveled much in Ireland to promote the observance of the Roman Easter, but he was never able to persuade his own community. At the council of Birr in County Offaly, he succeeded in ameliorating the condition of women, particularly by exempting them from military service; he also made regulations protecting children and clerics, and these reforms became known as the []Law of Adamnan.

Abaiang Atoll

*also spelled **Apaiang,** also called **Apia,** formerly **Charlotte Island** * coral atoll of the [Gilbert Islands], part of [Kiribati], in the west-central [Pacific Ocean]. Comprising six islets in the northern Gilberts, the atoll has a lagoon (16 miles by 5 miles [26 km by 8 km]) that provides sheltered anchorage. The islets of Abaiang are Teirio, Nuotaea, Nanikirata, Twin Tree, Ribona, and Iku. Its European discoverer, Capt. Thomas Gilbert (1788), named it Matthew's Island for the owner of his ship, the Charlotte. He called the lagoon Charlotte Bay and the main islet Point Charlotte. Subsequent errors in identification led to the island's being known as Charlotte Island. The area's first influential missionary, the American Hiram Bingham, arrived there in 1857. The atoll, occupied by the Japanese in 1941-43, was subsequently used by Allied forces as a base for attacking the Marshall Islands. The administrative centre and main village is Tuarabu. Copra is exported. Total land area 7 square miles (18 square km). Pop. (2005 prelim.) 5,502.

Abemama Atoll

*also spelled **Apamama** , formerly **Roger Simpson Island** * coral atoll of the northern Gilbert Islands, part of [Kiribati], in the west-central Pacific Ocean. Capt. Charles Bishop, who reached the atoll in 1799, named it Roger Simpson Island for one of his associates. Seat of the area's ruling family in the 19th century, the atoll was the site of the formal British annexation of the Gilbert Island group in 1892. Occupied by Japanese forces from 1942 to 1943, Abemama became a U.S. military base for the following two years. Near the end of World War II, Abemama was proposed as the capital of Kiribati, but the idea was abandoned in 1947 in favour of Tarawa because the latter's lagoon was more easily navigable. The administrative headquarters of Abemama Atoll is at Kariatebike. There are also a hospital and an airfield. Copra is exported. Pop. (2005 prelim.) 3,404.

Achinese

*also spelled **Atjehnese,** * one of the main ethnic groups on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. They were estimated to number roughly 2,100,000 in the late 20th century. They speak a language of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family. The Achinese were ruled by Indian princes prior to AD 500, and in the 13th century they became the first people in the archipelago to adopt Islām. After expelling the Portuguese in the 17th century, the sultanate of Acheh (now Aceh) was dominant in northern Sumatra until 1904, when the sultanate was conquered by the Dutch. The Achinese, however, were never fully subdued. Although they are now part of the Indonesian republic, they remain restive and are administered within a special district. Western influence is evident in the Achinese's public buildings and in the homes of the well-to-do. Otherwise the native type of dwelling prevails, consisting of a three-room structure of wood raised high above the ground on pilings.

Adams, Franklin Pierce

*byname **F.p.a.** * born Nov. 15, 1881, Chicago died March 23, 1960, New York City U.S. newspaper columnist, translator, poet, and radio personality whose humorous syndicated column "The []Conning Tower" earned him the reputation of godfather of the contemporary newspaper column. He wrote primarily under his initials, F.P.A. Adams' newspaper career began in 1903, with the *Chicago Journal.* The next year he went to New York, where he wrote for several newspapers. From 1913 to 1937 his column, "The Conning Tower," appeared in the *Herald Tribune* and several other New York newspapers, interrupted only during the years of World War I, when Adams wrote a column for *Stars and Stripes,* and from 1923 to 1931, when he worked for the New York *World* until it ceased publication. Witty and well-written, his columns consisted of informal yet careful critiques of the contemporary U.S. scene. His column also included writing by such authors as Dorothy Parker and Sinclair Lewis. His Saturday columns imitated the language and style of [][Samuel Pepys'] diary, and Adams is credited with a renewal of interest in Pepys. Reprints were collected in *The Diary of Our Own Samuel Pepys* (1935).

Abdullah, Sheikh Muhammad

*byname **Lion Of Kashmir** * born December 5, 1905, Soura, near Srinagar, Kashmir, India died September 8, 1982, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir a prominent figure in India's struggle for independence, who fought for the rights of Kashmir and won for it a semiautonomous status within India. Abdullah was educated at the Prince of Wales College (Jammu) and the Islamia College (Lahore) and received an M.S. degree in physics from Aligarh Muslim University in 1930. He championed the rights of the Muslim majority of the state during British rule in India and fought against the discrimination exercised by the Hindu ruling house. After Abdullah served the first of many terms of imprisonment in 1931, he founded the Kashmir Muslim (later National) Conference. He supported the concept of a secular state, and when India was granted independence he strongly opposed the idea of joining Muslim Pakistan.

Aaron, Hank

*byname of **Henry Louis Aaron** * born February 5, 1934, Mobile, Alabama, U.S. [![Photograph:Hank Aaron.]] - Hank Aaron. American professional [baseball] player who, during 23 seasons in the major leagues (1954-76), surpassed [batting] records set by some of the greatest hitters in the game, including [Babe Ruth], [Ty Cobb], and [Stan Musial]. Aaron, a right-hander, began his professional career in 1952, playing shortstop for a few months with the Indianapolis Clowns of the [Negro American League]. His contract was bought by the [Boston Braves] of the [National League], who assigned him to minor league teams. In 1954 he moved up to the majors, playing mostly as an outfielder for the Braves (who had moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1953). In 1956 he won the league batting championship with an average of .328, and in 1957, having led his team to victory in the World Series, he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. By the time the Braves moved to Atlanta, Georgia, at the end of 1965, Aaron had hit 398 [home runs]. In Atlanta on April 8, 1974, he hit his 715th, breaking Babe Ruth's record, which had stood since 1935. After the 1974 season, Aaron was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers, who were at that time in the [American League]. Aaron retired after the 1976 season and rejoined the Atlanta Braves as an executive. He was elected to the [Baseball Hall of Fame] on January 13, 1982.

Abū Tammām

*in full **Abū Tammām Ḥabīb Ibn Aws** * born 804, near Damascus [now in Syria] died *c.* 845, , Mosul, Iraq poet and editor of an anthology of early Arabic poems known as the *[][Ḥamāsah]*. Abū Tammām changed his Christian father's name of Thādhūs to Aws and invented for himself an Arab genealogy. In his youth he worked in Damascus as a weaver's assistant but on going to Egypt began to study poetry. It is not certain when he began to write verse, but by the time of the caliph al-[][Muʿtaṣim] (reigned 833-842) he had established a small reputation. This was greatly enlarged through his association with al-Muʿtaṣim's court, where he became the most acclaimed panegyrist of his day. He traveled to Armenia and Nīshāpūr, Iran, and on his return from Iran stopped in Hamadan, where he began compiling his *Ḥamāsah.*

Abū ʿAlī Muṣṭafā

*byname of **Muṣṭafā al-Zibrī** * born 1938, ʿArrābah, Palestine [West Bank] died August 27, 2001, Ramallah, West Bank Palestinian nationalist who was a cofounder (1967) and secretary-general (2000-01) of the [][Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine] (PFLP), a radical faction of the [Palestine Liberation Organization] (PLO). Born Muṣṭafā al-Zibrī, he later took the nom de guerre Abū ʿAlī Muṣṭafā. As a young man he joined [][George Habash]'s Arab National Movement, and in 1967 he and Habash formed the Marxist-oriented PFLP, based in Damascus, Syria. The PFLP, which staunchly rejected PLO peace talks with Israel, was widely accused of orchestrating terrorist attacks and hijackings. However, Muṣṭafā eventually acknowledged the legitimacy of the [Palestinian Authority], an entity produced by Israeli-Palestinian peace talks, and in September 1999 he unexpectedly returned to the [West Bank]. After Habash's retirement in 2000, Muṣṭafā became head of the PFLP. The following year he was killed in an Israeli rocket attack on his office.

Abakan

*formerly (until 1931) **Ust-Abakanskoe** * city and administrative centre of the republic of [Khakassia], south-central Russia. The city lies on the left bank of the Abakan River near its confluence with the [Yenisey River]. The starting point of a southern Siberian railway line (opened in 1960), Abakan is connected with [Novokuznetsk] and thence to [Barnaul], Akmolinsk, and [Magnitogorsk]. The city has metalworking, footwear, and food-processing industries, and coal and iron ore are mined in the vicinity. Pop. (1997 est.) 166,000.

Adamawa-Ubangi languages

*formerly **Adamawa-Eastern languages** * branch of the [Niger-Congo language family] consisting of 120 languages spoken by approximately 12 million people in an area that stretches from northeastern [Nigeria] across northern [Cameroon], southern [Chad], the [Central African Republic], and northern [Congo (Kinshasa)]#9108337.toc) into southwestern [Sudan]. Recent lexicostatistical studies have shown that Adamawa-Ubangi languages are closer to some of the [][Gur languages] than they are to the languages of other Volta-Congo families. As a preliminary hypothesis, therefore, these two groups—Gur and Adamawa-Ubangi—are being linked together as []North Volta-Congo. The Adamawa-Ubangi languages are further subdivided into []Adamawa and []Ubangi subgroups. Most of the 80 languages found in the Adamawa group are small languages in northern Nigeria and Cameroon. The two largest are []Mumuye (500,000 speakers) and []Tupuri (250,000). The Adamawa group contains the least-studied languages in the Niger-Congo family. There has been considerably more study of the 40 languages in the Ubangi group that lie to the east of the Adamawa group. The Ubangi languages include Banda, Gbaya, Ngbaka, and Zande, each of which has approximately one million speakers or more. Mention should also be made of [Sango], a creole language derived from Ngbandi (a Ubangi language) that is spoken by about five million people primarily in the Central African Republic and Congo (Kinshasa).

Abdullah II

*in full **Abdullah ibn Hussein** * born January 30, 1962, Amman, Jordan king of Jordan from 1999. A member of the [Hashimite] dynasty, he was considered by pious Muslims to be a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (*see* [Ahl al-Bayt]). Abdullah, the eldest son of King [][Hussein], served as the crown prince until age three, when unrest in the Middle East prompted Hussein to name Abdullah's adult uncle, Prince Hassan, heir to the throne. Abdullah was educated in Great Britain and the United States, and in 1980 he graduated from the Royal Military Academy in Sandhurst, England. He later served in the British Armed Forces as well as in Jordan's Armed Forces in the 41st and 90th armoured brigades. In 1993 he was appointed deputy commander of the country's elite Special Forces, a post he held until assuming the throne. That year Abdullah married a Palestinian, []Rania al-Yasin, with whom he had two children, Hussein and Imam. In January 1999 King Hussein, whose health was deteriorating, named Abdullah the new heir to the Hashimite crown. Hours after the death of his father on February 7, 1999, Abdullah became king of Jordan; he was officially crowned on June 9. In his new role, Abdullah continued to follow many of his father's policies, including supporting an Arab-Israeli peace agreement. Following the [September 11 attacks] in 2001, Abdullah supported the United States' efforts to combat terrorism. He also focused on stemming the power of Islamists in Jordan and improving the status of women in his country. In an effort to bolster the weak economy, he promoted free market reforms.

Abdülhak Hâmid

*in full **Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan** * born Feb. 2, 1852, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] died April 12, 1937, Istanbul, Tur. poet and playwright, considered one of the greatest Turkish Romantic writers. He was instrumental in introducing Western influences into Turkish literature. Born into a family of famous scholars, Hâmid was educated in Istanbul and in Paris. Later in Tehrān, he studied Arabic and Persian poetry. Following in his father's footsteps, Hâmid became a diplomat, holding posts in Paris, Greece, Bombay, The Hague, London, and Brussels. In 1908 he became a member of the Turkish Senate and after World War I, following a stay in Vienna, returned to Turkey, where he was elected a member of the Grand National Assembly in 1928. A follower of the [][Tanzimat] (a 19th-century Turkish political reform movement) school of literature and inspired by his patriotic predecessor, the Young Ottoman writer Namık Kemal, Abdülhak Hâmid's plays exhibit a strong French influence. Deeply moved by the death of his wife, he dedicated many poems to her, such as his famous "Makber" ("The Tomb"), written in 1885. His best dramas, notable among which are *Tarik* and *Ibn-i Musa*, feature personages in Muslim history and are written in prose and poetry, although *Finten* (1887) deals with London society. This sensitive poet paved the way for more radical literary reform. He was given a national funeral.

Abū al-Fidāʾ

*in full **Abū Al-fidāʾ Ismāʿīl Ibn ʿalī Al-mālik Al-muʾayyad ʿimad Ad-dīn** , also called **Abulfeda** * born November 1273, Damascus died October 27, 1331, Ḥamāh, Syria Ayyūbid dynasty historian and geographer who became a local sultan under the Mamlūk empire. Abū al-Fidāʾ was a descendant of Ayyūb, the father of Saladin, founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty that had been supplanted by the Mamlūks in Egypt and elsewhere before his birth. In 1285 he accompanied his father and his cousin (prince of [][Ḥamāh] and a Mamlūk client) to Mamlūk sieges of Crusader strongholds. Abū al-Fidāʾ served the Mamlūk governor of Ḥamāh until he was made first governor of Ḥamāh (1310), then prince for life (1312). In 1320, after making a pilgrimage to Mecca with the Mamlūk sultan al-Nāṣir Muḥammad, he became al-Mālik al-Muʾayyad, with the rank of sultan; and he continued to rule Ḥamāh until his death. His son Muḥammad succeeded him.

Academy Award

*in full **Academy Award of Merit** , byname **Oscar** * [![Photograph:Marie Dressler and Lionel Barrymore after winning Academy Awards for best actress and actor in 1931.]] - Marie Dressler and Lionel Barrymore after winning Academy Awards for best actress and actor in 1931. [![Photograph:Halle Berry accepting her Oscar for best actress at the 74th annual Academy Awards in Los Angeles, ...]] - Halle Berry accepting her Oscar for best actress at the 74th annual Academy Awards in Los Angeles, ... any of several awards presented annually by the [Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences], located in Beverly Hills, California, U.S., to recognize achievement in the film industry. The award, a gold-plated statuette, is bestowed upon winners in the following 25 categories: best picture, actor, actress, supporting actor, supporting actress, directing, original screenplay, adapted screenplay, cinematography, art direction and set decoration, editing, original musical or comedy score, original dramatic score, original song, costume design, makeup, sound, sound effects editing, visual effects, foreign-language film, animated feature film, animated short, live-action short, documentary feature, and documentary short. In a few select categories (e.g., makeup, sound editing) awards may not be given every year. The academy also presents scientific and technical awards, special achievement awards, honorary awards, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (for excellence in producing), and the Gordon E. Sawyer Award (for technological contributions), although these are not necessarily awarded annually.

Acapulco

*in full **Acapulco de Juárez** * [![Photograph:Acapulco, Mex.]] - Acapulco, Mex. city and port, Guerrero *estado* (state), southwestern Mexico. Situated on a deep, semicircular bay, Acapulco is a resort with the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico and one of the finest natural anchorages in the world. The town lies on a narrow strip of land between the bay and the steeply rising mountains that encircle it. From May to November the climate is hot, humid, and frequently rainy, but from December through April it is warm, dry, and pleasant. Hernán Cortés claimed the harbour for Spain in 1531. A Spanish settlement was founded there in 1550 and was designated a city in 1599. Acapulco was a main depot for the Spanish colonial fleets plying between Mexico and Asia, especially the Philippines. It continued to be a port of call for steamship lines between Panama and San Francisco and a major export point for coffee, sugar, and other products of the interior. Acapulco has become the "Riviera of Mexico" for tourists attracted by the climate, the many luxurious hotels, excellent beaches, and deep-sea fishing. More than 300,000 visitors go there annually. No railroads connect to Acapulco, but it is easily accessible by airplane, cruise ship, or car via the toll road from Cuernavaca and Mexico City, 288 miles (463 km) to the north-northeast. Local industry is limited to the manufacture of woven sombreros, shellwork, confectionery, and other tourist-based products. Local historical attractions include the 18th-century Fort of San Diego, which houses a regional museum. Pop. (2005) urban agglom., 786,830.

Abell, A.S.

*in full **Arunah Shepardson Abell** * born August 10, 1806, East Providence, Rhode Island, U.S. died April 19, 1888, Baltimore, Maryland newspaper editor and publisher, and founder, with two other investors, of the Philadelphia *Public Ledger* and the *Baltimore Sun*. Abell left school at the age of 14 to become a clerk in a store dealing in West Indian wares. He had hoped to become a printer, and in 1822 he was taken on as an apprentice by the *Providence Patriot*. He set up shop as a printer in Boston and then in New York. He came to the conclusion that Philadelphia was a likely market for a new penny paper. He and his partners, William M. Swain and Azariah H. Simmons, founded the *[]Public Ledger* in 1836. Within two years the paper had absorbed the rival Philadelphia *Transcript*. Meanwhile, in 1837, Abell founded the *[][Baltimore Sun]*, which had 12,000 subscribers after a year. Both the *Public Ledger* and the *Sun* were oriented to the workingman, but, whereas the *Ledger* dealt freely in scandal and sensation, the *Sun* did not. As manager of the *Sun*, Abell, in cooperation with the publishers of the New Orleans *Daily Picayune*, established a "pony express" of relay riders between Baltimore and New Orleans to speed the transmission of [news]. In a historic "news beat," the express delivered in Baltimore the news of the U.S. Army victory at Vera Cruz, Mexico, before the U.S. government had learned of it. Abell then sent word of the victory by telegram to President James K. Polk. He had encouraged Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph and was one of its most enthusiastic pioneer users.

Abdul Kalam, A.P.J.

*in full **Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam** * born October 15, 1931, Rameswaram, India Indian scientist and politician, who played a leading role in the development of India's missile and nuclear weapons programs. He was president of India from 2002 to 2007. Kalam earned a degree in aeronautical engineering from the Madras Institute of Technology and in 1958 joined the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). He soon moved to the []Indian Space Research Organisation, where he was project director of the [SLV-III], India's first indigenously designed and produced satellite launch vehicle. Rejoining DRDO in 1982, Kalam planned the program that produced a number of successful missiles, which helped earned him the nickname "Missile Man." From 1992 to 1997 Kalam was scientific adviser to the defense minister, and he later served as principal scientific adviser (1999-2001) to the government with the rank of cabinet minister. His prominent role in the country's 1998 nuclear weapons tests established Kalam as a national hero, although the tests caused great concern in the international community. In 1998 Kalam put forward a countrywide plan called []Technology Vision 2020, which he described as a road map for transforming India from a less-developed to a developed society in 20 years. The plan called for, among other measures, increasing agricultural productivity, emphasizing technology as a vehicle for economic growth, and widening access to health care and education.

Acuña, Rosario de

*in full **Rosario De Acuña Y Villanueva De La Iglesia,** pseudonym **Remigio Andrés Delafón** * born 1851, Madrid, Spain died 1923, Gijón Spanish playwright, essayist, and short-story writer known for her controversial liberal views. Little is known of Acuña's early life. One of Spain's few women playwrights, she was considered radical for her willingness to address such issues as religious fanaticism, atheism, illegitimacy, civil marriage (and the possibility of divorce, anathema in Roman Catholic Spain), and reform of the criminal justice system.

Abbott, Sir John

*in full **Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott** * born March 12, 1821, St. Andrews, Lower Canada [now St.-André-Est, Quebec, Canada] died Oct. 30, 1893, Montreal [![Photograph:Sir John Abbott, after a photograph by Notman, Montreal]] - Sir John Abbott, after a photograph by Notman, Montreal lawyer, statesman, and prime minister of Canada from 1891 to 1892.

Abbott, Diane

*in full **Diane Julie Abbott** * born September 27, 1953, London, England British politician, the first woman of African descent elected to the [House of Commons]. Abbott's parents, originally from Jamaica, immigrated to the United Kingdom in the early 1950s. She was educated at Harrow County Grammar School for Girls and received a degree in history from the University of Cambridge in 1973. Abbott worked as a civil servant in the Home Office (1976-80) and then as a television reporter (1980-84). A member of the [Labour Party], she served as a press officer for the Greater London Council and the Lambeth Borough Council and was active on race and civil liberties issues. She served on the Westminster City Council (1982-86) and in 1987 was selected over the sitting Labour member of Parliament as the party's candidate for the London constituency of Hackney North and Stoke Newington. Easily winning office, she became the country's first black woman member of Parliament and, with [Bernie Grant] and [Paul Boateng], one of the first members of the House of Commons of African descent. Outspoken on many issues, Abbott occupied a left-of-centre position in the Labour Party during the 1990s, when [Tony Blair]'s reform ("modernization") program abandoned many of the party's traditional socialist policies.

Ablett, Gary

*in full **Gary Robert Ablett** * born Oct. 1, 1961, Drouin [near Warragul], Vic., Austl. [Australian rules football] player who was celebrated for taking the sport's "Mark of the Century" against Collingwood at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1994, in which he leaped over two opposing players and caught the ball with one hand while twisting his body several feet in the air. Considered one of the all-time greatest players in the Australian Football League (AFL), Ablett was noted for his ability to kick the ball 65 yards (60 metres) with either foot, his tremendous speed from a standing start, and his great leaping ability. His thrilling play earned him several nicknames during his career, including "Gazza the Great," "Superman," and "God." Ablett started his career in the Victoria Football League (after 1989 known as the AFL) in 1982 with the Hawthorn Football Club, where he played in only six games before returning home to further develop his skills. He returned to the top league in 1984, signing with the []Geelong Football Club. He stayed at Geelong for the remainder of his career, playing 242 games for the Cats before retiring in 1996. He won Geelong's Best and Fairest (top player) Award in 1984 and served as the team's cocaptain (1995-96). Ablett was Geelong's greatest goal scorer, with a career total of 1,021, and in his career he won three Coleman Medals as the league's leading goal scorer (1993-95). Despite playing in four Grand Finals (the AFL's championship game), Ablett never won a league title, though he did earn the 1989 Norm Smith Medal for best on ground during a Grand Final. He was named to the AFL's Team of the Century in 1996 and was inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 2005. Ablett hails from an exceptional footballing family, with two of his brothers, an uncle, and his son all having played professional football. [John Nauright]

Adams, Gerry

*in full **Gerard Adams** * born October 6, 1948, Belfast, Northern Ireland president of [][Sinn Féin], the political wing of the [][Irish Republican Army] (IRA), one of the chief architects of Sinn Féin's shift to a policy of seeking a peaceful settlement to sectarian violence in Northern Ireland and a member of the British [Parliament] (from West Belfast) and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Born into a strongly Republican family, Adams became involved in predominantly Roman Catholic civil rights protests in Belfast, Northern Ireland, which became increasingly violent in the late 1960s. By early 1970 he was suspected of heading a unit of the IRA, a Republican paramilitary organization seeking the unification of predominantly Protestant Northern Ireland with the predominantly Roman Catholic Irish Republic. In 1972, following two years of escalating violence by the IRA and Protestant paramilitary forces, Adams was interned without trial, though he was soon released to participate in secret peace talks with the British government. Following the failure of these talks, Adams reputedly became a top strategist in the IRA, though he consistently denied any direct involvement in the organization, which is illegal in both Northern Ireland and the Republic. Adams was imprisoned again in 1973-76 and 1978 and was later officially charged with membership in the IRA, though he was never convicted. In the late 1970s Adams began publicly advocating that the Republican movement adopt a more political strategy, arguing that military victory was unlikely. He played a leading role in planning the hunger strikes undertaken by Republican prisoners in Northern Ireland in 1981, which galvanized the Catholic community there. In 1983 Adams was elected president of Sinn Féin and a member of the British Parliament, but in keeping with party policy he refused to take his seat to avoid taking the compulsory oath of loyalty to the British queen. Reelected in 1987, he lost his seat to [Social Democratic and Labour Party] (SDLP) representative Joe Hendron in 1992 but regained it in 1997. In 1988 Adams engaged in sometimes secret talks with SDLP leader [][John Hume], which led to follow-up talks in the early 1990s. The two leaders issued a joint statement to the British and Irish governments in 1993, identifying points of agreement and signaling the conditions under which Sinn Féin would be willing to engage in multiparty talks.

Abrahams, Harold

*in full **Harold Maurice Abrahams** * born Dec. 15, 1899, Bedford, England died Jan. 14, 1978, London British athlete who won a gold medal in the 100-metre dash at the 1924 Olympic Games in Paris. Abrahams was born into an athletic family; his older brother Sidney represented Great Britain in the Olympics in 1912. Abrahams participated in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp but did not win a gold medal. Competing for Cambridge University from 1920 to 1924, he won a series of victories over Oxford in sprint and long jump events. In 1924 Abrahams began an intensive training program under the direction of athletics coach Sam Mussabini. Just one month prior to the Olympics, Abrahams set a British record in the long jump, although he preferred the sprint and was excused from competing in the long jump in Paris.

Abs, Hermann J.

*in full **Hermann Josef Abs** * born Oct. 15, 1901, Bonn, Ger. died Feb. 5, 1994, Bad Soden German banker and a leading figure in the West German "economic miracle" following World War II. Abs studied law for one year before joining a merchant bank in Cologne. After World War I, he obtained a series of posts, in Germany and abroad, learning the business of international banking. In 1938 he became a manager of Berlin's Deutsche Bank, which had, since its founding in 1870, played a leading role in the German economy. Abs remained with the bank until it was broken up after World War II. In 1948 he was appointed the deputy supervisory board chairman of the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (Credit Institute for Reconstruction), which distributed a significant portion of the Marshall Plan funds to business and industry. He also served as an adviser to the West German government.

Abercrombie, Sir Patrick

*in full **Sir Leslie Patrick Abercrombie** * born June 6, 1879, Ashton upon Mersey, Cheshire [now in Greater Manchester], Eng. died March 23, 1957, Aston Tirrold, Berkshire British architect and town planner who redesigned [][London] after it was devastated by enemy bombardment in World War II. The son of a Manchester stockbroker, Abercrombie was one of nine children; his younger brother Lascelles became a noted poet and critic. He was educated at Uppingham School and apprenticed to architects in Manchester and Liverpool for six years before joining (1907) the staff of the University of Liverpool, where he later became a professor of civic design (1915-35). Early in his career, Abercrombie earned notice as the first editor of *Town Planning Review* and cowinner (with Sydney and Arthur Kelly) of an international competition to redesign Dublin (1916). During his tenure at Liverpool, he cofounded the Council for the Preservation of Rural England (1926) and drafted schemes for the English towns and regions of Sheffield, Doncaster, Bristol, and Bath, among others.

Aasen, Ivar

*in full **Ivar Andreas Aasen** * born Aug. 5, 1813, Sunnmøre, Nor. died Sept. 23, 1896, Kristiania [Oslo] language scholar and dialectologist, who created the written standard of [Nynorsk] (New Norwegian), one of the two official languages of Norway. After studying Old Norwegian, Aasen undertook a survey of the contemporary Norwegian dialects. These he judged to be the true offshoots of Old Norwegian, as distinct from the Danish-influenced written language of Norway. The results of his research were published in *Det norske folkesprog grammatik* (1848; "Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects") and *Ordbog over det norske folkesprog* (1850; "Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects"), texts that prepared the way for the wide cultivation of Nynorsk. Advancing the view that the proper literary language of Norway was a purer Norwegian, rather than the official Dano-Norwegian hybrid, Aasen composed poems and plays in his composite dialect, while continuing to augment and refine his grammar and dictionary. His definitive grammar was published in 1864, followed in 1873 by his definitive dictionary of Nynorsk. With certain modifications, the language Aasen fostered (which bears the most resemblance to Norway's western dialects) rapidly gained national prominence and eventually achieved co-official status with Dano-Norwegian. Quite early in his career (1842) Aasen received a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his linguistic investigations.

Ackerley, J.R.

*in full **Joe Randolph Ackerley** * born Nov. 4, 1896, Herne Hill, Kent, Eng. died June 4, 1967, Putney, near London British novelist, dramatist, poet, and magazine editor known for his eccentricity. Ackerley's education was interrupted by his service in World War I, during which he was captured and imprisoned for eight months in Germany. He graduated from Magdalen College, Cambridge, in 1921. He examined his wartime experiences in the play *The Prisoners of War* (1925). A five-month position as private secretary to an Indian maharaja in 1923 provided the material for his humorous *Hindoo Holiday: An Indian Journal* (1932).

Abreu, Capistrano de

*in full **João Capistrano De Abreu** * born Oct. 23, 1853, Maranguape, Braz. died Aug. 13, 1927, Rio de Janeiro Brazilian historian best known for his large-scale interpretive work on Brazil's colonial history. After serving at the National Library of Rio de Janeiro (1875-83), Abreu became professor of history at the Colégio Dom Pedro II in 1883. Influenced by the sociology of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer and the historical enterprises of Henry Buckle and Hippolyte Taine, Abreu wrote the []*Capítulos de História Colonial* (1907; "Chapters of Colonial History"), his greatest work, as a broad study of Brazilian colonization from 1500 to 1800. His original emphasis on the culture of indigenous groups was an early and significant ethnological interpretation of the European settlement of Brazilian backlands. Abreu wrote additional works on linguistics, translated German and French documents on Brazilian history, and edited the writings of the eminent historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen.

Abrams, M.H.

*in full **Meyer Howard Abrams** * born July 23, 1912, Long Branch, N.J., U.S. American literary critic known for his analysis of the Romantic period in English literature. Following his graduation from Harvard University in 1934, Abrams studied for a year at the University of Cambridge before returning to his alma mater to earn an M.A. (1937) and a Ph.D. (1940). He joined the faculty of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., in 1945, becoming a full professor in 1953 and professor emeritus in 1983. His numerous and far-flung fellowships included positions at the University of Toronto, the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of British Columbia, and the University of Oxford. Abrams wrote his first book, *The Milk of Paradise: The Effects of Opium Visions on the Works of De Quincey, Crabbe, Francis Thompson, and Coleridge* (1934), while an undergraduate. With his second work, *[]The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition* (1953), he joined the front rank of Romantic-literature scholars. The book's title denotes the two metaphors by which Abrams characterized 18th- and 19th-century English literature, respectively—the former as a cool, intellectual reflection of outward reality and the latter as an illumination shed by artists upon their inner and outer worlds. His later work *Natural Supernaturalism* (1971) explores a broader reach of the Romantic sensibility, including its religious implications and its influence on modern literature. Critical essays by Abrams were collected in *The Correspondent Breeze* (1984) and *Doing Things with Texts* (1989). He served as general editor of *The Norton Anthology of English Literature* (1962; 5th ed., 1986).

Abd el-Krim

*in full **Muḥammad Ibn ʿabd Al-karīm Al-khaṭṭabī** * born 1882, Ajdir, Mor. died Feb. 6, 1963, Cairo, Egypt leader of a resistance movement against Spanish and French rule in North Africa and founder of the short-lived [Republic of the Rif] (1921-26). A skilled tactician and a capable organizer, he led a liberation movement that made him the hero of the Maghrib (northwest Africa). A precursor of the anticolonial struggle for independence, Abd el-Krim was defeated only by the military and technological superiority of the colonial powers. Son of an influential member of the Berber tribe Banū Uriaghel, Abd el-Krim received a Spanish education in addition to the traditional Muslim schooling. He was employed as a secretary in the Bureau of Native Affairs. In 1915 he was appointed the *qāḍī al-quḍāt,* or chief Muslim judge, for the district of Melilla, where he also taught at a Hispano-Arabic school and was the editor of an Arabic section of *El Telegrama del Rif*.

Abrahams, Peter

*in full **Peter Henry Abrahams** * born March 19, 1919, Vrededorp, near Johannesburg, S.Af. most prolific of South Africa's black prose writers, whose early novel *[]Mine Boy* (1946) was the first to depict the dehumanizing effect of racism upon South African blacks. Abrahams left South Africa at the age of 20, settling first in Britain and then in Jamaica; nevertheless, most of his novels and short stories are based on his early life in South Africa. *Mine Boy,* for example, tells of a country youth thrown into the alien and oppressive culture of a large South African industrial city. Abrahams' semiautobiographical *[]Tell Freedom: Memories of Africa* (1954; new ed. 1970) deals with the related theme of his struggles as a youth in the slums of Johannesburg. *[]The Path of Thunder* (1948) depicts a young "mixed" couple who love under the menacing shadow of enforced segregation. *Wild Conquest* (1950) follows the great northern trek of the Boers, and *A Night of Their Own* (1965) sets forth the plight of the Indian in South Africa. The novel *A Wreath for Udomo* (1956; new ed. 1971) and the travel book *This Island Now* (1966; new ed. 1971) are set in western Africa and the Caribbean, respectively. In the late 1950s, inspired by a visit to Jamaica, Abrahams moved his family to the island. There he became editor of the *West Indian Economist* and took charge of the daily radio news network, West Indian News, until 1964, when he gave up most of his duties so that he could devote himself full-time to writing. Many of his earlier works were reissued or translated into other languages in the 1960s and early '70s, as his reading public steadily widened.

ʿAbd Allāh

*in full **ʿabd Allāh Ibn Muḥammad At-taʿīʾishī,** also called **ʿabdullahi** * born 1846, Sudan died Nov. 24, 1899, Kordofan political and religious leader who succeeded Muḥammad Aḥmad (al-[][Mahdī]) as head of a religious movement and state within the Sudan. ʿAbd Allāh followed his family's vocation for religion. In about 1880 he became a disciple of Muḥammad Aḥmad, who announced that he had a divine mission, became known as al-Mahdī, and appointed ʿAbd Allāh a caliph (*khalīfah*). When al-Mahdī died in 1885, ʿAbd Allāh became leader of the Mahdist movement. His first concern was to establish his authority on a firm basis. Al-Mahdī had clearly designated him as successor, but the Ashraf, a portion of al-Mahdī's supporters, tried to reverse this decision. By promptly securing control of the vital administrative positions in the movement and obtaining the support of the most religiously sincere group of al-Mahdī's followers, ʿAbd Allāh neutralized this opposition. ʿAbd Allāh could not claim the same religious inspiration as had al-Mahdī, but, by announcing that he received divine instruction through al-Mahdī, he tried to assume as much of the aura as was possible.

Adams, Abigail

*née **Abigail Smith** * born November 22 [November 11, Old Style], 1744, Weymouth, Massachusetts [U.S.] died October 28, 1818, Quincy, Massachusetts, U.S. American [first lady] (1797-1801), the wife of [][John Adams], second president of the United States, and mother of [John Quincy Adams], sixth president of the United States. She was a prolific letter writer whose correspondence gives an intimate and vivid portrayal of life in the young republic. Born to William Smith, a Congregational minister, and Elizabeth Quincy Smith, Abigail was the second of four children. Educated entirely at home, she read widely in her father's large library, and the constant flow of interesting, intelligent, and well-educated guests at the Smith home turned her into a learned, witty young woman. For her introduction to great literature, she credited her brother-in-law, Richard Cranch.

Abū al-ʿAtāhiyah

*original name **Abū Isḥāq Ismāʿīl ibn al-Qāsim ibn Suwayd ibn Kaysān** * born 748, Al-Kūfah or ʿAyn al-Tamr, Iraq died 825/826, Baghdad first Arab poet of note to break with the conventions established by the pre-Islamic poets of the desert and to adopt a simpler and freer language of the village. Abū al-ʿAtāhiyah ("Father of Craziness") came from a family of *mawlā*s, poor non-Arabs who were clients of the ʿAnaza Arab tribe. The family's poverty prevented Abū al-ʿAtāhiyah from receiving a formal education, which may account for his subsequently original and untraditional poetic style. He began to write *ghazal*s (lyrics) in his early years in Al-Kūfah; they later gained him notoriety as well as the favour of the ʿAbbāsid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd. Abū al-ʿAtāhiyah's fame, however, rested on the ascetic poems of his later years, the *[]Zuhdīyāt* (Ger. trans. by O. Rescher, 1928), collected in 1071 by the Spanish scholar Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr. The *Zuhdīyāt* depicts the leveling of the rich and powerful by the horrors of death; these poems found an enthusiastic following among the masses, as well as being popular at court, and were frequently set to music.

Aczél, György

*original name **Appel György** * born Aug. 31, 1917, Budapest, Hung. died Dec. 6, 1991, Budapest politician, communist ideologist, and the preeminent personality in the cultural policy of the [János Kádár] regime (1956-88) in Hungary. Born to a lower-middle-class Jewish family, Aczél joined the communist youth movement in 1935. After World War II he rose to the middle levels of the party hierarchy, but in a wave of purges that began in 1949 he was imprisoned on trumped-up charges; in 1954 he was released, and his name was cleared. Following the [Hungarian uprising of 1956], he became a close colleague of Kádár, first secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' (i.e., Communist) Party. Aczél served twice as secretary of the party's Central Committee (1967-74; 1982-85); he was a member of the Political Committee (1970-88); and he was deputy prime minister (1976-82). From the late 1960s until 1985 he ranked second or third in the party hierarchy. His influence later declined, in part perhaps because of Soviet pressure and in part because he was incapable of working with either the reformers or the hardliners in the party.

Abe Kōbō

*pseudonym of **Abe Kimifusa** * born March 7, 1924, Tokyo, Japan died Jan. 22, 1993, Tokyo Japanese novelist and playwright noted for his use of bizarre and allegorical situations to underline the isolation of the individual. He grew up in Mukden (now Shenyang), in Manchuria, where his father, a physician, taught at the medical college. In middle school his strongest subject was mathematics, but he was also interested in collecting insects and had begun to immerse himself in the writings of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke, Edgar Allan Poe, and Lewis Carroll. Abe went to Japan in 1941 to attend high school. In 1943 he began studying medicine at the Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo), but he returned to Manchuria in 1945 without obtaining a degree. Repatriated to Japan in 1946, he was graduated in medicine in 1948 on condition that he never practice. By this time, however, he was deeply involved in literary activity. He published in 1947 at his own expense *Mumei shishū* ("Poems of an Unknown"), and in the following year his novel *Owarishi michi no shirube ni* ("The Road Sign at the End of the Street"), published commercially, was well received. In 1951 his short novel *[]Kabe* ("The Wall") was awarded the [Akutagawa Prize], establishing his reputation. In 1955 Abe wrote his first plays, beginning a long association with the theatre.

Abahai

*reign titles **(Wade-Giles romanization) T'ien-ts'ung and Ch'ung-te** * born Nov. 28, 1592, Manchuria [now in China] died Sept. 21, 1643, Manchuria Manchurian tribal leader who, in 1636, became emperor of the Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese in Manchuria and, for his family, adopted the name of []Ch'ing. Abahai was the eighth son of Nurhachi (1559-1626), the great Manchu leader who extended his people's rule over the tribes of the Inner Asian steppes and organized his tribesmen into a bureaucratic Chinese-style state. Soon after his father's death, Abahai eliminated his brothers as rivals and consolidated his personal rule. He was successful largely because of his extraordinary ability as a military leader. He led armies into Inner Mongolia and Korea and made those countries vassal states of the Manchus. With the increased monetary and food supplies available from Korea and with the additional manpower and horses from the Mongols, he perfected the military machine known as the [Eight Banners]. After four expeditions he finally occupied the formerly Chinese-controlled Amur region of northern Manchuria and three times broke through the Great Wall on raids into North China.

[Oprah Winfrey]

> Challenges are gifts that force us to search for a new center of > gravity. Don't fight them. Just find a different way to stand.\ > Oprah Winfrey, *O, The Oprah Magazine*, April 2003 [Oprah Winfrey], born this day in 1954, became one of the wealthiest and most influential women in the United States largely as a result of the tremendous popularity of her [Emmy Award]-winning television talk show. [Oprah Winfrey] > Challenges are gifts that force us to search for a new center of > gravity. Don't fight them. Just find a different way to stand.\ > Oprah Winfrey, *O, The Oprah Magazine*, April 2003 [Oprah Winfrey], born this day in 1954, became one of the wealthiest and most influential women in the United States largely as a result of the tremendous popularity of her Emmy Award-winning television talk show.

[Dylan Thomas]

> Do not go gentle into that good night, / Old age should burn and rave > at close of day; / Rage, rage against the dying of the light.\ > Dylan Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night" Welsh poet and prose writer [Dylan Thomas], whose work is known for its comic exuberance, rhapsodic lilt, and pathos and whose personal bouts with drinking were notorious, died this day in 1953 of an alcohol overdose. [Dylan Thomas] > Do not go gentle into that good night, / Old age should burn and rave > at close of day; / Rage, rage against the dying of the light.\ > Dylan Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night" Welsh poet and prose writer [Dylan Thomas], whose work is known for its comic exuberance, rhapsodic lilt, and pathos and whose personal bouts with drinking were notorious, died this day in 1953 of an alcohol overdose.

[Henry Moore]

> Drawing and sculpture are the same thing...one an illusion of the > other.\ > Henry Moore, *Illustrated London News*, May 1978 [Henry Moore], born this day in 1898, was an English sculptor whose organically shaped, abstract figures in bronze and stone constitute the major 20th-century manifestation of the [humanist] tradition in sculpture. [Henry Moore] > Drawing and sculpture are the same thing...one an illusion of the > other.\ > Henry Moore, *Illustrated London News*, May 1978 [Henry Moore], born this day in 1898, was an English sculptor whose organically shaped, abstract figures in bronze and stone constitute the major 20th-century manifestation of the [humanist] tradition in sculpture.

[Nelson Mandela]

> During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the > African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have > fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a > democratic and free society in which all persons live together in > harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to > live for, and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I > am prepared to die.\ > Nelson Mandela, 1964 South African black nationalist and statesman [Nelson Mandela], whose long imprisonment (1962-90) and ascension to the presidency (1994-99) symbolized the aspirations of his country's black majority, was born this day in 1918. [Nelson Mandela] > During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the > African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have > fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a > democratic and free society in which all persons live together in > harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to > live for, and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I > am prepared to die.\ > Nelson Mandela, 1964 South African black nationalist and statesman [Nelson Mandela], whose long imprisonment (1962-90) and ascension to the presidency (1994-99) symbolized the aspirations of his country's black majority, was born this day in 1918.

[Arthur Holly Compton]

> For myself, faith begins with a realization that a supreme > intelligence brought the universe into being and created man. It is > not difficult for me to have this faith, for it is incontrovertible > that where there is a plan there is intelligence—an orderly, unfolding > universe testifies to the truth of the most majestic statement ever > uttered 'In the beginning God.'\ > Arthur Holly Compton Born this day in 1892, American physicist [Arthur Holly Compton] confirmed the dual nature of [electromagnetic radiation]—both a wave and a particle—and was corecipient in 1927 of the [Nobel Prize] for Physics. [Arthur Holly Compton] > For myself, faith begins with a realization that a supreme > intelligence brought the universe into being and created man. It is > not difficult for me to have this faith, for it is incontrovertible > that where there is a plan there is intelligence—an orderly, unfolding > universe testifies to the truth of the most majestic statement ever > uttered 'In the beginning God.'\ > Arthur Holly Compton Born this day in 1892, American physicist [Arthur Holly Compton] confirmed the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation—both a wave and a particle—and was corecipient in 1927 of the Nobel Prize for Physics.

[Constantine I]

> For when they (the Christian clergy) are free to render supreme > service to the Divinity, it is evident that they confer great benefit > upon the affairs of state.\ > Constantine I, letter to the proconsul of Africa, AD 313 Thought to have been born this day after AD 280, [Constantine I], the first [Roman emperor] to profess [Christianity], sparked the empire's evolution into a Christian state and catalyzed a distinctively Christian culture. [Constantine I] > For when they (the Christian clergy) are free to render supreme > service to the Divinity, it is evident that they confer great benefit > upon the affairs of state.\ > Constantine I, letter to the proconsul of Africa, AD 313 Thought to have been born this day after AD 280, [Constantine I], the first Roman emperor to profess [Christianity], sparked the empire's evolution into a Christian state and catalyzed a distinctively Christian culture.

[Louis Sullivan]

> Form ever follows function.\ > Louis Sullivan Born this day in 1856, architect [Louis Sullivan]—identified with early [skyscraper] design and considered the spiritual father of modern American [architecture]—remade the image of the architect as a creative personality. [Louis Sullivan] > Form ever follows function.\ > Louis Sullivan Born this day in 1856, architect [Louis Sullivan]—identified with early skyscraper design and considered the spiritual father of modern American architecture—remade the image of the architect as a creative personality.

[Wyndham Lewis]

> Give me the outside of all things, I am a fanatic for the externality > of things.\ > Wyndham Lewis, 1937 English artist and writer [Wyndham Lewis], born this day in 1882, founded the abstract Vorticist movement, which, in painting and literature before World War I, sought to relate art to the industrial process. [Wyndham Lewis] > Give me the outside of all things, I am a fanatic for the externality > of things.\ > Wyndham Lewis, 1937 English artist and writer [Wyndham Lewis], born this day in 1882, founded the abstract Vorticist movement, which, in painting and literature before World War I, sought to relate art to the industrial process.

[Rudyard Kipling]

> He [Kipling] is a most remarkable man—and I am the other one. Between > us, we cover all knowledge; he knows all that can be known, and I know > the rest.\ > Mark Twain, *Mark Twain's Autobiography*, (1924) Born this day in 1865, [Rudyard Kipling], winner of the 1907 [Nobel Prize] for Literature, was an English short-story writer, poet, and novelist remembered for his celebration of British [imperialism] and his stories for children. [Rudyard Kipling] > He [Kipling] is a most remarkable man—and I am the other one. Between > us, we cover all knowledge; he knows all that can be known, and I know > the rest.\ > Mark Twain, *Mark Twain's Autobiography*, (1924) Born this day in 1865, [Rudyard Kipling], winner of the 1907 [Nobel Prize] for Literature, was an English short-story writer, poet, and novelist remembered for his celebration of British [imperialism] and his stories for children.

[Honoré Daumier]

> He's a satirist, a scoffer; / But the power with which he paints / > Evil and his retinue / Attests the beauty of his heart.\ > Charles Baudelaire, from "Vers pour le portrait d'Honoré Daumier" in > *Les Épaves* (1866) French artist [Honoré Daumier], born this day or February 26 in 1808, was renowned for his cartoons and drawings satirizing French society, and his paintings helped introduce [Impressionist] techniques into modern art. Honoré Daumier > He's a satirist, a scoffer; / But the power with which he paints / > Evil and his retinue / Attests the beauty of his heart.\ > Charles Baudelaire, from "Vers pour le portrait d'Honoré Daumier" in > *Les Épaves* (1866) French artist Honoré Daumier, born this day or February 26 in 1808, was renowned for his cartoons and drawings satirizing French society, and his paintings helped introduce Impressionist techniques into modern art.

[William S. Hart]

> His frequently austere look breathed dedication to the West as a > subject suited for all the artistic possibilities.\ > Allen Eyles Born this day in 1870, [William S. Hart] was an American stage and silent-film actor who was the leading hero of the early [westerns], starring in films such as *Hell's Hinges* (1916) and *Wild Bill Hickok* (1923). [William S. Hart] > His frequently austere look breathed dedication to the West as a > subject suited for all the artistic possibilities.\ > Allen Eyles Born this day in 1870, [William S. Hart] was an American stage and silent-film actor who was the leading hero of the early [westerns], starring in films such as *Hell's Hinges* (1916) and *Wild Bill Hickok* (1923).

[Frédéric Chopin]

> I am not fitted to give concerts. The audience intimidates me, I feel > choked by its breath, paralyzed by its curious glances, struck dumb by > all those strange faces.\ > Frédéric Chopin [Frédéric Chopin], born this day in 1810, was a Polish French composer and pianist of the [Romantic] period who ranks as one of music's greatest tone poets by reason of his imagination and fastidious craftsmanship. [Frédéric Chopin] > I am not fitted to give concerts. The audience intimidates me, I feel > choked by its breath, paralyzed by its curious glances, struck dumb by > all those strange faces.\ > Frédéric Chopin [Frédéric Chopin], born this day in 1810, was a Polish French composer and pianist of the [Romantic] period who ranks as one of music's greatest tone poets by reason of his imagination and fastidious craftsmanship.

[James A. Naismith]

> I am sure that no man can derive more pleasure from money or power > than I do from seeing a pair of basketball goals in some out of the > way place—deep in the Wisconsin woods an old barrel hoop nailed to a > tree, or a weather-beaten shed on the Mexican border with a rusty iron > hoop nailed to one end.\ > James A. Naismith [James A. Naismith], born in Canada this day in 1861, was a physical education director and coach who in 1891 invented [basketball] in [Springfield], Massachusetts, now home of the game's hall of fame, named in his honour. James A. Naismith > I am sure that no man can derive more pleasure from money or power > than I do from seeing a pair of basketball goals in some out of the > way place—deep in the Wisconsin woods an old barrel hoop nailed to a > tree, or a weather-beaten shed on the Mexican border with a rusty iron > hoop nailed to one end.\ > James A. Naismith James A. Naismith, born in Canada this day in 1861, was a physical education director and coach who in 1891 invented [basketball] in [Springfield], Massachusetts, now home of the game's hall of fame, named in his honour.

[Mae Jemison]

> I believe at the heart of science are the words 'I think, I wonder, > and I understand.'\ > Mae Jemison American physician [Mae Jemison], born this day in 1956, was the first African American woman to become an [astronaut] and spent more than a week orbiting the [Earth] in the [space shuttle] Endeavour in 1992. Mae Jemison > I believe at the heart of science are the words 'I think, I wonder, > and I understand.'\ > Mae Jemison American physician Mae Jemison, born this day in 1956, was the first African American woman to become an astronaut and spent more than a week orbiting the Earth in the space shuttle Endeavour in 1992.

[William Faulkner]

> I believe that man will not merely endure: he will prevail. He is > immortal, not because he alone among creatures has an inexhaustible > voice, but because he has a soul, a spirit capable of compassion and > sacrifice and endurance. The poet's, the writer's, duty is to write > about these things.\ > William Faulkner American novelist and short-story writer [William Faulkner], considered one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, was born this day in Mississippi in 1897 and was awarded the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1949. [William Faulkner] > I believe that man will not merely endure: he will prevail. He is > immortal, not because he alone among creatures has an inexhaustible > voice, but because he has a soul, a spirit capable of compassion and > sacrifice and endurance. The poet's, the writer's, duty is to write > about these things.\ > William Faulkner American novelist and short-story writer [William Faulkner], considered one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, was born this day in Mississippi in 1897 and was awarded the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1949.

[Sholem Asch]

> I couldn't help writing on Jesus....Everything He ever said or did has > value for us today, and that is something you can say of no other man, > alive or dead....He became the Light of the world. Why shouldn't I, a > Jew, be proud of it?\ > Sholem Asch, 1945 Born this day in 1880, Polish American writer [Sholem Asch], whose work entered the literary mainstream through translation, was among the most controversial and most widely known writers in modern [Yiddish literature]. Sholem Asch > I couldn't help writing on Jesus....Everything He ever said or did has > value for us today, and that is something you can say of no other man, > alive or dead....He became the Light of the world. Why shouldn't I, a > Jew, be proud of it?\ > Sholem Asch, 1945 Born this day in 1880, Polish American writer Sholem Asch, whose work entered the literary mainstream through translation, was among the most controversial and most widely known writers in modern Yiddish literature.

[Felix Mendelssohn]

> I have grown accustomed to composing in our garden...today or tomorrow I > am going to dream there the *Midsummer Night's Dream*.\ > Felix Mendelssohn, letter to Fanny Mendelssohn, 1826 One of the most celebrated figures of the early [Romantic] period, German composer [Felix Mendelssohn], born this day in 1809, largely observed [Classical] models and practices while initiating key aspects of [Romanticism]. [Felix Mendelssohn] > I have grown accustomed to composing in our garden...today or tomorrow I > am going to dream there the *Midsummer Night's Dream*.\ > Felix Mendelssohn, letter to Fanny Mendelssohn, 1826 One of the most celebrated figures of the early Romantic period, German composer [Felix Mendelssohn], born this day in 1809, largely observed Classical models and practices while initiating key aspects of [Romanticism].

[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]

> I know of no 'new programme'....Only that art is forever manifesting > itself in new forms, since there are forever new personalities—its > essence can never alter, I believe. Perhaps I am wrong. But speaking > for myself, I know that I have no programme, only the unaccountable > longing to grasp what I see and feel, and to find the purest means of > expression for it.\ > Karl Schmidt-Rottluff German artist [Karl Schmidt-Rottluff], born this day in 1884 and noted for his landscapes and nudes, cofounded in 1905 [Die Brücke], a group of German painters and printmakers who were pivotal to the development of [Expressionism]. Karl Schmidt-Rottluff > I know of no 'new programme'....Only that art is forever manifesting > itself in new forms, since there are forever new personalities—its > essence can never alter, I believe. Perhaps I am wrong. But speaking > for myself, I know that I have no programme, only the unaccountable > longing to grasp what I see and feel, and to find the purest means of > expression for it.\ > Karl Schmidt-Rottluff German artist Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, born this day in 1884 and noted for his landscapes and nudes, cofounded in 1905 Die Brücke, a group of German painters and printmakers who were pivotal to the development of Expressionism.

[Nicolaus Copernicus]

> I know the thoughts of a philosopher do not depend on the judgment of > the many, yet when I considered how absurd my doctrine would appear, I > long hesitated whether I should publish my book.\ > Nicolaus Copernicus Polish astronomer [Nicolaus Copernicus], born this day in 1473, reintroduced the [heliocentric system], proposing that the [Earth], like the other planets, revolves around the [Sun] and that it turns once daily on its axis. [Nicolaus Copernicus] > I know the thoughts of a philosopher do not depend on the judgment of > the many, yet when I considered how absurd my doctrine would appear, I > long hesitated whether I should publish my book.\ > Nicolaus Copernicus Polish astronomer [Nicolaus Copernicus], born this day in 1473, reintroduced the heliocentric system, proposing that the [Earth], like the other planets, revolves around the [Sun] and that it turns once daily on its axis.

[Agatha Christie]

> I like living. I have sometimes been wildly, despairingly, acutely > miserable, racked with sorrow, but through it all I still know quite > certainly that just to be alive is a grand thing.\ > Agatha Christie English novelist and playwright [Agatha Christie], born this day in 1890, was a master of the [detective story] whose books have sold more than 100 million copies and have been translated into some 100 languages. [Agatha Christie] > I like living. I have sometimes been wildly, despairingly, acutely > miserable, racked with sorrow, but through it all I still know quite > certainly that just to be alive is a grand thing.\ > Agatha Christie English novelist and playwright [Agatha Christie], born this day in 1890, was a master of the [detective story] whose books have sold more than 100 million copies and have been translated into some 100 languages.

[Maude Adams]

> I took many memories away from the theater with me, but the most > thrilling of all was the vision of Peter flying through the air.\ > Walt Disney on Maude Adams as Peter Pan American actress [Maude Adams], born this day in 1872, was best known for her portrayals of [Sir James Barrie]'s heroines and also played Joan of Arc, as well as the Shakespearean roles of Juliet, Viola, and Rosalind. [Maude Adams] > I took many memories away from the theater with me, but the most > thrilling of all was the vision of Peter flying through the air.\ > Walt Disney on Maude Adams as Peter Pan American actress [Maude Adams], born this day in 1872, was best known for her portrayals of [Sir James Barrie]'s heroines and also played Joan of Arc, as well as the Shakespearean roles of Juliet, Viola, and Rosalind.

[Louis Pasteur]

> Imagination should give wings to our thoughts but we always need > decisive experimental proof, and when the moment comes to draw > conclusions and to interpret the gathered observations, imagination > must be checked and documented by the factual results of the > experiment.\ > Louis Pasteur French chemist and [microbiologist] [Louis Pasteur], born this day in 1822, made many valuable contributions to the history of science, including originating vaccines for [rabies] and [anthrax] and developing [pasteurization]. [Louis Pasteur] > Imagination should give wings to our thoughts but we always need > decisive experimental proof, and when the moment comes to draw > conclusions and to interpret the gathered observations, imagination > must be checked and documented by the factual results of the > experiment.\ > Louis Pasteur French chemist and [microbiologist] [Louis Pasteur], born this day in 1822, made many valuable contributions to the history of science, including originating vaccines for rabies and anthrax and developing pasteurization.

[John Steinbeck]

> In every bit of honest writing in the world...there is a base theme. Try > to understand men, if you understand each other you will be kind to > each other. Knowing a man well never leads to hate and nearly always > leads to love.\ > John Steinbeck, journal entry, 1938 American writer [John Steinbeck], winner of the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1962, whose protest novel *The Grapes of Wrath* (1939) offered hope in the face of the dispossession of the [Great Depression], died this day in 1968. [John Steinbeck] > In every bit of honest writing in the world...there is a base theme. Try > to understand men, if you understand each other you will be kind to > each other. Knowing a man well never leads to hate and nearly always > leads to love.\ > John Steinbeck, journal entry, 1938 American writer [John Steinbeck], winner of the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1962, whose protest novel *The Grapes of Wrath* (1939) offered hope in the face of the dispossession of the [Great Depression], died this day in 1968.

[Sergey Rachmaninoff]

> In my own compositions, no conscious effort has been made to be > original, or Romantic or Nationalistic, or anything else. I write down > on paper the music I hear within me, as naturally as possible....What I > try to do, when writing down my music, is to make it say simply and > directly that which is in my heart when I am composing.\ > Sergey Rachmaninoff [Sergey Rachmaninoff], who was born this day in 1873, was a great figure in Russian Romanticism and a leading piano virtuoso who is especially known for his [piano] concerti and his *Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini*. [Sergey Rachmaninoff] > In my own compositions, no conscious effort has been made to be > original, or Romantic or Nationalistic, or anything else. I write down > on paper the music I hear within me, as naturally as possible....What I > try to do, when writing down my music, is to make it say simply and > directly that which is in my heart when I am composing.\ > Sergey Rachmaninoff [Sergey Rachmaninoff], who was born this day in 1873, was a great figure in Russian Romanticism and a leading piano virtuoso who is especially known for his piano concerti and his *Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini*.

[George Washington]

> In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and > affectionate friend...if I may flatter myself that they may...warn > against the impostures of pretended patriotism—this hope will be a > full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare by which they have > been dictated.\ > George Washington, [*Farewell > Address*], > September 17, 1796 Called the "Father of His Country," [George Washington], general and commander in chief of the colonial armies in the [American Revolution] (1775-83) and first [president of the United States] (1789-97), was born this day in 1732. [George Washington] > In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and > affectionate friend...if I may flatter myself that they may...warn > against the impostures of pretended patriotism—this hope will be a > full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare by which they have > been dictated.\ > George Washington, *Farewell Address*, September 17, 1796 Called the "Father of His Country," [George Washington], general and commander in chief of the colonial armies in the [American Revolution] (1775-83) and first president of the United States (1789-97), was born this day in 1732.

[Haile Selassie]

> In order that the work of evil may not triumph again over this > redeemed humanity, all peace-loving peoples must rally together for > the definite re-establishment of right and peace.\ > Haile Selassie [Haile Selassie], born this day in 1892 and regarded by many [Rastas] as the messiah, was the emperor of [Ethiopia] (1930-74) who sought to modernize the country and who steered it into the mainstream of African politics. [Haile Selassie] > In order that the work of evil may not triumph again over this > redeemed humanity, all peace-loving peoples must rally together for > the definite re-establishment of right and peace.\ > Haile Selassie [Haile Selassie], born this day in 1892 and regarded by many Rastas as the messiah, was the emperor of [Ethiopia] (1930-74) who sought to modernize the country and who steered it into the mainstream of African politics.

[Boris Yeltsin]

> It is especially important to encourage unorthodox thinking when the > situation is critical: At such moments, every new word and fresh > thought is more precious than gold.\ > Boris Yeltsin Born this day in 1931, [Boris Yeltsin], president of [Russia] from 1990 to 1999, became in 1991 the first popularly elected leader in Russian history and guided his country through a decade of political and economic transition. [Boris Yeltsin] > It is especially important to encourage unorthodox thinking when the > situation is critical: At such moments, every new word and fresh > thought is more precious than gold.\ > Boris Yeltsin Born this day in 1931, [Boris Yeltsin], president of Russia from 1990 to 1999, became in 1991 the first popularly elected leader in Russian history and guided his country through a decade of political and economic transition.

[Sir William Golding]

> It really means nothing in this country [England] whatsoever—but then > being a writer here means nothing either.\ > Sir William Golding on winning the Nobel Prize for Literature English novelist [Sir William Golding], born this day in 1911, won the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1983 for his parables of the human condition, most notably his acclaimed novel *Lord of the Flies* (1954). [Sir William Golding] > It really means nothing in this country [England] whatsoever—but then > being a writer here means nothing either.\ > Sir William Golding on winning the Nobel Prize for Literature English novelist [Sir William Golding], born this day in 1911, won the [Nobel Prize] for Literature in 1983 for his parables of the human condition, most notably his acclaimed novel *Lord of the Flies* (1954).

[Andreas Papandreou]

> My responsibility in the events leading up to the 1967 coup lies in > the fact that I unravelled the structure of power in Greece before the > eyes of the Greek people...had I not done these things...there would have > not been a coup, because there would not have been a confrontation.\ > Andreas Papandreou, speech delivered at Northeastern University, > Boston, 1970 [Andreas Papandreou], born this day in 1919, formed the Panhellenic Socialist Movement party shortly after the collapse of the Greek military dictatorship in 1974 and served as prime minister of [Greece] in 1981-89 and 1993-96. Andreas Papandreou > My responsibility in the events leading up to the 1967 coup lies in > the fact that I unravelled the structure of power in Greece before the > eyes of the Greek people...had I not done these things...there would have > not been a coup, because there would not have been a confrontation.\ > Andreas Papandreou, speech delivered at Northeastern University, > Boston, 1970 Andreas Papandreou, born this day in 1919, formed the Panhellenic Socialist Movement party shortly after the collapse of the Greek military dictatorship in 1974 and served as prime minister of Greece in 1981-89 and 1993-96.

[Hans Hofmann]

> Nature's purpose in relation to the visual arts is to provide > stimulus—not imitation.... From its ceaseless urge to create springs > all Life—all movement and rhythm—time and light, color and mood—in > short, all reality in Form and Thought.\ > Hans Hofmann German painter [Hans Hofmann], born this day in 1880, was an influential art teacher and a pioneer in the use of improvisatory techniques whose work paved the way for American painters to develop [Abstract Expressionism]. [Hans Hofmann] > Nature's purpose in relation to the visual arts is to provide > stimulus—not imitation.... From its ceaseless urge to create springs > all Life—all movement and rhythm—time and light, color and mood—in > short, all reality in Form and Thought.\ > Hans Hofmann German painter [Hans Hofmann], born this day in 1880, was an influential art teacher and a pioneer in the use of improvisatory techniques whose work paved the way for American painters to develop [Abstract Expressionism].

[King Richard I]

> No one will tell me the cause of my sorrow Why they have made me a > prisoner here. Wherefore with dolour I now make my moan; Friends had I > many but help have I none. Shameful it is that they leave me to > ransom, To languish here two winters long.\ > Richard I, verse written during captivity [Richard I] (the Lion-Heart), born this day in 1157, was known for his knightly manner and prowess in the Third [Crusade]; though he was a popular king and was revered as a hero, scholars would later view him less kindly. [King Richard I] > No one will tell me the cause of my sorrow Why they have made me a > prisoner here. Wherefore with dolour I now make my moan; Friends had I > many but help have I none. Shameful it is that they leave me to > ransom, To languish here two winters long.\ > Richard I, verse written during captivity [Richard I] (the Lion-Heart), born this day in 1157, was known for his knightly manner and prowess in the Third Crusade; though he was a popular king and was revered as a hero, scholars would later view him less kindly.

[Dizzy Gillespie]

> Now our music is universal. It shares the rhythmic content of African > music, music of the Western Hemisphere and various lands of the East, > and has merged this rhythm with European harmonies, the soul of the > slaves, the blues, and the spirituals to create jazz.\ > Dizzy Gillespie Born this day in 1917, [Dizzy Gillespie], an American [trumpeter], composer, and bandleader, helped to found the modern [jazz] style known as [bebop], but his improvisations also influenced later jazz trumpeters such as [Miles Davis]. Dizzy Gillespie > Now our music is universal. It shares the rhythmic content of African > music, music of the Western Hemisphere and various lands of the East, > and has merged this rhythm with European harmonies, the soul of the > slaves, the blues, and the spirituals to create jazz.\ > Dizzy Gillespie Born this day in 1917, Dizzy Gillespie, an American trumpeter, composer, and bandleader, helped to found the modern jazz style known as [bebop], but his improvisations also influenced later jazz trumpeters such as [Miles Davis].

[René Descartes]

> Of all things, good sense is the most fairly distributed: everyone > thinks he is so well supplied with it that even those who are the > hardest to satisfy in every other respect never desire more of it than > they already have.\ > René Descartes, *Discourse on Method*, 1637 [René Descartes], born this day in 1596 and perhaps best known for the famous phrase "I think, therefore I am," was a French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher who has often been called the father of [modern philosophy]. [René Descartes] > Of all things, good sense is the most fairly distributed: everyone > thinks he is so well supplied with it that even those who are the > hardest to satisfy in every other respect never desire more of it than > they already have.\ > René Descartes, *Discourse on Method*, 1637 [René Descartes], born this day in 1596 and perhaps best known for the famous phrase "I think, therefore I am," was a French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher who has often been called the father of modern philosophy.

[Ronald Reagan]

> People of the Soviet Union...Americans are people of peace. If your > government wants peace, there will be peace. We can come together in > faith and friendship to build a safer and far better world for our > children and our children's children. And the whole world will > rejoice.\ > Ronald Reagan, State of the Union Address, 1984 Born this day in 1911, [Ronald Reagan], the 40th [U.S. president] (1981-89), was known for his fervent anticommunism, staunch conservatism, and appealing personal style that earned him the nickname the "Great Communicator." [Ronald Reagan] > People of the Soviet Union...Americans are people of peace. If your > government wants peace, there will be peace. We can come together in > faith and friendship to build a safer and far better world for our > children and our children's children. And the whole world will > rejoice.\ > Ronald Reagan, State of the Union Address, 1984 Born this day in 1911, [Ronald Reagan], the 40th U.S. president (1981-89), was known for his fervent anticommunism, staunch conservatism, and appealing personal style that earned him the nickname the "Great Communicator."

[Galileo]

> Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands > continually open to our gaze.\ > Galileo Galilei, *Il saggiatore* (*The Assayer*), 1623 Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician [Galileo], born this day in 1564, made fundamental contributions to the sciences of [motion] and [astronomy], as well as to the development of the scientific method. [Galileo] > Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands > continually open to our gaze.\ > Galileo Galilei, *Il saggiatore* (*The Assayer*), 1623 Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician [Galileo], born this day in 1564, made fundamental contributions to the sciences of motion and [astronomy], as well as to the development of the scientific method.

[Upton Sinclair]

> Practically alone among the American writers of his generation, > [Sinclair] put to the American public the fundamental questions raised > by capitalism in such a way that they could not escape them.\ > Edmund Wilson American novelist [Upton Sinclair], born this day in 1878, wrote *The Jungle* (1906), a [landmark work] that aroused indignation at impurities in processed meats and helped bring about federal food-inspection laws. [Upton Sinclair] > Practically alone among the American writers of his generation, > [Sinclair] put to the American public the fundamental questions raised > by capitalism in such a way that they could not escape them.\ > Edmund Wilson American novelist [Upton Sinclair], born this day in 1878, wrote *The Jungle* (1906), a landmark work that aroused indignation at impurities in processed meats and helped bring about federal food-inspection laws.

[Charles de Gaulle]

> Since those whose duty it was to wield the sword of France have let it > fall shattered to the ground, I have taken up the broken blade.\ > Charles de Gaulle, 1940 French soldier, writer, and statesman [Charles de Gaulle], born this day in 1890, commanded the [Free French] Forces during [World War II] and was [France]'s first leader after the war and the architect of the [Fifth Republic]. [Charles de Gaulle] > Since those whose duty it was to wield the sword of France have let it > fall shattered to the ground, I have taken up the broken blade.\ > Charles de Gaulle, 1940 French soldier, writer, and statesman [Charles de Gaulle], born this day in 1890, commanded the Free French Forces during World War II and was France's first leader after the war and the architect of the Fifth Republic.

[Albert Einstein]

> The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the > fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true > science.\ > Albert Einstein, "The World as I See It," 1931 German American physicist [Albert Einstein], born this day in 1879, had one of the most creative intellects in human history, developed groundbreaking theories of [relativity], and won the [Nobel Prize] for Physics in 1921. [Albert Einstein] > The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the > fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true > science.\ > Albert Einstein, "The World as I See It," 1931 German American physicist [Albert Einstein], born this day in 1879, had one of the most creative intellects in human history, developed groundbreaking theories of [relativity], and won the [Nobel Prize] for Physics in 1921.

[Leonardo da Vinci]

> The most praiseworthy form of painting is the one that most resembles > what it imitates.\ > Leonardo da Vinci Italian artist [Leonardo da Vinci], whose genius epitomized the [Renaissance] humanist ideal and whose *Last Supper* (1495-98) and *Mona Lisa* (1503-06) are widely influential paintings, was born this day in 1452. [Leonardo da Vinci] > The most praiseworthy form of painting is the one that most resembles > what it imitates.\ > Leonardo da Vinci Italian artist [Leonardo da Vinci], whose genius epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal and whose *Last Supper* (1495-98) and *Mona Lisa* (1503-06) are widely influential paintings, was born this day in 1452.

[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]

> The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man > in falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic.\ > Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., *United States* v. *Schenck*, 1919 [Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.], born this day in 1841, was a [U.S. Supreme Court] justice and legal historian who advocated judicial restraint, arguing that speech could be limited only if it was a "[clear and present danger]." [Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.] > The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man > in falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic.\ > Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., *United States* v. *Schenck*, 1919 [Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.], born this day in 1841, was a [U.S. Supreme Court] justice and legal historian who advocated judicial restraint, arguing that speech could be limited only if it was a "[clear and present danger]."

[Umberto Eco]

> The real hero is always a hero by mistake; he dreams of being an > honest coward like everybody else.\ > Umberto Eco, *Travels in Hyper Reality* (1986) A renowned critic and [semiotician] (student of signs and symbols), [Umberto Eco], born this day in 1932, is perhaps better known as the author of the best-selling murder mystery and [fantasy] novel *The Name of the Rose* (1981). [Umberto Eco] > The real hero is always a hero by mistake; he dreams of being an > honest coward like everybody else.\ > Umberto Eco, *Travels in Hyper Reality* (1986) A renowned critic and semiotician (student of signs and symbols), [Umberto Eco], born this day in 1932, is perhaps better known as the author of the best-selling murder mystery and fantasy novel *The Name of the Rose* (1981).

[W.C. Handy]

> The weirdest music I had ever heard.\ > W.C. Handy upon first hearing the blues Born this day in 1873, American composer [W.C. Handy], among whose best-known works is the classic "St. Louis Blues," changed the course of popular music by integrating the [blues] idiom into then-fashionable [ragtime]. [W.C. Handy] > The weirdest music I had ever heard.\ > W.C. Handy upon first hearing the blues Born this day in 1873, American composer [W.C. Handy], among whose best-known works is the classic "St. Louis Blues," changed the course of popular music by integrating the [blues] idiom into then-fashionable ragtime.

[Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley]

> The work of a Prime Minister is the loneliest job in the world.\ > Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley Born this day in 1867, [Conservative] politician [Stanley Baldwin] served as British prime minister (1923-24, 1924-29, 1935-37) during the General Strike of 1926, the Ethiopian crisis of 1935, and the abdication crisis of 1936. [Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley] > The work of a Prime Minister is the loneliest job in the world.\ > Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley Born this day in 1867, Conservative politician [Stanley Baldwin] served as British prime minister (1923-24, 1924-29, 1935-37) during the General Strike of 1926, the Ethiopian crisis of 1935, and the abdication crisis of 1936.

[Diana, princess of Wales]

> The world is too little aware of the waste of life, limb and land > which anti-personnel landmines are causing among some of the poorest > people on Earth.\ > Diana, Princess of Wales On this day in 1997, [Princess Diana] died in Paris following an automobile accident—first thought to be caused by paparazzi but later blamed on the driver—that also claimed the lives of her companion Dodi Fayed and the driver. [Diana, princess of Wales] > The world is too little aware of the waste of life, limb and land > which anti-personnel landmines are causing among some of the poorest > people on Earth.\ > Diana, Princess of Wales On this day in 1997, [Princess Diana] died in Paris following an automobile accident—first thought to be caused by paparazzi but later blamed on the driver—that also claimed the lives of her companion Dodi Fayed and the driver.

[Vincent van Gogh]

> Though I am often in the depths of misery, there is still calmness, > pure harmony and music inside me. I see paintings or drawings in the > poorest cottages, in the dirtiest corners. And my mind is driven > towards these things with an irresistible momentum.\ > Vincent van Gogh, letter to his brother, Theo, July 21, 1882 Works of one of the greatest [Post-Impressionists]—Dutch painter [Vincent van Gogh], born this day in 1853—convey not only keen observations of nature but the anguish of a mental illness that eventually led to his suicide. [Vincent van Gogh] > Though I am often in the depths of misery, there is still calmness, > pure harmony and music inside me. I see paintings or drawings in the > poorest cottages, in the dirtiest corners. And my mind is driven > towards these things with an irresistible momentum.\ > Vincent van Gogh, letter to his brother, Theo, July 21, 1882 Works of one of the greatest Post-Impressionists—Dutch painter [Vincent van Gogh], born this day in 1853—convey not only keen observations of nature but the anguish of a mental illness that eventually led to his suicide.

[Elizabeth I]

> Though I be a woman yet I have as good a courage answerable to my > place as ever my father had. I am your anointed queen. I will never be > by violence constrained to do anything. I thank God I am indeed endued > with such qualities that if I were turned out of the realm in my > petticoat I were able to live in any place of Christendom.\ > Elizabeth I, speech to a parliamentary delegation, November 5, 1566 [Elizabeth I], born this day in 1533, was queen of England (1558-1603) during a period, often called the [Elizabethan Age], when [England] asserted itself vigorously as a major European power in politics, commerce, and the arts. [Elizabeth I] > Though I be a woman yet I have as good a courage answerable to my > place as ever my father had. I am your anointed queen. I will never be > by violence constrained to do anything. I thank God I am indeed endued > with such qualities that if I were turned out of the realm in my > petticoat I were able to live in any place of Christendom.\ > Elizabeth I, speech to a parliamentary delegation, November 5, 1566 [Elizabeth I], born this day in 1533, was queen of England (1558-1603) during a period, often called the Elizabethan Age, when [England] asserted itself vigorously as a major European power in politics, commerce, and the arts.

[Franz Liszt]

> What is our life but a succession of preludes to that unknown song > whose first solemn note is sounded by death?\ > Franz Liszt, 1828 Hungarian composer [Franz Liszt], born this day in 1811, was not only the greatest [piano] virtuoso of his time but also a composer of enormous originality and a principal figure in the [Romantic Movement]. [Franz Liszt] > What is our life but a succession of preludes to that unknown song > whose first solemn note is sounded by death?\ > Franz Liszt, 1828 Hungarian composer [Franz Liszt], born this day in 1811, was not only the greatest [piano] virtuoso of his time but also a composer of enormous originality and a principal figure in the [Romantic Movement].

[Michael Jackson]

> When I get onstage I don't know what happens, honest to God. It feels > so good, it's like the safest place in the world.\ > Michael Jackson Born this day in 1958, American entertainer [Michael Jackson] became a worldwide superstar with his music videos and best-selling albums, especially *Thriller* (1982), but later earned more attention for his eccentric lifestyle. [Michael Jackson] > When I get onstage I don't know what happens, honest to God. It feels > so good, it's like the safest place in the world.\ > Michael Jackson Born this day in 1958, American entertainer [Michael Jackson] became a worldwide superstar with his music videos and best-selling albums, especially *Thriller* (1982), but later earned more attention for his eccentric lifestyle.

[Kurosawa Akira]

> When I make a film like this, it makes me so happy. *Madadayo* is a > film that describes a heart-warming and pleasant relationship between > Professor Hyakken Uchida and his former students. There is something > very precious, which has been all but forgotten—the enviable world of > warm hearts. I hope that all the people who have seen this motion > picture will leave the theatre feeling refreshed with broad smiles on > their faces.\ > Kurosawa Akira, on the last film he directed, *Madadayo*, 1993 [![Photograph:Kurosawa Akira during the filming of Ran, 1985.]] - Kurosawa Akira during the filming of *Ran*, 1985. Born this day in 1910, Japanese director [Kurosawa Akira] won worldwide acclaim with subtle, brilliantly composed films, such as *Rashomon* (1950), that combined Japanese historic themes with a Western sense of action and drama. [Kurosawa Akira] > When I make a film like this, it makes me so happy. *Madadayo* is a > film that describes a heart-warming and pleasant relationship between > Professor Hyakken Uchida and his former students. There is something > very precious, which has been all but forgotten—the enviable world of > warm hearts. I hope that all the people who have seen this motion > picture will leave the theatre feeling refreshed with broad smiles on > their faces.\ > Kurosawa Akira, on the last film he directed, *Madadayo*, 1993

[Scott Joplin]

> When I'm dead twenty-five years, people are going to begin to > recognize me.\ > Scott Joplin American composer and pianist [Scott Joplin], born this day in 1868 and known as the "king of [ragtime]" at the turn of the 20th century, is remembered for his classic piano rags, notably "Maple Leaf Rag" and "The Entertainer."[Scott Joplin] > When I'm dead twenty-five years, people are going to begin to > recognize me.\ > Scott Joplin American composer and pianist [Scott Joplin], born this day in 1868 and known as the "king of ragtime" at the turn of the 20th century, is remembered for his classic piano rags, notably "Maple Leaf Rag" and "The Entertainer."

[Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard]

> When she wants to do something, she does it and does it right. If she > lived in the Stone Age, she would have figured out how to make fire.\ > Geneticist Eric F. Wieschaus on Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard [Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard], a German developmental [geneticist] who in 1995 was a corecipient of the [Nobel Prize] for Physiology or Medicine for research into early embryonic development, was born this day in 1942. [Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard] > When she wants to do something, she does it and does it right. If she > lived in the Stone Age, she would have figured out how to make fire.\ > Geneticist Eric F. Wieschaus on Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard [Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard], a German developmental geneticist who in 1995 was a corecipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for research into early embryonic development, was born this day in 1942.

[Raphael]

> While we may term other works paintings, those of Raphael are living > things; the flesh palpitates, the breath comes and goes, every organ > lives, life pulsates everywhere.\ > Giorgio Vasari, *Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and > Architects*, 1550 Born this day in 1483 was Italian master painter and architect [Raphael], whose work is admired for clarity of form and ease of composition and who is best known for his Madonnas and large figure compositions in the [Vatican]. [Raphael] > While we may term other works paintings, those of Raphael are living > things; the flesh palpitates, the breath comes and goes, every organ > lives, life pulsates everywhere.\ > Giorgio Vasari, *Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and > Architects*, 1550 Born this day in 1483 was Italian master painter and architect [Raphael], whose work is admired for clarity of form and ease of composition and who is best known for his Madonnas and large figure compositions in the Vatican.

[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]

> Why shouldn't art be pretty? There are enough unpleasant things in the > world.\ > Pierre-Auguste Renoir French painter [Pierre-Auguste Renoir], born this day in 1841, was initially associated with [Impressionism], but in the 1880s his early works of sparkling colour and light gave way to a more disciplined, formal technique. [Pierre-Auguste Renoir] > Why shouldn't art be pretty? There are enough unpleasant things in the > world.\ > Pierre-Auguste Renoir French painter [Pierre-Auguste Renoir], born this day in 1841, was initially associated with Impressionism, but in the 1880s his early works of sparkling colour and light gave way to a more disciplined, formal technique.

[Margaret Thatcher]

> You may have to fight a battle more than once to win it.\ > Margaret Thatcher British [Conservative] politician [Margaret Thatcher], born this day in 1925, was Europe's first woman [prime minister] and [Britain]'s only prime minister in the 20th century to win three consecutive terms (1979-90). [Margaret Thatcher] > You may have to fight a battle more than once to win it.\ > Margaret Thatcher British Conservative politician [Margaret Thatcher], born this day in 1925, was Europe's first woman prime minister and [Britain]'s only prime minister in the 20th century to win three consecutive terms (1979-90).

[Sammy Davis, Jr.]

> You name it and I've done it. I'd like to say I did it my way. But > that line, I'm afraid, belongs to someone else.\ > Sammy Davis, Jr. Singer, dancer, and actor [Sammy Davis, Jr.], born this day in 1925, was a member of the legendary "Rat Pack" with [Frank Sinatra] and Dean Martin and was among the first African American entertainers to gain wide popularity. [Sammy Davis, Jr.] > You name it and I've done it. I'd like to say I did it my way. But > that line, I'm afraid, belongs to someone else.\ > Sammy Davis, Jr. Singer, dancer, and actor [Sammy Davis, Jr.], born this day in 1925, was a member of the legendary "Rat Pack" with Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin and was among the first African American entertainers to gain wide popularity.

[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]

> You only have power over people so long as you do not take everything > away from them. But when you have robbed man of everything, he is no > longer in your pocket—he is free.\ > Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, *The First Circle* [![Photograph:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.]] - Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Born this day in 1918, Russian writer [Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]—best known for *The Gulag Archipelago*, which chronicles the [U.S.S.R.]'s vast system of prisons and labour camps—received the [Nobel Prize] for Literature for 1970. [Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn] > You only have power over people so long as you do not take everything > away from them. But when you have robbed man of everything, he is no > longer in your pocket—he is free.\ > Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, *The First Circle*

Abbas, Mahmoud

After months of intense international pressure, Mahmoud Abbas, also known as Abu Mazen, was installed as Palestinian prime minister on April 30, 2003. As a condition for pursuing their road map to peace, the quartet (U.S., European Union, Russia, and UN) had insisted on the appointment of a prime minister with wide powers in a move to circumvent Palestinian Pres. Yasir Arafat, who both Israel and the U.S. claimed was promoting terror and blocking peace negotiations. Abbas immediately called for an end to the violent uprising against Israel but refused to disarm Islamist militants; he argued that any attempt to do so would lead to civil war. A cease-fire he negotiated with the militants in June broke down after Israel carried out a string of targeted assassinations. Undermined by Arafat and derided on the Palestinian street, Abbas's position became untenable. Blaming Israel, the U.S., and Arafat, he resigned on September 6, after slightly more than 100 days in office. Abbas was born in 1935 in the Arab-Jewish town of Safed (now in northern Israel). During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, his father, a prominent cheese merchant, fled with the family to Syria. Despite the family's refugee status, Abbas went on to earn a law degree at the University of Damascus. In the late 1950s he worked in Qatar as a personnel director in the civil service before making a fortune in private business. In 1959 he was one of the founders of the al-Fatah movement, which spearheaded the Palestinian armed struggle and dominated the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). In the late 1970s Abbas was instrumental in forging contacts with Israeli peace groups, a policy he fostered as head of the PLO's international department.

ly improved the quality of light—brighter and whiter—the hazards of fire still remained.

Although [Thomas Drummond], a British engineer, invented the [][limelight] in 1816, it did not come into general use until some 30 years later. Limelight is produced by directing a sharp point of oxyhydrogen flame against a cylindrical block of lime. The tiny area of lime becomes incandescent and emits a brilliant white light that is soft and mellow. As the lime is slowly consumed by burning, the block of lime has to be slowly and constantly turned by an operator to supply the flame with a fresh surface. Since the brilliant area was very small, the addition of a mirrored reflector was necessary to give accurate control. The intensity of the limelight permitted it to be directed onto the stage from the auditorium. Since it offered control as well as intensity, the limelight was quickly adapted to follow individual performers around the stage. The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire. ### [][Electrification] {#40204.toc} An advance of great importance was the introduction of the [][electric] carbon [][arc], which was exhibited in experimental form in 1808 by [][Sir Humphry Davy]. The [][Paris Opéra] developed the earliest electric arc effect—a beam of sunlight—as early as 1846. By 1860 the Paris Opéra had also developed a lightning machine, a rainbow projector, and a luminous fountain. Most important, the company made the earliest [][spotlight], a carbon arc and reflector housed in a hood, which included a lens and a shutter. The next great advance in lighting was the development of the [][incandescent] electric lamp, in which light is produced by a filament electrically heated to incandescence. The invention of a practical electric lamp by Thomas Edison in 1879 marked the beginning of the modern era of stage lighting. Gas was quickly discarded; within one year the progressive Paris Opéra introduced the new system. Two years later, at the Electrotechnical Exposition in Munich, a small theatre was erected that used electric lighting exclusively for both stage and auditorium. The success of the experiment received worldwide acclaim. In London the Savoy Theatre was the first to install the new lights; while in Boston the Bijou Theatre followed the new trend in 1882. The following year, 1883, the Landestheatre in Stuttgart, the Residenztheatre in Munich, and the Staatsoper in Vienna were the first completely electrified theatres.

[Frank O. Gehry]

American architect and designer [Frank O. Gehry]—renowned worldwide for his original, sculptural, and often audacious work, including the curvaceous [Guggenheim Museum] in Bilbao, Spain—was born in Toronto this day in 1929. [Frank O. Gehry] American architect and designer [Frank O. Gehry]—renowned worldwide for his original, sculptural, and often audacious work, including the curvaceous Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain—was born in Toronto this day in 1929.

Abbott and Costello

American comedic duo who performed on stage and in films, radio, and television. Bud Abbott (original name William Alexander Abbott; b. Oct. 2, 1895, Asbury Park, N.J., U.S.—d. April 24, 1974, Woodland Hills, Calif.) and Lou Costello (original name Louis Francis Cristillo; b. March 6, 1906, Paterson, N.J., U.S.—d. March 3, 1959, East Los Angeles, Calif.) specialized in rapid-fire patter and knockabout slapstick, and they are regarded as the archetypal team of burlesque comedy. []Abbott was born into a circus family, and he managed burlesque houses before he met Costello. He spent much time backstage studying the top American comics of the day, including [W.C. Fields], Bert Lahr, and the comedy team of Bobby Clark and Paul McCullough. In 1923 Abbott produced his own show, *Broadway Flashes*, in which he played a leading role in order to save the cost of an actor's salary. He spent the next decade perfecting his talents as a straight man and working with a number of partners that included his wife, Betty. As a young man, []Costello greatly admired [Charlie Chaplin]. In 1927 he moved to Hollywood where he worked as a stuntman; after an injury, he quit stunt work to perform in New York burlesque. Although he had never worked on stage before, he quickly became one of the top burlesque comics and learned the hundreds of standard comedy routines of the circuit. These stock routines allowed for comics to work interchangeably with a variety of partners (often on a moment's notice); in such informal pairings, Abbott and Costello performed together sporadically throughout the early 1930s, before their official teaming in early 1936. During the next few years the team worked the burlesque circuit and perfected routines each had done countless times with other partners, including the baseball sketch "Who's on First?" for which they became famous. Although they would occasionally vary their standard formula in a few of their films, Abbott and Costello's act remained mostly consistent throughout their two decades as a team. Abbott was something of a bully and a schemer, and Costello played the hapless, childlike patsy who was known for catchphrases such as "I'm a ba-a-a-a-d boy!" Their characters were stock types of the burlesque tradition; as such, their comedy relied more on the rapid-fire delivery of gags than on character or situational humour. They have been credited as one of the few comedy teams to have preserved on film many of the classic routines of the American vaudeville and burlesque traditions.

Abelson, Philip Hauge

American scientist, editor, and administrator (b. April 27, 1913, Tacoma, Wash.—d. Aug. 1, 2004, Bethesda, Md.), rose to prominence for his research on uranium and for his co-discovery (with American physicist Edwin McMillan) of neptunium. In the 1940s Abelson devised a process for isolating uranium isotopes that aided in the development of the atomic bomb. He also helped establish the feasibility of building nuclear submarines. Abelson was formally trained in physics and chemistry, but in his career of more than 60 years, he also blazed trails in biology, geology, engineering, and biochemistry. He was among the first scientists to recognize the potential of the bacterium *Escherichia coli* for use in genetic engineering, and his discovery that amino acids in fossils could survive millions of years influenced studies in biochemistry and paleontology. When elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1959, Abelson was eligible for work he did in any of seven scientific disciplines; he chose to be inducted as a geologist. In 1962 he was named editor of *Science,* the principal publication of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). He held the position more than 20 years and subsequently served as contributing editor until the late 1990s. As editor, Abelson wrote more than 500 editorials on subjects ranging from medicine to energy, and he often expressed his strong opinions and engaged other scientists in heated debate. Abelson served as acting executive director (1974, 1975, 1984) of the AAAS and as president (1971-78) of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. In 1987 he was awarded the National Medal of Science.

About the author

As a musician, songwriter, and producer, [Al Kooper] has been involved with rock music since 1958. A member of the seminal blues-rock band the Blues Project, he also founded the jazz-rock group Blood, Sweat and Tears and discovered and produced Southern rock pioneers Lynyrd Skynyrd. His quirky, influential keyboard style first emerged with his distinctive organ playing on [][Bob Dylan]'s "Like a Rolling Stone." Kooper's serendipitous involvement in that legendary recording session was the first of several times that he was to be an important participant in events that were landmarks in Dylan's career. Kooper was part of the backing band at Dylan's first live performance with electric accompaniment, at the Newport Folk Festival in 1965. He also was in the band at Dylan's second (and in some ways more cataclysmic) electric performance, at the Forest Hills Tennis Stadium. When Dylan went to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1966 to record his groundbreaking *Blonde on Blonde* album, Kooper was a key session player, as he was on *New Morning* (which he also produced) in 1970. In 1981 Kooper was part of Dylan's touring band, and he performed on five of Dylan's studio albums in the 1980s. His autobiography, *Backstage Passes & Backstabbing Bastards: Memoirs of a Rock 'n' Roll Survivor* (1998), contains many anecdotes relating to his longtime association with Dylan. In addition to writing this biography of Dylan, the author contributed three audio clips providing firsthand accounts of the "Like a Rolling Stone" recording session and the Newport and Forest Hills performances.

[Lord Byron]

Born this day in 1788, British [Romantic] poet and satirist [Lord Byron] captured the imagination of Europe with his personality and work, notably *Don Juan* and the renowned autobiographical poem *Childe Harold's Pilgrimage*. Lord Byron Born this day in 1788, British Romantic poet and satirist Lord Byron captured the imagination of Europe with his personality and work, notably *Don Juan* and the renowned autobiographical poem *Childe Harold's Pilgrimage*.

[Maria Mitchell]

Born this day in 1818, [Maria Mitchell] was the first professional woman astronomer in the United States, noted for her discovery that [sunspots] are whirling vertical cavities and not, as previously thought, clouds. Maria Mitchell Born this day in 1818, Maria Mitchell was the first professional woman astronomer in the United States, noted for her discovery that sunspots are whirling vertical cavities and not, as previously thought, clouds.

[Madonna]

Born this day in 1958, American performer [Madonna] first rose to fame in the 1980s with catchy pop songs and provocative music videos and later achieved levels of power and control unprecedented for a woman in entertainment. Madonna Born this day in 1958, American performer Madonna first rose to fame in the 1980s with catchy pop songs and provocative music videos and later achieved levels of power and control unprecedented for a woman in entertainment.

[Vreni Schneider]

Born this day in 1964, Swiss Alpine skier [Vreni Schneider] won three [Olympic] gold medals and was the dominant female skier of her era and one of the greatest skiers in the history of the [slalom] and giant slalom events. Vreni Schneider Born this day in 1964, Swiss Alpine skier Vreni Schneider won three Olympic gold medals and was the dominant female skier of her era and one of the greatest skiers in the history of the slalom and giant slalom events.

Acton, Sir Harold Mario Mitchell

British writer and connoisseur (b. July 5, 1904, Villa La Pietra, near Florence, Italy--d. Feb. 27, 1994, Villa La Pietra), was "the consummate aesthete of his generation," more admired for his exuberant dilettantism while a student at the University of Oxford in the 1920s and for his lifelong charm than for his many books. The son of an Anglo-Italian father and American mother, Acton went from a privileged childhood at a Tuscan villa to Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. At Oxford he founded a literary magazine and led a circle of friends that included Graham Greene, Kenneth Clarke, and Evelyn Waugh, who reportedly used Acton as the model for the aesthete Anthony Blanche in *Brideshead Revisited.* From 1932 to 1939 Acton lived in China, lecturing on English literature, translating classical Chinese drama, and collecting art. After serving in the British Royal Air Force in World War II, he returned to the family estate overlooking Florence. He spent the remainder of his life writing, overseeing his extensive art collection, and lavishly entertaining international celebrities, artists, and dignitaries. Acton's books include *The Last Medici* (1932); *Peonies and Ponies* (1941), recounting his years in China; the nonfictional *Tuscan Villas* (1973) and *Florence: A Travellers' Companion* (1986); collections of poetry and fiction; two works on the Bourbons of Naples; and a two-volume autobiography, *Memoirs of an Aesthete* (1948) and *More Memoirs of an Aesthete* (1970). He was knighted in 1974. Acton bequeathed his estate--estimated to be worth between \$100 million and \$500 million--to New York University.

[Wayne Gretzky]

Canadian [ice-hockey] player [Wayne Gretzky], who holds the [NHL] record for points (2,857), goals (894), and assists (1,963) and is considered by many the game's greatest player of all time, was born this day in 1961. Wayne Gretzky Canadian ice-hockey player Wayne Gretzky, who holds the NHL record for points (2,857), goals (894), and assists (1,963) and is considered by many the game's greatest player of all time, was born this day in 1961.

A Moving Habitat:

Community Ecology of the Sloth [![Photograph:Female brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) hanging from a cecropia tree.]] - Female brown-throated three-toed sloth (*Bradypus variegatus*) hanging from a cecropia tree. About once a week the three-toed sloth of Central and South America (*[Bradypus variegatus]*) descends from the trees, where it lives among the branches. For this slow-moving mammal, the journey is a dangerous and laborious undertaking, but it is one of great importance to members of the community among and aboard the sloth. Once the sloth has reached the ground, often some 30 metres (100 feet) beneath its usual perch, it digs a pit at the base of the trunk with its stubby tail. There it urinates and defecates small, hard pellets and then covers the pit with leaf litter. This process takes about 30 minutes, during which time the sloth is extremely vulnerable to predators. Although sloths are often seen in [][cecropia trees] (see photograph) and may feed in 15 to 40 neighbouring trees over the course of a few months, they tend to spend most of their time in one particular "modal" tree. Up to half of the nutrients consumed by the sloth may be returned to the modal tree via the sloth's buried feces. Were the feces scattered from the top of the tree, the modal tree would have to share this important resource with the plants growing on it, as well as with competing plants over a wide radius on the ground. Other creatures, too, benefit from the sloth's weekly trip to the forest floor. The sloth carries a cargo of several species of beetles, mites, and [pyralid moths] in its shaggy, tan fur. They leave the sloth's body only when the animal descends, laying their eggs in the sloth's dung. Possibly the larvae aid in recycling nutrients, which the tree turns into foliage and the sloth in turn takes in as food.

[Desiderius Erasmus]

Dutch [humanist] [Desiderius Erasmus], the leading scholar of the northern [Renaissance] who was known for his work involving the Greek [New Testament] and the Church Fathers, died this day in 1536 in Basel, Switzerland. [Desiderius Erasmus] Dutch humanist [Desiderius Erasmus], the leading scholar of the northern Renaissance who was known for his work involving the Greek New Testament and the Church Fathers, died this day in 1536 in Basel, Switzerland.

Abu Seif, Salah

Egyptian filmmaker whose movies, noted for their realism and progressive political messages, drew criticism from Muslim religious leaders and the Egyptian government; several of his films were banned (b. May 10, 1915--d. June 23, 1996).

[Hirohito]

Emperor [Hirohito]—the longest-reigning monarch in Japanese history, who was enthroned in 1926, ruled during World War II and in democratic postwar [Japan], and died this day in 1989—was succeeded by his son [Akihito]. Hirohito Emperor Hirohito—the longest-reigning monarch in Japanese history, who was enthroned in 1926, ruled during World War II and in democratic postwar Japan, and died this day in 1989—was succeeded by his son Akihito.

Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid

Even five years after he was declared an apostate by a high court, ordered to divorce his wife, and, in effect, forced out of his homeland, Egyptian academic Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd continued to serve as a focal point for those concerned with the human and civil rights excesses of Islamic fundamentalism in 2000. Abu Zayd's case was often mentioned in the same breath as those of Indian-born author Salman Rushdie and Bangladeshi feminist Taslima Nasrin, both also unable to return to their homelands because their writings had been declared insulting to Islam. Abu Zayd was born in Tanta, Egypt, in the Nile Delta on Oct. 7, 1943. He attended Cairo University and received his Ph.D. in Arabic and Islamic studies in 1981. He wrote his doctoral thesis on the Andalusian-born Sufi Ibn al-ʿArabi (1165-1240), a mystic and philosopher who wrote in a multicultural (Provençal, Latin, and Arabic) and multireligious (Judaic, Christian, and Islamic) environment that he sought to reconcile in a universal love. Abu Zayd's thesis was published as *The Philosophy of Hermeneutics* in Beirut in 1983. From his studies Abu Zayd realized the importance of sociocultural factors in the interpretation of the Qurʾan and took the point that interpretation is human, not divine, into his own beliefs. Abu Zayd observed how Islam was being interpreted by fundamentalists in Egypt and elsewhere in ways that served political ends, a position he opposed in his 1992 book *Naqd al-khitab al-dini* ("Critique of Religious Discourse"). When in that same year he applied for promotion to full professor at Cairo University, the tenure committee split. One of Abu Zayd's colleagues resorted to the pulpit of a mosque in Cairo to denounce him as an apostate for his writings. The Abu Zayd case became a cause célèbre among Muslim fundamentalists, and even the newspaper of the ruling National Democratic Party called for his expulsion from the university and execution as a heretic. On June 14, 1995, a Cairo court ruled that Abu Zayd had to divorce his wife, Ibtihal Yunis, a teacher of French culture at Cairo University, because he was a heretic and therefore a non-Muslim, and a Muslim woman could not be married to a non-Muslim man. The Court of Cassation upheld the ruling in 1996. Fearful for their lives, the couple fled Egypt and settled in The Netherlands. As his case continued to draw attention from international human rights organizations, Abu Zayd followed academic pursuits at the State University of Leiden, Neth., lectured throughout Europe and the U.S., and served on the editorial board for two forthcoming volumes of the *Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾan.* Marius K. Deeb

Abdullah II

Following the death on Feb. 7, 1999, of his father, King Hussein (*see* [*Obituaries*]), Crown Prince Abdullah became king of Jordan at the age of 37. His succession to the throne was decided a month earlier, when the ailing Hussein named him as the new heir to the Hashimite crown in favour of the king's brother, Prince Hassan, who had been designated for several decades as the heir apparent. In his new role Abdullah II continued to follow many of his father's policies; he supported an Arab-Israeli peace agreement. He distanced himself, however, from Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein. In an effort to bolster Jordan's weak economy, Abdullah II maintained that the new government, formed in March, would focus on economic reforms. He also pledged to secure relations with other Arab countries and improve the status of women. Abdullah ibn Hussein was born on Jan. 30, 1962, in Amman, Jordan. He was one of 12 children born to Hussein and was the son of the king's second wife, Toni Gardiner, who was British. Until the age of three, Abdullah had served as the crown prince, but the dangerous events and hostile environment in the Middle East prompted Hussein to name Abdullah's adult uncle as heir to the throne. At the age of four, Abdullah was sent to Great Britain to begin his studies. He later completed his secondary education in the U.S. at Deerfield Academy, Mass., and took courses at both the University of Oxford and Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Following in his father's footsteps, he graduated (1980) from the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, Eng. Abdullah served in the British Armed Forces and subsequently served in Jordan's Armed Forces in the 41st and 90th armoured brigades. In 1993 he was appointed deputy commander of the country's elite Special Forces, a post he held until assuming the throne. In June 1993 Abdullah married a Palestinian, Rania, with whom he had two children, Hussein and Imam. As king, Abdullah II vowed to continue the work begun by his father and to blend Arab traditions with the more modern ones of the West. Abdullah II socialized with other Jordanians, as his father had, and he was known to have disguised himself as a taxi driver and a television reporter so that he could remain in touch with his people and hear their views. His popularity among the armed forces, long considered a pillar of the throne, also provided some support for his new role. Because he had no government experience, however, many wondered whether Abdullah's charisma would be enough to help him rule; some Jordanians still viewed him as a military man, not a statesman. Amy Weber

Abs, Hermann Josef

German banker (b. Oct. 15, 1901, Bonn, Germany--d. Feb. 5, 1994, Bad Soden, Germany), was a dominant figure in the West German "economic miracle" following World War II, most notably in his role as deputy supervisory board chairman (1948-57) of the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (Credit Institute for Reconstruction) and then as spokesman for the managing board (1957-67), chairman of the supervisory board (1967-76), and honorary chairman (1976-94) of the powerful Deutsche Bank. Abs studied law for a year before obtaining a post with a merchant bank in 1929. He worked and studied international banking in Germany, France, Britain, and the U.S. until 1938, when he joined the managing board of the Deutsche Bank in Berlin. Abs, a devout Roman Catholic, never became a member of the National Socialist Party, and this, along with his close personal association with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, quickly gained him a central role in the nation's postwar economic redevelopment. While with the Kreditanstalt, Abs supervised the distribution of Marshall Plan funds to West German industry, and in 1951-53 he led the delegation that renegotiated national war debts. When the Deutsche Bank reopened in Frankfurt in 1957, Abs took control of the new board. He also served successfully on the boards of more than two dozen companies until a 1965 law (unofficially dubbed the Abs law) limited the number of corporate chairmanships an individual could hold simultaneously.

Adams, Gerry

In 1994 Gerry Adams joined the long list of international figures who made the change from alleged terrorist to peacemaker. On August 31 the Irish Republican Army (IRA) announced a cease-fire. As president of the IRA's political wing, Sinn Fein, Adams was a central figure in bringing it about. Gerard Adams was born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on Oct. 6, 1948, into a prominent Irish nationalist family with ties to the IRA. Although Adams denied being a member of the IRA, it was widely believed that by 1972 he had become a member of the IRA's army council and its commander in Belfast. He was one of the first people to be imprisoned when the British government introduced internment without trial for suspected terrorists. During the course of his three years' imprisonment, he collected his sole criminal conviction: for attempting to escape. In 1981 Adams persuaded Sinn Fein to widen its strategy and enter candidates in both local and national elections. He was elected an MP in 1983, but he refused to take the oath of allegiance and never took his seat. (He lost his seat in 1992.) As an MP, Adams was frequently invited to condemn violence, but he always refused. In 1991, however, Adams started shifting Sinn Fein's strategy toward negotiation. He wrote to trade-union and church leaders and to politicians in both London and Dublin, saying that Sinn Fein wanted to join peace talks. He also began a series of secret negotiations with John Hume, the leader of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party, which had always opposed violence and the IRA. In 1993 the British government admitted that it had conducted indirect negotiations with Sinn Fein through intermediaries.

[Sally Ride]

In June 1983 astronaut [Sally Ride], born this day in 1951, became the first American woman to travel into outer space, 20 years after [Valentina Tereshkova] of Russia had made history as the first woman to do so. [Sally Ride] In June 1983 astronaut [Sally Ride], born this day in 1951, became the first American woman to travel into outer space, 20 years after Valentina Tereshkova of Russia had made history as the first woman to do so.

2-Tone Records

In several regional [][British] cities, the distinct late 1970s combination of economic turmoil, unemployment benefits (effectively an arts subsidy), and art school punks resulted in a generation of eccentric talent. In Coventry, the southernmost centre of Britain's [Midlands] engineering belt, the outcome was 2-Tone, a mostly white take on [ska], the music brought to Britain by Jamaican immigrants in the mid-1960s and favoured by English mods of the period, whose two-tone Tonik suits gave the latter-day movement its name. In 1977 art student Jerry Dammers founded the []Specials, a self-consciously multiracial group—both in composition and rhetoric—whose initial hit, "Gangsters" (1979), gave them the clout to demand every punk's dream, their own record label. The sound of that label, 2-Tone, was thin and sharp, dominated by whiny vocals and the kerchunk-kerchunk of the rhythm guitar. After an impressive run of hits by several seminal groups, 2-Tone folded, but not before the Specials had their second British number one hit with "Ghost Town" (1981), which evocatively addressed racial tension and whose timely release coincided with riots in [Liverpool] and [London]. Among 2-Tone's alumni, Madness developed into a very English pop group (on the [Stiff label]), and the Beat (called the English Beat in the United States) split to become General Public and the Fine Young Cannibals. The legacy of 2-Tone would be explored during the American ska revival of the late 1990s. During the heyday of 2-Tone, and a little farther north, in [Birmingham], another multiracial group, UB40, laced Midlands diffidence with [reggae] rhythms and achieved international success over a 15-year period on its own DEP International label, licensed through Virgin. [Peter Silverton]

Abelard, Peter

Introduction ------------ *French **Pierre Abélard, or Abailard,** Latin **Petrus Abaelardus, or Abeilardus** * born 1079, Le Pallet, near Nantes, Brittany [now in France] died April 21, 1142, Priory of Saint-Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saône, Burgundy [now in France] [![Photograph:Abelard, with Heloise, miniature portrait by Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the Musee Conde, ...]] - Abelard, with Heloise, miniature portrait by Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the Musee Conde, ...

Abraham

Introduction ------------ *Hebrew **Avraham** , originally called **Abram** or, in Hebrew, **Avram** * flourished early 2nd millennium BC first of the Hebrew patriarchs and a figure revered by the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the biblical book of Genesis, Abraham left Ur, in Mesopotamia, because God called him to found a new nation in an undesignated land that he later learned was Canaan. He obeyed unquestioningly the commands of God, from whom he received repeated promises and a covenant that his "seed" would inherit the land. The critical problem of a "biography" of Abraham {#108.toc} ------------------------------------------------ There can be no biography of Abraham in the ordinary sense. The most that can be done is to apply the interpretation of modern historical finds to biblical materials so as to arrive at a probable judgment as to the background and patterns of events in his life. This involves a reconstruction of the patriarchal age (of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph; early 2nd millennium BC), which until the end of the 19th century was unknown and considered virtually unknowable. It was assumed, based on a presumed dating of hypothetical biblical sources, that the patriarchal narratives in the Bible were only a projection of the situation and concerns of a much later period (9th-5th century BC) and of dubious historical value.

ʿAbbās I

Introduction ------------ *byname **ʿAbbās the Great** * born Jan. 27, 1571 died Jan. 19, 1629 [![Photograph:ʿAbbās I, detail of a painting by the Mughal school of Jahāngīr, ...]] - ʿAbbās I, detail of a painting by the Mughal school of Jahāngīr, *c.* ...

Aalto, Alvar

Introduction ------------ *in full **Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto** * born Feb. 3, 1898, Kuortane, Fin., Russian Empire died May 11, 1976, Helsinki [![Photograph:Alvar Aalto.]] - Alvar Aalto.

ʿAbd al-Muʾmin

Introduction ------------ *in full **ʿAbd al-Muʾmin ibn ʿAli** * born *c.* 1094, Tagra, Kingdom of the Ḥammādids died 1163, Rabat, Almohad Empire Berber caliph of the [][Almohad] dynasty (reigned 1130-63), who conquered the [North African] Maghrib from the Almoravids andbrought all the Berbers under one rule. Life {#87.toc} ----

1945--A Watershed Year

Introduction ------------ The year 1995 has been called "the 50th anniversary of almost everything," and the hyperbole is arguably slight. The only world many of us have known came into existence in the period from 1945 to 1947. Although that world may have come to its end with the breakup of the Soviet Union--and even though Eric Hobsbawm recently has published a history of the "short" 20th century that he claims ran from 1914 to 1991--the contours of some new world are by no means evident.[] The following are extracts from articles published in the 1946 edition of the *Britannica Book of the Year* and were chosen to illuminate the way people thought then about the great events that were defining their lives and that now can be seen as seminal to the age that was beginning. In chronological order, they are: the Yalta Conference, the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the surrender of Germany, the Holocaust, the formation of the United Nations, the development and use of the atomic bomb, and the surrender of Japan. [From "United States"] At a meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin at Yalta on the Black sea in February plans were discussed for the most effective co-operation of the Allies in bringing about the unconditional surrender of Germany and the treatment of that country in respect to occupation and reparations when the victory should be won. On his return from Yalta President Roosevelt addressed the nation (March 1), reporting the close accord of the Allies and declaring, "this time we are not making the mistake of waiting until the end of the war to set up the machinery of peace." Four days later the governments of the United States, Great Britain and Russia, with the concurrence of China, issued invitations to 39 nations (later increased to 51) to attend a United Nations conference at San Francisco to draft a Security charter on the basis of the Dumbarton Oaks proposals of Oct. 1944.

1812, War of

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:Battle between the frigates HMS Shannon and USS Chesapeake off Boston during the War ...]] - Battle between the frigates HMS *Shannon* and USS *Chesapeake* off Boston during the War ... [![Map/Still:Theatre map for the War of 1812. Click on one hyperlink for a detailed map of the major battles in ...]] - Theatre map for the War of 1812. Click on one hyperlink for a detailed map of the major battles in ... (June 18, 1812-Feb. 17, 1815), conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations of U.S. maritime rights. It ended with the exchange of ratifications of the [Treaty of Ghent]. Major causes of the war {#261171.toc} -----------------------

acid-base reaction

Introduction ------------ a type of chemical process typified by the exchange of one or more hydrogen ions, H^+^, between species that may be neutral (molecules, such as water, H~2~O; or acetic acid, CH~3~CO~2~H) or electrically charged (ions, such as ammonium, NH~4~^+^; hydroxide, OH^−^; or carbonate, CO^^2^^/~~3~~^^−^^). It also includes analogous behaviour of molecules and ions that are [][acidic] but do not donate hydrogen ions (aluminum chloride, AlCl~3~, and the silver ion AG^+^). Acids are chemical compounds that show, in water solution, a sharp taste, a corrosive action on metals, and the ability to turn certain blue vegetable dyes red. [][Bases] are chemical compounds that, in solution, are soapy to the touch and turn red vegetable dyes blue. When mixed, acids and bases neutralize one another and produce [][salts], substances with a salty taste and none of the characteristic properties of either acids or bases. The idea that some substances are acids, whereas others are bases, is almost as old as chemistry; and the terms acid, base, and salt occur very early in the writings of the medieval alchemists. Acids were probably the first of these to be recognized, apparently because of their sour taste. The English word acid, the French *acide*, the German *Säure*, and the Russian *kislota* are all derived from words meaning sour (Latin *acidus*, German *sauer*, Old Norse *sūur*, and Russian *kisly*). Other properties associated at an early date with acids were their solvent, or corrosive, action; their effect on vegetable dyes; and the effervescence resulting when they were applied to chalk (production of bubbles of carbon dioxide gas). Bases (or alkalies) were characterized mainly by their ability to neutralize acids and form salts, the latter being typified rather loosely as crystalline substances soluble in water and having a saline taste.

acarid

Introduction ------------ any member of the subgroup of the arthropod class Arachnida that includes the [][mites] and [][ticks]. General features {#47773.toc} ---------------- ### Size range and diversity of structure {#47774.toc} Some mites are as small as 0.1 mm (0.0039 inch) in length, while the largest ticks are slightly more than 30 mm (1.18 inches) long. Nymphs and adults generally have four pairs of legs, although newly hatched larvae have only three pairs. Members of some families have a dense covering of stiff hairs, or setae, while others are almost nude. Soft-bodied mites and ticks have only a few hardened plates, or shields, but others are strongly sclerotized with numerous hardened plates covering the body. Acarids range in shape from minute, soft-bodied, elongated or circular individuals to large, hard-bodied, spiderlike ones. Some are flattened, but others assume grotesque body shapes as they become engorged with food or filled with eggs. ### Distribution and abundance {#47775.toc}

actinide element

Introduction ------------ any of a series of 15 consecutive chemical elements in the periodic table from actinium to lawrencium (atomic numbers 89-103). As a group they are significant largely because of their [][radioactivity]. Although several members of the group, including [][uranium] (the most familiar), occur naturally, most are man-made. Both uranium and [][plutonium] have been used in atomic bombs for their explosive power and currently are being employed in nuclear plants for the production of electrical power. General comparisons {#81174.toc} ------------------- [![Art:Figure 1: Modern version of the periodic table of the elements. To see more information about an ...]] - Figure 1: Modern version of the periodic table of the elements. To see more information about an ... The actinide elements follow one another in the seventh series of the periodic table (see [Figure]). Each has 86 electrons arranged as in the atoms of the noble gas radon (which precedes actinium by several spaces in the table), with three more electrons that may be positioned in the 6*d* and 7*s* orbitals (the seventh shell is outermost), and with additional electrons packing into inside orbitals. Specifically, the series is formed by the insertion of one more electron for each successive new element into an underlying 5*f* orbital. The valence electrons, however, are found mainly in the 6*d* and 7*s* orbitals. Thus, the chief difference among the atoms of the elements of the series is the single additional electron deep within the electron cloud; but the fact is that, because of its position in the 5th shell, this distinguishing electron actually affects the chemical properties of the actinides only in a relatively minor way; 5*f* electrons are not involved in the formation of chemical bonds with other atoms.

ʿAbduh, Muḥammad

Introduction ------------ born 1849, Nile Delta area, Egypt died July 11, 1905, near Alexandria religious scholar, jurist, and liberal reformer, who led the late 19th-century movement in Egypt and other Muslim countries to revitalize []Islāmic teachings and institutions in the modern world. As *muftī* (Islāmic legal counsellor) for Egypt (from 1899), he effected reforms in Islāmic law, administration, and higher education and, although resisted by conservatives, broke the rigidity of Muslim ritual, dogma, and family ties. His writings include the "Treatise on the Oneness of God" and a commentary on the Qurʾān. Life {#99.toc} ---- ʿAbduh attended the mosque school in Ṭanṭā and subsequently al-Azhar University in Cairo, receiving the degree of *ʿālim* (scholar) from the latter in 1877. After an early infatuation with mysticism, in 1872 he fell under the influence of [][Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī], the revolutionary pan-Islāmic preacher of Persian origin who had settled in Cairo and who stimulated ʿAbduh's interest in theology, philosophy, and politics. In punishment for political activity, Afghānī was expelled from Egypt in 1879 and ʿAbduh was exiled to his village, but the next year ʿAbduh's fortunes changed. He became editor of the government's official gazette, which he made a platform for preaching resistance to Anglo-French political encroachment and the need for social and religious reform. He was implicated in ʿUrābī Pasha's rebellion against foreign control in 1882 and, following the British military occupation of Egypt, was exiled. Rejoining Afghānī in Paris for several months in 1884, ʿAbduh helped his mentor publish the revolutionary journal *al-ʿUrwat alwuthqā* ("The Firmest Bond"), which was smuggled to Egypt, India, and elsewhere. After brief visits to England and Tunisia, ʿAbduh settled for three years in Beirut and taught in an Islāmic college there.

Adams, Ansel

Introduction ------------ born February 20, 1902, San Francisco, California, U.S. died April 22, 1984, Carmel, California [![Photograph:Ansel Adams.]] - Ansel Adams. the most important landscape [][photographer] of the 20th century. He is also perhaps the most widely known and beloved photographer in the history of the United States; the popularity of his work has only increased since his death. Adams's most important work was devoted to what was or appeared to be the country's remaining fragments of untouched wilderness, especially in national parks and other protected areas of the American West. He was also a vigorous and outspoken leader of the conservation movement. Early life and work {#236044.toc} -------------------

Acton (of Aldenham), John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, 1st Baron, 8th Baronet

Introduction ------------ born Jan. 10, 1834, Naples died June 19, 1902, Tegernsee, Bavaria, Ger. [![Photograph:1st Baron Acton of Aldenham, oil painting by Franz von Lenbach; in the National Portrait Gallery, ...]] - 1st Baron Acton of Aldenham, oil painting by Franz von Lenbach; in the National Portrait Gallery, ... []English Liberal historian and moralist, the first great modern philosopher of resistance to the evil state, whether its form be authoritarian, democratic, or socialist. A comment that he wrote in a letter, "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely," today has become a familiar aphorism. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1837, and he was raised to the peerage in 1869. Life {#116.toc} ----

Adam, Robert

Introduction ------------ born July 3, 1728, Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scot. died March 3, 1792, London, Eng. [![Photograph:Robert Adam, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]] - Robert Adam, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Scottish [][architect] and designer who, with his brother James (1730-94), transformed [][Palladian Neoclassicism] in England into the airy, light, elegant [style that bears their name]. His major architectural works include public buildings (especially in [London]), and his designs were used for the interiors of such country mansions as Syon House (1762-69) in Middlesex (now in [Hounslow], London). Early life {#119.toc} ----------

Aaron

Introduction ------------ flourished 14th century BC [![Photograph:Aaron, detail of a 3rd-century fresco from the synagogue at Doura-Europus, Syria; in the National ...]] - Aaron, detail of a 3rd-century fresco from the synagogue at Doura-Europus, Syria; in the National ... the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priesthood, who, with his brother [][Moses], led the Israelites out of Egypt. The figure of Aaron as it is now found in the Pentateuch is built up from several sources of traditions. In the Talmud and Midrash he is seen as the leading personality at the side of Moses. He has appeared in different roles in Christian thought. Life. {#77.toc} ----- Aaron is described in the Old Testament book of Exodus as a son of Amram and Jochebed of the tribe of Levi, three years older than his brother Moses. He acted together with his brother in the desperate situation of the Israelites in Egypt and took an active part in the Exodus. Although Moses was the actual leader, Aaron acted as his "mouth." The two brothers went to the pharaoh together, and it was Aaron who told him to let the people of Israel go, using his magic rod in order to show the might of Yahweh. When the pharaoh finally decided to release the people, Yahweh gave the important ordinance of the [][Passover], the annual ritual remembrance of the [][Exodus], to Aaron and Moses. But Moses alone went up on Mount Sinai, and he alone was allowed to come near to Yahweh. Moses later was ordered to "bring near" Aaron and his sons, and they were anointed and consecrated to be priests "by a perpetual statute." Aaron's sons were to take over the priestly garments after him. Aaron is not represented as wholly blameless. It was he who, when Moses was delayed on Mount Sinai, made the [][golden calf] that was idolatrously worshiped by the people.

acceleration stress

Introduction ------------ physiological changes that occur in the human body in motion as a result of rapid increase of speed. Rapid acceleration and surges in acceleration are felt more critically than are gradual shifts. Pilots are especially subject to the effects of acceleration because of the high speeds at which they travel. Acceleration forces are measured in units of []gravitational acceleration, or *g*. A force of three *g*, for example, is equivalent to an acceleration three times that of a body falling near the Earth. Three kinds of acceleration stress are distinguished—positive, negative, and transverse—according to the position of the body with relation to the direction of acceleration. []Positive acceleration stress. {#113.toc} ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Positive acceleration stress occurs when the direction of acceleration is along the long axis of the body from head to foot. As acceleration increases the force exerted on the pilot from one *g* to two *g*, there is an awareness of increased pressure and a general feeling of heaviness in the seat, hands, and feet. Three and four *g* further increase this sensation, and movement of the extremities becomes difficult; unless the trunk and head are supported, it may be difficult to keep them erect. The internal organs are pulled down in the body cavity and blood pressure falls. Eyesight may become limited, or there may be total blackout. The legs may feel congested and may have muscle cramps. Breathing may become difficult. If the acceleration is uneven or if the pilot is inexperienced, there may be mental confusion and disorientation. Unconsciousness can occur when the force exerted is from three to five *g*.

abrasive

Introduction ------------ sharp, hard material used to wear away the surface of softer, less resistant materials. Included within the term are both natural and synthetic substances, ranging from the relatively soft particles used in household cleansers and jeweler's polish to the hardest known material, the diamond. Abrasives are indispensable to the manufacture of nearly every product made today. Abrasives are used in the form of [grinding wheels], sandpapers, honing stones, polishes, cutoff wheels, tumbling and vibratory mass-finishing media, sandblasting, pulpstones, ball mills, and still other tools and products. Only through the use of abrasives is industry able to produce the highly precise components and ultrasmooth surfaces required in the manufacture of automobiles, airplanes and space vehicles, mechanical and electrical appliances, and machine tools. This article surveys the principal materials used in abrasives, the properties of those materials, and their processing into industrial products. Most abrasive products are made of ceramics, which include some of the hardest materials known. The origins of hardness (and other properties) in ceramic materials are described in the article [ceramic composition and properties]. History {#76662.toc} -------

accounting

Introduction ------------ systematic development and analysis of information about the economic affairs of an [][organization]. This information may be used in a number of ways: by a firm's managers to help them plan and control ongoing operations; by owners and legislative or regulatory bodies to help them appraise the organization's performance and make decisions as to its future; by owners, lenders, suppliers, employees, and others to help them decide how much time or money to devote to the company; by governmental bodies to determine what taxes a business must pay; and occasionally by customers to determine the price to be paid when contracts call for cost-based payments. Accounting provides information for all these purposes through the maintenance of data, the analysis and interpretation of these data, and the preparation of various kinds of reports. Most accounting information is historical—that is, the accountant observes all activities that the organization undertakes, records their effects, and prepares reports summarizing what has been recorded; the rest consists of forecasts and plans for current and future periods. Accounting information can be developed for any kind of organization, not just for privately owned, profit-seeking businesses. One branch of accounting deals with the economic operations of entire countries. The remainder of this article, however, will be devoted primarily to [][business] accounting. The objectives and characteristics of financial reporting {#252928.toc} ---------------------------------------------------------

acting

Introduction ------------ the performing [][art] in which movement, gesture, and intonation are used to realize a fictional character for the stage, for motion pictures, or for television. Acting is generally agreed to be a matter less of mimicry, exhibitionism, or imitation than of the ability to react to imaginary stimuli. Its essential elements remain the twin requisites enunciated by the French actor [][François-Joseph Talma] in his tribute to the actor Lekain (1825): "an extreme sensibility and a profound intelligence." For Talma it is sensibility that allows an actor to mark his face with the emotions of the character he is playing and to convey the intentions of the playwright, the implications of the text, and the movements of the "soul" of the character. Intelligence—the understanding of the workings of the human personality—is the faculty that orders these impressions for an audience. The essential problems in acting—those of whether the actor actually "feels" or merely imitates, of whether he should speak naturally or rhetorically, and of what actually constitutes being natural—are as old as theatre itself. They are concerned not merely with "realistic" acting, which arose in the theatre of the 19th century, but with the nature of the acting process itself.

acoustics

Introduction ------------ the science concerned with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound. The term is derived from the Greek *akoustos*, meaning "hearing." Beginning with its origins in the study of mechanical vibrations and the radiation of these vibrations through mechanical waves, acoustics has had important applications in almost every area of life. It has been fundamental to many developments in the arts—some of which, especially in the area of musical scales and instruments, took place after long experimentation by artists and were only much later explained as theory by scientists. For example, much of what is now known about architectural acoustics was actually learned by trial and error over centuries of experience and was only recently formalized into a science. Other applications of acoustic technology are in the study of geologic, atmospheric, and underwater phenomena. [Psychoacoustics], the study of the physical effects of sound on biological systems, has been of interest since Pythagoras first heard the sounds of vibrating strings and of hammers hitting anvils in the 6th century BC, but the application of modern ultrasonic technology has only recently provided some of the most exciting developments in medicine. Even today, research continues into many aspects of the fundamental physical processes involved in waves and sound and into possible applications of these processes in modern life.

adab

Islāmic concept that became a literary genre distinguished by its broad humanitarian concerns; it developed during the brilliant height of ʿAbbāsid culture in the 9th century and continued through the Muslim Middle Ages. The original sense of the word was simply "norm of conduct," or "custom," derived in ancient Arabia from ancestors revered as models. As such practice was deemed praiseworthy in the medieval Muslim world, *adab* acquired a further connotation of good breeding, courtesy, and urbanity. Parallel to and growing out of this expanded social meaning of *adab* there appeared an intellectual aspect. *Adab* became the knowledge of poetry, oratory, ancient Arab tribal history, rhetoric, grammar, philology, and non-Arab civilizations that qualified a man to be called well-bred, or *adīb.* Such men produced a vast and erudite *adab* literature, concerned with man and his achievements and written in a style rich in vocabulary and idiom, and usually expressive and flexible. They included such writers as the 9th-century essayist al-Jāḥiẓ of Basra and his 11th-century follower Abū Hayyān at-Tawḥīdī; the 9th-century Kūfan critic, philologist, and theologian Ibn Qutaybah; and the 11th-century poet al-Maʿarrī. As the golden age of the ʿAbbāsids declined, however, the boundaries of *adab* narrowed into belles lettres: poetry, elegant prose, anecdotal writing (*maqāmāt*). In the modern Arab world *adab* merely signifies literature.

Abacha, Sani

Many found it downright curious how in 1997 Gen. Sani Abacha, who had ruthlessly seized power in Nigeria in a coup four years earlier, was sending troops to Sierra Leone in an effort to defend democracy there. Earlier he had assisted peacekeeping forces in Liberia, and it was thought that Abacha was also providing economic aid to support democracy in that country. At home, however, Abacha oversaw a dictatorial regime that suppressed political parties, gagged the press, violated human rights, and pushed the country in the direction of economic and ecological ruin. Abacha was born on Sept. 20, 1943, in Kano, the major city in Muslim-dominated northern Nigeria. A career military man, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1963 after attending Nigerian Military Training College in Kaduna and Mons Defence Officers' Cadet Training College in England. He rose through the ranks of the military and was serving as a brigadier when he assisted (1983) Ibrahim Babangida in overthrowing elected Pres. Alhaji Shehu Shagari. Two years later Babangida staged another military coup against Muhammadu Buhari and installed himself as leader of the nation. Abacha served as army chief of staff and later, in the post of defense minister, as second in command to Babangida. General elections were held in 1993 and were apparently won by the Social Democratic candidate, Moshood ("MKO") Abiola, a Yoruba businessman from the southwest, but the military government soon annulled the election results. Abacha managed to weather the political and civil upheaval that ensued, and in November 1993 he declared himself president. Though Abacha promised a return to civilian rule by 1995, he dismantled democratic institutions, banned political activity of any kind, and shut down several independent publications, stating in an address, "Any attempt to test our will will be decisively dealt with." In June 1994 Abiola tested that will by publicly declaring himself the rightful elected ruler of Nigeria. He was promptly jailed and charged with treason. Unfavourable attention came to Abacha again in November 1995 when writer Ken Saro-Wiwa and a number of other ecological activists from the oil-rich Ogoniland area in the southeast, were executed for treason. In March 1997 Wole Soyinka, self-exiled Nobel laureate and Nigeria's best-known writer, was also formally charged with treason. In October 1995 Abacha had again promised national elections, this time for 1998, and said that he would step down at that time. In early 1997, however, as new political parties were being formed under the government's careful scrutiny, Abacha even hinted that he might want to run for president himself.

Abubakar, Abdulsalam

On June 9, 1998, following the sudden death of Nigerian military ruler Gen. Sani Abacha the previous day, Maj. Gen. Abdulsalam Abubakar, Nigeria's defense chief of staff, was sworn in as the country's head of state. Although Abubakar had never before held public office, his appointment by Nigeria's ruling military junta was not unexpected. A high-ranking career soldier from the country's northern region, Abubakar fit the profile of former rulers of Nigeria, which for 28 of its 38 years of independence had been controlled by military regimes. Abubakar was born June 13, 1942, in Minna in north-central Nigeria and went to secondary school in the neighbouring town of Bida. In 1963 he attended the Kaduna Technical Institute. He served in the air force and then joined the army in 1975 but received his formal training in the United States. Rising steadily through the ranks of the Nigerian army, he commanded Nigeria's contingent of the UN peacekeeping forces in Lebanon in 1981. By the late 1980s he had become a senior officer, and in 1993 he was named defense chief of staff by Abacha. As the new head of state, Abubakar inherited a host of long-standing problems, including ethnic and regional strife, political corruption, widespread poverty, and mismanagement of the country's oil industry. In his first address to the nation in June, he stated that "all hands must be on deck to move this nation forward," but he provided no detailed plan of action. By July, Abubakar had announced that he would follow a program that would restore the country to democracy. He had freed a number of political prisoners and announced the dissolution of the political parties and structures set up by Abacha. Abubakar also addressed economic issues, promised to assemble a Cabinet that would represent Nigeria's ethnic diversity, and outlined a plan for multiparty elections, setting May 29, 1999, as the swearing-in date for a new civilian president. By October, Abubakar had succeeded in convincing the European Union and the United States of his commitment to a transition to civilian rule--a step that was crucial for the restoration of much-needed aid for Nigeria's crippled economy. Support from Nigerians was more difficult to obtain; promises of democracy made by previous military rulers had often been broken. Abubakar's standing with his countrymen, however, improved substantially when Nigerian author Wole Soyinka, winner of the 1986 Nobel Prize for Literature, returned home on October 14 after a four-year exile. The fact that Soyinka, a highly regarded advocate of democracy and a fierce critic of Nigeria's military governments, would return was viewed as a major vote of confidence for Abubakar. ELIZABETH LASKEY

[Virginia Dare]

On this day in 1587, [Virginia Dare] was born on [Roanoke Island], Virginia—the site of the first attempted English settlement in North America—becoming the first child born of English parents in the New World. [Virginia Dare] On this day in 1587, [Virginia Dare] was born on Roanoke Island, Virginia—the site of the first attempted English settlement in North America—becoming the first child born of English parents in the New World.

Abipón

South American Indian people who formerly lived on the lower [][Bermejo River] in the Argentine [][Gran Chaco]. They spoke a language (also called Callaga) belonging to the [][Guaycuruan] group of the Guaycurú-Charruan languages. The Abipón were divided into three dialect groups: the Nakaigetergehè ("Forest People"), the Riikahè ("People of the Open Country"), and the Yaaukanigá ("Water People"). About 1750 their numbers were estimated at 5,000, but in the second half of the 19th century they became extinct as a people. Seminomadic bands of Abipón hunted, fished, gathered food, and practiced a limited degree of agriculture before the introduction of the horse. The latter event transformed the whole social system of the Chaco. Agriculture was practically abandoned, and semiwild cattle, rhea, guanaco, deer, and peccary were hunted on horseback. Abipón horsemen also raided Spanish farms and ranches, even threatening large cities such as Asunción and Corrientes. By 1750 the Jesuits had settled the Abipón on missions that later became the Argentine cities of Reconquista and Resistencia. White military pacification campaigns in the 19th century circumscribed the Abipón's hunting grounds. Many of the Indians were slaughtered, and others were assimilated into the general population.

Adams, Diana

U.S. ballerina (b. March 29, 1926, Staunton, Va.--d. Jan. 10, 1993, San Andreas, Calif.), captivated audiences with her radiant beauty and spellbinding dramatic interpretations while performing with Ballet Theatre (now American Ballet Theatre; 1944-50) and the New York City Ballet (1950-63). Adams studied under her stepmother, Emily Hadley-Adams, before traveling to New York City, where she was tutored by Edward Caton, Agnes de Mille, and Antony Tudor. Adams made her stage debut on Broadway in the musical *Oklahoma!* (1943) and the following year joined Ballet Theatre, where she created the role of Cybele in Tudor's *Undertow* (1945) and had prominent roles in his *Romeo and Juliet,* *Numbus,* and *Jardin aux lilas*. She also was featured as Myrthe in *Giselle* and in the female leads in George Balanchine's *Theme and Variations.* Adams, tall and long legged and combining grace with athleticism, was the epitome of the perfect Balanchine dancer. She followed Balanchine to the New York City Ballet, where he featured her in *La Valse* (1951), *Opus 34* (1954), *Ivesiana* (1954), and the challenging *Agon* (1957), in which she and Arthur Mitchell created the central duet, considered by many the most significant and influential movement sequence in all of 20th-century dance. Adams also performed in films--she partnered Danny Kaye in *Knock on Wood* (1954) and worked with Gene Kelly in *Invitation to the Dance* (1956). She became a teacher at the School of American Ballet while still dancing. After retiring from the stage in 1963, she continued to teach until 1971.

[Sir Anthony Hopkins]

Welsh actor [Sir Anthony Hopkins], a performer of tremendous intensity born this day in 1937, is best remembered for his [Academy Award]-winning role as demented serial killer Hannibal Lecter in *The Silence of the Lambs* (1991). Sir Anthony Hopkins Welsh actor Sir Anthony Hopkins, a performer of tremendous intensity born this day in 1937, is best remembered for his Academy Award-winning role as demented serial killer Hannibal Lecter in *The Silence of the Lambs* (1991).

action potential

[![Art:Conduction of the action potential]] - Conduction of the action potential the brief (about one-thousandth of a second) reversal of electric polarization of the [][membrane] of a [nerve cell] ([neuron]) or [muscle cell]. In the [][neuron] an action potential produces the nerve impulse, and in the muscle cell it produces the contraction required for all movement. Sometimes called a propagated potential because a wave of excitation is actively transmitted along the nerve or muscle fibre, an action potential is conducted at speeds that range from 1 to 100 metres (3 to 300 feet) per second, depending on the properties of the fibre and its environment. [![Art:Changes in ion permeance underlying the action potential]] - Changes in ion permeance underlying the action potential Before stimulation, a neuron or muscle cell has a slightly negative electric polarization; that is, its interior has a negative charge compared with the extracellular fluid. This polarized state is created by a high concentration of positively charged [sodium] [ions] outside the cell and a high concentration of negatively charged chloride ions (as well as a lower concentration of positively charged [][potassium]) inside. The resulting resting potential usually measures about −75 millivolts (mV; 0.0075 [volt]), the minus sign indicating a negative charge inside. In the generation of the action potential, stimulation of the cell by [neurotransmitters] or by sensory receptor cells partially opens channel-shaped protein molecules in the membrane. [][Sodium] diffuses into the cell, shifting that part of the membrane toward a less-negative polarization. If this local potential reaches a critical state called the threshold potential (measuring about −60 mV), then sodium channels open completely. Sodium floods that part of the cell, which instantly depolarizes to an action potential of about +55 mV. Depolarization activates sodium channels in adjacent parts of the membrane, so that the impulse moves along the fibre.

Achill Island

[![Photograph:Achill Island, County Mayo, Connaught (Connacht), Ire.]] - Achill Island, County Mayo, Connaught (Connacht), Ire. mountainous island off the west coast of [Ireland]. It is part of County Mayo, joined to the mainland by a bridge across Achill Sound. The island is Ireland's largest, with an area of 56 square miles (145 square km), and its highest points are the quartzite peaks of []Slieve Croaghaun (2,182 feet [665 metres]) and []Slieve More (2,201 feet [671 metres]). The landscape is dominated by wild moorlands and spectacular coastal scenery. Farming and fishing are vital to the economy. With its many beaches and fine cliffs, the island attracts a significant number of tourists. An annual seafood festival is held during the summer. In the south, at Kildavnet, there are ruins of a 12th-century church and a 15th-century castle.

acanthus

[![Art:Greek architectural elements, including a Corinthian capital exhibiting the characteristic acanthus ...]] - Greek architectural elements, including a Corinthian capital exhibiting the characteristic acanthus ... [![Photograph:William Morris wallpaper featuring acanthus leaves, 1875.]] - William Morris wallpaper featuring acanthus leaves, *c.* 1875. in architecture and decorative arts, a stylized ornamental motif based on a characteristic Mediterranean plant with jagged leaves, *[]Acanthus spinosus*. It was first used by the Greeks in the 5th century BC on temple roof ornaments, on wall friezes, and on the capital of the Corinthian column. One of the best examples of its use in the [][Corinthian order] is the [Temple of Olympian Zeus] in Athens. Later the Romans used the motif in their [][Composite order], in which the capital of the column is a three-dimensional combination of spirals resembling rams' horns and full-bodied acanthus leaves. The acanthus leaf has been a popular motif in carved furniture decoration since the Renaissance. (*See also* [order].)

accipiter

[![Art:Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus)]] - Sharp-shinned hawk (*Accipiter striatus*) any bird of the genus *Accipiter,* largest genus of the birds of prey, consisting of about 50 species of falconiform birds, or "bird" hawks, of the family Accipitridae. Sometimes accipiters are referred to as the "true" hawks. They have broad, short wings and comparatively long legs and tail. They range in size from the little sparrowhawk (*A.* *minullus*) of Africa, slightly larger than a thrush, to the northern goshawk (*A. gentilis*), about 60 centimetres (2 feet) long. Accipiters occur in forested areas throughout the world. They build soft-lined nests of sticks in tall trees. The three to five brown-blotched white eggs are incubated for four to five weeks by the female. The young fledge after five or six weeks. *See also* [hawk]; [goshawk]; [sparrowhawk].

abdominal cavity

[![Art:The abdominal organs are supported and protected by the bones of the pelvis and ribcage and are ...]] - The abdominal organs are supported and protected by the bones of the pelvis and ribcage and are ... largest hollow space of the body. Its upper boundary is the [diaphragm], a sheet of muscle and connective tissue that separates it from the chest cavity; its lower boundary is the upper plane of the pelvic cavity. Vertically it is enclosed by the vertebral column and the abdominal and other muscles. The abdominal cavity contains the greater part of the digestive tract, the [liver] and [pancreas], the [spleen], the [kidneys], and the [adrenal glands] located above the kidneys. The abdominal cavity is lined by the [][peritoneum], a membrane that covers not only the inside wall of the cavity (parietal peritoneum) but also every organ or structure contained in it (visceral peritoneum). The space between the visceral and parietal peritoneum, the peritoneal cavity, normally contains a small amount of serous fluid that permits free movement of the viscera, particularly of the gastrointestinal tract, inside the peritoneal cavity. The peritoneum, by connecting the visceral with the parietal portions, assists in the support and fixation of the abdominal organs. The diverse attachments of the peritoneum divide the abdominal cavity into several compartments. Some of the viscera are attached to the abdominal walls by broad areas of the peritoneum, as is the pancreas. Others, such as the liver, are attached by folds of the peritoneum and [][ligaments], usually poorly supplied by blood vessels.

actinium

[![Art]] (Ac), radioactive chemical element, in Group IIIb of the periodic table, atomic number 89. Actinium was discovered (1899) by André-Louis Debierne in pitchblende residues left after Pierre and Marie Curie had extracted radium and was also discovered (1902) independently by Friedrich Otto Giesel. A ton of pitchblende ore contains about 0.15 mg of actinium. The rare, silvery-white metal is highly radioactive, glowing blue in the dark. The most common isotope of actinium is []actinium-227; the others, natural and artificial, are too short-lived to accumulate in macroscopic quantity. Actinium-227, which is one of the decay products of uranium-235, has a 21.6-year half-life and in turn decays almost entirely to thorium-227, but about 1 percent decays to francium-223. This whole disintegration chain with its branches is called the [][actinium] decay series. Actinium, the ions of which in solution are colourless, exhibits an oxidation state of +3, closely resembling the rare-earth lanthanoid elements in its chemical properties, and is the prototype of a second rare-earth-like series, the actinoid elements. atomic number 89

Adam and Eve

[![Photograph:"Adam and Eve," detail by Giulio Clovio from the Book of Hours of Cardinal Alessandro ...]] - "Adam and Eve," detail by Giulio Clovio from the Book of Hours of Cardinal Alessandro ... in the Judeo-Christian and Islāmic traditions, the original human couple, parents of the human race. In the Bible, there are two accounts of their [][creation]. According to the Priestly (P) history of the 5th or 6th century BC (Genesis 1:1-2:4), God on the sixth day of Creation created all the living creatures and, "in his own image," man both "male and female." God then blessed the couple, told them to be "fruitful and multiply," and gave them dominion over all other living things. According to the lengthier Yahwist (J) narrative of the 10th century BC ([][Genesis] 2:5-7, 2:15-4:1, 4:25), God, or Yahweh, created Adam at a time when the earth was still void, forming him from the earth's dust and breathing "into his nostrils the breath of life." God then gave Adam the primeval Garden of Eden to tend but, on penalty of death, commanded him not to eat of the fruit of the "tree of knowledge of good and evil." Subsequently, so that Adam would not be alone, God created other animals but, finding these insufficient, put Adam to sleep, took from him a rib, and created a new companion, Eve. The two were persons of innocence until Eve yielded to the []temptations of the evil serpent and Adam joined her in eating the forbidden fruit, whereupon they both recognized their nakedness and donned fig leaves as garments. Immediately, God recognized their transgression and proclaimed their punishments—for the woman, pain in childbirth and subordination to man, and, for the man, relegation to an accursed ground with which he must toil and sweat for his subsistence. Their first children were Cain and Abel. Abel, the keeper of sheep, was highly regarded by God and was killed by Cain out of envy. Another son, Seth, was born to replace Abel, and the two human stems, the Cainites and the Sethites, descended from them. Adam and Eve had "other sons and daughters," and death came to Adam at the age of 930.

Ada group

[![Photograph:"St. Matthew," page from the Ada Codex, c. 890; in the Stadtbibliothek Trier, ...]] - "St. Matthew," page from the Ada Codex, *c.* 890; in the Stadtbibliothek Trier, ... ivory carvings and a group of about 10 illuminated manuscripts, dating from the last quarter of the 8th century, the earliest examples of the art of the Court School of Charlemagne. The group is named after a Gospel book (*c.* 750; Trier, Cathedral Treasury) commissioned by Ada, supposed half sister of Charlemagne. These earliest manuscripts of the Carolingian period, which initiated a revival of Roman classicism, are clearly more monumental in conception and more ambitious in the treatment of the human figure than previous Hiberno-Saxon or Merovingian manuscripts; but, as can be seen in the Godescalc Gospels (*c.* 780; Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale), they continue traditions from these other arts in their basically linear presentation, with a lack of concern for volume and spatial relationships.

abalone

[![Photograph:Abalone (Haliotis)]] - Abalone (*Haliotis*) any of several marine snails of the subclass Prosobranchia (class Gastropoda) constituting the genus *Haliotis* and family Haliotidae, in which the shell has a row of holes on its outer surface. Abalones are one-shelled snails found in warm seas worldwide. The dishlike shell is perforated near one edge by a single row of small holes that become progressively filled during the animal's growth; the last five to nine holes remain open to serve as outlets for the snail's waste products. Depending on the species, abalones range from 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches) across and up to 7.5 cm in depth. The shell's lustrous, iridescent interior is used in the manufacture of ornaments. The large muscular foot of the abalone is eaten as a delicacy in several countries. Commercial fisheries for abalones exist in California, Mexico, Japan, and South Africa. The largest abalone is the 30-centimetre []red abalone (*H. rufescens*) of the western coast of the United States.

Abbey Theatre

[![Photograph:Abbey Theatre, Dublin, 2007.]] - Abbey Theatre, Dublin, 2007. Dublin theatre, established in 1904. It grew out of the Irish Literary Theatre (founded in 1899 by [][William Butler Yeats] and [Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory], and devoted to fostering Irish poetic drama), which in 1902 was taken over by the Irish National Dramatic Society, led by W.G. and Frank J. Fay and formed to present Irish actors in Irish plays. In 1903 this became the [Irish National Theatre Society], with which many leading figures of the Irish literary renaissance were closely associated. The quality of its productions was quickly recognized, and in 1904 an Englishwoman, [][Annie Horniman], a friend of Yeats, paid for the conversion of an old theatre in Abbey Street, Dublin, into the Abbey Theatre. The Abbey opened in December of that year with a bill of plays by Yeats, Lady Gregory, and [John Millington Synge] (who joined the other two as codirector). Founder members included the Fays, Arthur Sinclair, and [Sara Allgood]. The Abbey's staging of Synge's satire *[The Playboy of the Western World],* on Jan. 26, 1907, stirred up so much resentment in the audience over its portrayal of the Irish peasantry that there was a riot. When the Abbey players toured the United States for the first time in 1911, similar protests and disorders were provoked when the play opened in New York City and Philadelphia. The years 1907-09 were difficult times for the Abbey. Changes in personnel affected the management of the theatre, and the Fay brothers, whose commitment to nationalistic and folk drama conflicted with Yeats's art-theatre outlook, departed for the United States. Horniman withdrew her financial support, and the management of the theatre changed hands several times with little success until the post was filled by the playwright-director [Lennox Robinson] in 1910. The onset of World War I and the Irish Rebellion of 1916 almost caused the closing of the theatre. Its luck changed, however, in 1924, when it became the first state-subsidized theatre in the English-speaking world. The emergence of the playwright [][Sean O'Casey] also stimulated new life in the theatre, and from 1923 to 1926 the Abbey staged three of his plays: *The Shadow of a Gunman*, *Juno and the Paycock*, and *The Plough and the Stars*, the last a provocative dramatization of the [Easter Rising] of 1916. In the early 1950s the Abbey company moved to the nearby Queen's Theatre after a fire had destroyed its playhouse. A new Abbey Theatre, housing a smaller, experimental theatre, was completed in 1966 on the original site. While the Abbey today retains its traditional focus on Irish plays, it also stages a wide range of classic and new works from around the world.

[Il Guercino]

[![Photograph:Abraham Driving Out Hagar and Ishmael, oil on canvas by Il Guercino, ...]] - *Abraham Driving Out Hagar and Ishmael*, oil on canvas by Il Guercino, ... Italian painter [Il Guercino] ("The Squinting One"), whose frescoes freshly exploited the illusionistic ceiling and made a profound impact on the evolution of 17th-century Roman High [Baroque] art, was born this day in 1591. Il Guercino [![Photograph:Abraham Driving Out Hagar and Ishmael, oil on canvas by Il Guercino, ...]] - *Abraham Driving Out Hagar and Ishmael*, oil on canvas by Il Guercino, ... Italian painter Il Guercino ("The Squinting One"), whose frescoes freshly exploited the illusionistic ceiling and made a profound impact on the evolution of 17th-century Roman High Baroque art, was born this day in 1591.

Abstbessingen faience

[![Photograph:Abstbessingen faience butter dish in the form of a tortoise, Thuringia, Ger., 1755; in the ...]] - Abstbessingen faience butter dish in the form of a tortoise, Thuringia, Ger., *c.* 1755; in the ... tin-glazed earthenware produced in a factory in the village of Abstbessingen, in Thuringia, which flourished probably from the first half of the 18th century to about 1816. A hayfork factory mark indicates the patronage of the prince of []Schwarzburg. Ordinary wares such as flower vases, tankards, and jugs are thick-bodied, with a creamy glaze; and decorations either in blue or polychrome are common. Abstbessingen remained a modest imitator of the more important German court factories.

[Willem de Kooning]

[![Photograph:Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949.]] - Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949. Dutch American artist [Willem de Kooning], a major exponent of [Abstract Expressionism] and [Action painting] whose series *Woman I-VI* caused a stir with its violent images and impulsive technique, died this day in 1997. [Willem de Kooning] [![Photograph:Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949.]] - Abstract painting by Willem de Kooning, 1949. Dutch American artist [Willem de Kooning], a major exponent of [Abstract Expressionism] and Action painting whose series *Woman I-VI* caused a stir with its violent images and impulsive technique, died this day in 1997.

Abyssinian

[![Photograph:Abyssinian, red, or sorrel.]] - Abyssinian, red, or sorrel. breed of [][domestic cat], probably of Egyptian origin, that has been considered to approximate the sacred cat of ancient Egypt more closely than any other living cat. The Abyssinian is a lithe cat with relatively slender legs and a long, tapering tail. The short, finely textured coat is ruddy reddish brown, with individual hairs of the back, sides, chest, and tail distinctively ticked, or tipped, with bands of black or brown. The nose is red, the eyes are hazel, green, or gold, and the tail tip and backs of the hindlegs are black. The Abyssinian is noted for being affectionate and quiet, though generally shy with strangers. [![Photograph:Juvenile ruddy Abyssinian]] - Juvenile ruddy Abyssinian [![Table of Selected Shorthair Breeds of Cats]]*See* the [Table of Selected Shorthair Breeds of Cats] for further information.

Acetabularia

[![Photograph:Acetabularia from Cholla Bay, Mex.]] - *Acetabularia* from Cholla Bay, Mex. genus of one-celled, umbrella-like green algae found in subtropical seas, called the "mermaid's wine glass." At the top of the tall, slender stalk, 0.5 to 10 cm (0.2 to 3.9 inches) long, is a ring of branches that may be separate or fused to form a cap. Near the base of its stalk, *Acetabularia* has a large nucleus that divides many times when the alga matures and reproductive structures form; streaming cytoplasm carries the daughter nuclei to the saclike sporangium of each umbrella lobe. Because part of one species can be grafted onto another, *Acetabularia* has been used to study the relative role of nucleus and cytoplasm in the genetic control of growth and development.

Achilles

[![Photograph:Achilles killing Penthesilea during the Trojan War, interior of an Attic cup, 460 ; in ...]] - Achilles killing Penthesilea during the Trojan War, interior of an Attic cup, *c.* 460 BC; in ... in Greek mythology, son of the mortal Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, and the Nereid, or sea nymph, Thetis. He was the bravest, handsomest, and greatest warrior of the army of [][Agamemnon] in the [][Trojan War]. According to Homer, Achilles was brought up by his mother at Phthia with his cousin and inseparable companion [Patroclus]. One of the non-Homeric tales of his childhood relates that Thetis dipped Achilles in the waters of the River Styx, by which he became invulnerable, except for the part of his heel by which she held him—the proverbial "Achilles' heel." The later mythographers related that Peleus, having received an oracle that his son would die fighting at Troy, sent Achilles to the court of Lycomedes on Scyros, where he was dressed as a girl and kept among the king's daughters (one of whom, Deïdamia, bore him Neoptolemus). Hearing from the soothsayer Calchas that Troy could not be taken without Achilles, the Greeks searched for and found him. During the first nine years of the war, Achilles ravaged the country around Troy and took 12 cities. In the 10th year a quarrel with Agamemnon occurred when Achilles insisted that Agamemnon restore Chryseis, his prize of war, to her father, a priest of Apollo, so as to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had decimated the camp with a pestilence. An irate Agamemnon recouped his loss by depriving Achilles of his favourite slave, Briseis.

Acrisol

[![Photograph:Acrisol soil profile from Brazil, showing an extensively leached surface layer over a clay-rich ...]] - Acrisol soil profile from Brazil, showing an extensively leached surface layer over a clay-rich ... one of the 30 soil groups in the classification system of the [Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)]#214853.toc). Acrisols form on old landscapes that have an undulating topography and a humid tropical climate. Their natural vegetation is woodland, which in some areas has given way to tree savanna maintained by seasonal burning. The age, mineralogy, and extensive leaching of these soils have led to low levels of plant nutrients, excess aluminum, and high erodibility, all of which make agriculture problematic. Nevertheless, traditional shifting cultivation of acid-tolerant crops has adapted well to the conditions found in Acrisols. They occupy just under 8 percent of the continental land surface on Earth, covering areas throughout central and northern Latin America, Southeast Asia, and West Africa. Acrisols are defined by the presence of a subsurface layer of accumulated [][kaolinitic] [][clays] where less than half of the ions available to plants are calcium, magnesium, sodium, or potassium and also by the lack of an extensively leached layer below the surface [horizon] (uppermost layer). They are related taxonomically to the [Oxisol] soil order of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Related FAO soil groups originating in tropical climates and also containing layers with clay accumulations are [Lixisols] and [Nitisols].

acupuncture

[![Photograph:Acupuncture points, drawing from a Chinese manuscript; in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.]] - Acupuncture points, drawing from a Chinese manuscript; in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. ancient Chinese medical technique for relieving pain, curing disease, and improving general health. It was devised before 2500 BC in China and by the late 20th century was used in many other areas of the world. Acupuncture consists of the insertion of one or several small metal needles into the skin and underlying tissues at precise points on the body. Acupuncture grew out of ancient Chinese philosophy's dualistic cosmic theory of the yin and the [][yang]. The yin, the female principle, is passive and dark and is represented by the earth; the yang, the male principle, is active and light and is represented by the heavens. The forces of yin and yang act in the human body as they do throughout the natural universe as a whole. Disease or physical disharmony is caused by an imbalance or undue preponderance of these two forces in the body, and the goal of Chinese medicine is to bring the yin and the yang back into balance with each other, thus restoring the person to health. An imbalance of yin and yang results in an obstruction of the vital life force, or *[][ch'i],* in the body. The fundamental energy of the *ch'i* flows through 12 meridians, or pathways, in the body, each in turn associated with a major visceral organ (liver, kidney, etc.) and with a functional body system. Acupuncture is designed to affect the distribution of yin and yang in these channels so that the *ch'i* will be enabled to flow freely and harmoniously.

Adam's Peak

[![Photograph:Adam's Peak, Sri Lanka]] - Adam's Peak, Sri Lanka mountain in southwestern Sri Lanka (Ceylon), 7,360 feet (2,243 m) high and 11 miles (18 km) northeast of Ratnapura; it is located in the Sri Lanka hill country. Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform about 74 by 24 feet (22 by 7 m), on which there is a large hollow resembling the print of a human foot, 5 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. The depression is venerated alike by Buddhists, Muslims, and Hindus, who regard it as the footprint of the Buddha, Adam, and Śiva, respectively. Many pilgrims of all faiths visit the peak every year. Heavy chains on the mountain's southwestern face, said to have been placed there by Alexander the Great, mark the route to the summit.

Adad

[![Photograph:An Assyrian governor standing before the deities Adad (centre) and Ishtar (left), limestone relief ...]] - An Assyrian governor standing before the deities Adad (centre) and Ishtar (left), limestone relief ... weather god of the Babylonian and Assyrian pantheon. The name Adad may have been brought into Mesopotamia toward the end of the 3rd millennium BC by Western (Amorite) Semites. His Sumerian equivalent was [Ishkur] and the West Semitic was [Hadad]. Adad had a twofold aspect, being both the giver and the destroyer of life. His rains caused the land to bear grain and other food for his friends; hence his title Lord of Abundance. His storms and hurricanes, evidences of his anger against his foes, brought darkness, want, and death. Adad's father was the heaven god [Anu], but he is also designated as the son of [Bel], Lord of All Lands and god of the atmosphere. His consort was []Shalash, which may be a Hurrian name. The symbol of Adad was the cypress, and six was his sacred number. The bull and the lion were sacred to him. In Babylonia, Assyria, and Aleppo in Syria, he was also the god of oracles and divination. Unlike the greater gods, Adad quite possibly had no cult centre peculiar to himself, although he was worshiped in many of the important cities and towns of Mesopotamia, including [][Babylon] and [][Ashur], the capital of Assyria.

[Georgia O'Keeffe]

[![Photograph:Georgia O'Keeffe, 1968.]] - Georgia O'Keeffe, 1968. American painter [Georgia O'Keeffe], whose subjects were frequently enlarged views of skulls and other animal bones, flowers and plant organs, shells, rocks, mountains, and other natural forms, was born this day in 1887. Georgia O'Keeffe [![Photograph:Georgia O'Keeffe, 1968.]] - Georgia O'Keeffe, 1968. American painter Georgia O'Keeffe, whose subjects were frequently enlarged views of skulls and other animal bones, flowers and plant organs, shells, rocks, mountains, and other natural forms, was born this day in 1887.

[Ginger Rogers]

[![Photograph:An advertisement for the film Flying Down to Rio (1933), starring Ginger ...]] - An advertisement for the film *Flying Down to Rio* (1933), starring Ginger ... American dancer and actress [Ginger Rogers], born this day in 1911, achieved fame as the partner of [Fred Astaire] in a series of popular musicals and later won an Oscar for her dramatic performance in *Kitty Foyle* (1940). Ginger Rogers [![Photograph:An advertisement for the film Flying Down to Rio (1933), starring Ginger ...]] - An advertisement for the film *Flying Down to Rio* (1933), starring Ginger ... American dancer and actress Ginger Rogers, born this day in 1911, achieved fame as the partner of Fred Astaire in a series of popular musicals and later won an Oscar for her dramatic performance in *Kitty Foyle* (1940).

[William Glackens]

[![Photograph:At Mouquin's, oil on canvas by William J. Glackens, 1905; in The Art Institute of Chicago.]] - *At Mouquin's*, oil on canvas by William J. Glackens, 1905; in The Art Institute of Chicago. American artist [William Glackens], whose paintings of street scenes and urban life rejected the dictates of 19th-century academic art and introduced a matter-of-fact realism into U.S. art, was born this day in 1870. William Glackens [![Photograph:At Mouquin's, oil on canvas by William J. Glackens, 1905; in The Art Institute of Chicago.]] - *At Mouquin's*, oil on canvas by William J. Glackens, 1905; in The Art Institute of Chicago. American artist William Glackens, whose paintings of street scenes and urban life rejected the dictates of 19th-century academic art and introduced a matter-of-fact realism into U.S. art, was born this day in 1870.

[Colin Powell]

[![Photograph:Colin Powell, 2001.]] - Colin Powell, 2001. U.S. general and statesman [Colin Powell], born this day in 1937, served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989-93) and secretary of state (2001-05), the first African American to hold either position. Colin Powell [![Photograph:Colin Powell, 2001.]] - Colin Powell, 2001. U.S. general and statesman Colin Powell, born this day in 1937, served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989-93) and secretary of state (2001-05), the first African American to hold either position.

[Henri Matisse]

[![Photograph:Decorative Figure on an Ornamental Background, oil painting by Henri ...]] - *Decorative Figure on an Ornamental Background*, oil painting by Henri ... [Henri Matisse], who died this day in 1954 and is often regarded as the most important French painter of the 20th century, led the [Fauvist] movement about 1900 and pursued the expressiveness of colour throughout his career. Henri Matisse [![Photograph:Decorative Figure on an Ornamental Background, oil painting by Henri ...]] - *Decorative Figure on an Ornamental Background*, oil painting by Henri ... Henri Matisse, who died this day in 1954 and is often regarded as the most important French painter of the 20th century, led the Fauvist movement about 1900 and pursued the expressiveness of colour throughout his career.

Aalsmeer

[![Photograph:Float in the Bloemencorso, an annual flower festival held in September in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands.]] - Float in the Bloemencorso, an annual flower festival held in September in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands. *gemeente* (municipality), western Netherlands, 8 miles (13 km) southwest of Amsterdam, on the Ring Canal and Westeinder Lake, a remnant of Haarlem Lake. The older part of the town is on peaty soil at about sea level, surrounded by polders with loamy soil 9-15 feet (3-5 m) below sea level. Once known for its eels, whence its name (*aal,* "eel"; *meer,* "lake"), it is the flower-growing centre of The Netherlands, with numerous nurseries, the largest flower auction in the world, and a state experimental station for floriculture. Blooms include carnations, roses, lilacs, freesias, chrysanthemums, and potted plants such as cyclamens and begonias. Many flowers are exported by air, and there is a thriving trade in seeds and nursery plants. There are also television studios in Aalsmeer, and tourism is significant. Pop. (2007 est.) 25,019.

[Franklin D. Roosevelt]

[![Photograph:Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1937.]] - Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1937. Born this day in 1882, [Franklin D. Roosevelt], the only person to win four terms as [U.S. president], introduced the [New Deal] to address the crisis brought on by the [Great Depression] and led his country during [World War II]. Franklin D. Roosevelt [![Photograph:Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1937.]] - Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1937. Born this day in 1882, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the only person to win four terms as U.S. president, introduced the New Deal to address the crisis brought on by the Great Depression and led his country during World War II.

[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]

[![Photograph:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, contemporary drawing by Michel Hertrich.]] - Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, contemporary drawing by Michel Hertrich. Born this day in 1784, German astronomer [Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel] made the first measurement of the distance of a [star] other than the Sun, and his work allowed the first accurate determination of interstellar distances. Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel [![Photograph:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, contemporary drawing by Michel Hertrich.]] - Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, contemporary drawing by Michel Hertrich. Born this day in 1784, German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel made the first measurement of the distance of a star other than the Sun, and his work allowed the first accurate determination of interstellar distances.

[Gilbert Stuart]

[![Photograph:George Washington, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1796; in the White House.]] - George Washington, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, *c.* 1796; in the White House. American painter [Gilbert Stuart], born this day in 1755, was one of his era's great portraitists, renowned for his portrait of [George Washington] and praised for his brushwork, luminous colouring, and psychological penetration. Gilbert Stuart [![Photograph:George Washington, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1796; in the White House.]] - George Washington, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, *c.* 1796; in the White House. American painter Gilbert Stuart, born this day in 1755, was one of his era's great portraitists, renowned for his portrait of George Washington and praised for his brushwork, luminous colouring, and psychological penetration.

[Giuseppe Verdi]

[![Photograph:Giuseppe Verdi, in the late 1870s.]] - Giuseppe Verdi, in the late 1870s. Born October 9 or 10, 1813, [Giuseppe Verdi] was the leading Italian composer of the 19th century, noted for [operas] such as *Rigoletto* (1851), *La traviata* (1853), *Aida* (1871), and *Falstaff* (1893) and for his *Requiem Mass* (1874). Giuseppe Verdi [![Photograph:Giuseppe Verdi, in the late 1870s.]] - Giuseppe Verdi, in the late 1870s. Born October 9 or 10, 1813, Giuseppe Verdi was the leading Italian composer of the 19th century, noted for operas such as *Rigoletto* (1851), *La traviata* (1853), *Aida* (1871), and *Falstaff* (1893) and for his *Requiem Mass* (1874).

[Fra Bartolomeo]

[![Photograph:God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene, ...]] - *God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene*, ... Painter [Fra Bartolomeo], a prominent exponent of the High Renaissance style in early 16th-century [Florence] whose works include *God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene* (1509), was born this day in 1472. Fra Bartolomeo [![Photograph:God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene, ...]] - *God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene*, ... Painter Fra Bartolomeo, a prominent exponent of the High Renaissance style in early 16th-century Florence whose works include *God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene* (1509), was born this day in 1472.

[André Le Nôtre]

[![Photograph:Grand east-west axis of the gardens at Versailles, France, showing the basic principles of garden ...]] - Grand east-west axis of the gardens at Versailles, France, showing the basic principles of garden ... [André Le Nôtre], one of the greatest French landscape architects, whose masterpiece is the gardens of [Versailles] and whose genius was in demand throughout the capitals of Europe, was born in Paris this day in 1613. André Le Nôtre [![Photograph:Grand east-west axis of the gardens at Versailles, France, showing the basic principles of garden ...]] - Grand east-west axis of the gardens at Versailles, France, showing the basic principles of garden ... André Le Nôtre, one of the greatest French landscape architects, whose masterpiece is the gardens of Versailles and whose genius was in demand throughout the capitals of Europe, was born in Paris this day in 1613.

Acadia National Park

[![Photograph:Great Head from Mount Desert Island, Acadia National Park, Maine.]] - Great Head from Mount Desert Island, Acadia National Park, Maine. national park on the Atlantic coast of [Maine], U.S., astride Frenchman Bay. It has an area of 65 square miles (168 square km) and was originally established as Sieur de Monts National Monument (1916), named for Pierre du Guast, sieur (lord) de Monts. It became the first [national park] in the eastern United States, as Lafayette National Park in 1919, and was renamed Acadia in 1929 to preserve the historic name given to the region by the De Monts Commission (which included [Samuel de Champlain]) in 1604. Acadia National Park mainly comprises a rugged forested area on [][Mount Desert Island], dominated by Cadillac Mountain (1,530 feet [466 metres]) and including Anemone Cave and Sieur de Monts Spring (site of the Nature Center and the Abbe Museum, which displays Indian artifacts). Other segments include half of Isle au Haut, with its spectacular cliffs, and the Schoodic Peninsula on the mainland. Situated at the crossroads of the northern and temperate zones, Acadia's cold, shallow gulf environment has an abundance of marine life.

[Jonathan Swift]

[![Photograph:Gulliver in Lilliput, illustration from a 19th-century edition of Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's ...]] - Gulliver in Lilliput, illustration from a 19th-century edition of Jonathan Swift's *Gulliver's* ... Anglo-Irish author [Jonathan Swift], considered the foremost prose [satirist] in [English] and known for his famed novel *Gulliver's Travels* and shorter works such as *A Tale of a Tub* and "A Modest Proposal," died this day in 1745. Jonathan Swift [![Photograph:Gulliver in Lilliput, illustration from a 19th-century edition of Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's ...]] - Gulliver in Lilliput, illustration from a 19th-century edition of Jonathan Swift's *Gulliver's* ... Anglo-Irish author Jonathan Swift, considered the foremost prose satirist in English and known for his famed novel *Gulliver's Travels* and shorter works such as *A Tale of a Tub* and "A Modest Proposal," died this day in 1745.

acrobatics

[![Photograph:Henrietta and Phillip Wallenda on the high wire.]] - Henrietta and Phillip Wallenda on the high wire. (Greek: "to walk on tip-toe," or "to climb up"), the specialized and ancient art of jumping, tumbling, and balancing, often later with the use of such apparatus as poles, one-wheel cycles, balls, barrels, tightropes, trampolines, and [flying trapezes]. In 1859 the invention of the flying trapeze by J. Léotard, as well as Charles Blondin's crossing of Niagara Falls on a tightrope, rekindled public interest in aerial gymnasts and acrobats. Although the trapeze had never been seen before, ropedancing can be traced back to ancient Greece. By the turn of the century, acrobatics were important in the [][circus]. About 1900 the Scheffers, Craggs, Hanlon-Voltas, Sandow, Lauck and Fox, Cinquevalli, Caicedo, and the Potters were the most prominent European and U.S. acrobats. Later, the Concellos and Codonas on the flying trapeze, Con Colleano on the tightwire, and the juggler Enrico Rastelli captivated audiences with their skill and daring. Popular mid-20th-century acrobats were the Wallendas, a family of high-wire artists originally from Germany. Traditionally, acrobatics and tumbling were the province of eastern Europeans.

[Wassily Kandinsky]

[![Photograph:Improvisation 30 (Cannons), oil on canvas by Wassily (Vasily) ...]] - *Improvisation 30 (Cannons)*, oil on canvas by Wassily (Vasily) ... Artist [Wassily Kandinsky], born this day in 1866 in Moscow, was one of the first creators of pure abstraction in modern painting and cofounded the influential Munich group [Der Blaue Reiter] ("The Blue Rider"; 1911-14). Wassily Kandinsky [![Photograph:Improvisation 30 (Cannons), oil on canvas by Wassily (Vasily) ...]] - *Improvisation 30 (Cannons)*, oil on canvas by Wassily (Vasily) ... Artist Wassily Kandinsky, born this day in 1866 in Moscow, was one of the first creators of pure abstraction in modern painting and cofounded the influential Munich group Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider"; 1911-14).

[Indira Gandhi]

[![Photograph:Indira Gandhi campaigning for the premiership of India, spring 1971.]] - Indira Gandhi campaigning for the premiership of India, spring 1971. [Indira Gandhi], the four-term prime minister of [India] (1966-77; 1980-84) and daughter of independent India's first prime minister, [Jawaharlal Nehru], was assassinated this day in 1984 by two of her own Sikh bodyguards. [Indira Gandhi] [![Photograph:Indira Gandhi campaigning for the premiership of India, spring 1971.]] - Indira Gandhi campaigning for the premiership of India, spring 1971. [Indira Gandhi], the four-term prime minister of India (1966-77; 1980-84) and daughter of independent India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was assassinated this day in 1984 by two of her own Sikh bodyguards.

[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]

[![Photograph:Jane Avril, lithograph poster by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; in the ...]] - *Jane Avril*, lithograph poster by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; in the ... French artist [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec], whose work reflected the aims of the [Symbolist movement] and greatly influenced French art through his innovations in style and subject matter, died on this day in 1901. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec [![Photograph:Jane Avril, lithograph poster by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; in the ...]] - *Jane Avril*, lithograph poster by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; in the ... French artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, whose work reflected the aims of the Symbolist movement and greatly influenced French art through his innovations in style and subject matter, died on this day in 1901.

[John Adams]

[![Photograph:John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ...]] - John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ... The first vice president and second [president of the United States], [John Adams], born this day in 1735 in what is now Quincy, Massachusetts, is regarded as one of the most significant statesmen of the Revolutionary era. [John Adams] [![Photograph:John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ...]] - John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ... The first vice president and second president of the United States, [John Adams], born this day in 1735 in what is now Quincy, Massachusetts, is regarded as one of the most significant statesmen of the Revolutionary era.

[John Dalton]

[![Photograph:John Dalton.]] - John Dalton. English scientist [John Dalton], born this day (or September 5) in 1766, was a pioneer in the development of modern [atomic theory] and was considered by some contemporaries as the "father" of both meteorology and chemistry. John Dalton [![Photograph:John Dalton.]] - John Dalton. English scientist John Dalton, born this day (or September 5) in 1766, was a pioneer in the development of modern atomic theory and was considered by some contemporaries as the "father" of both meteorology and chemistry.

[Johnny Cash]

[![Photograph:Johnny Cash.]] - Johnny Cash. Born this day in 1932, singer-songwriter [Johnny Cash], known to his fans as the "Man in Black" and a member of the Country Music and Rock and Roll halls of fame, broadened the scope of American [country and western music]. Johnny Cash [![Photograph:Johnny Cash.]] - Johnny Cash. Born this day in 1932, singer-songwriter Johnny Cash, known to his fans as the "Man in Black" and a member of the Country Music and Rock and Roll halls of fame, broadened the scope of American country and western music.

[Luciano Pavarotti]

[![Photograph:Luciano Pavarotti in concert at the Champs de Mars, Paris, September 3, 1993.]] - Luciano Pavarotti in concert at the Champs de Mars, Paris, September 3, 1993. Born on this day in Modena, Italy, in 1935, [Luciano Pavarotti], an operatic lyric [tenor] noted for his mastery of the highest notes of a tenor's range, is considered one of the finest [bel canto] singers of recent times. [Luciano Pavarotti] [![Photograph:Luciano Pavarotti in concert at the Champs de Mars, Paris, September 3, 1993.]] - Luciano Pavarotti in concert at the Champs de Mars, Paris, September 3, 1993. Born on this day in Modena, Italy, in 1935, [Luciano Pavarotti], an operatic lyric tenor noted for his mastery of the highest notes of a tenor's range, is considered one of the finest bel canto singers of recent times.

[Marguerite Duras]

[![Photograph:Marguerite Duras.]] - Marguerite Duras. French writer and film director [Marguerite Duras], internationally known for her screenplays for *Hiroshima mon amour* and *India Song* and winner of the prestigious [Prix Goncourt] for her novel *L'Amant*, was born this day in 1914. Marguerite Duras [![Photograph:Marguerite Duras.]] - Marguerite Duras. French writer and film director Marguerite Duras, internationally known for her screenplays for *Hiroshima mon amour* and *India Song* and winner of the prestigious Prix Goncourt for her novel *L'Amant*, was born this day in 1914.

[Marilyn Monroe]

[![Photograph:Marilyn Monroe.]] - Marilyn Monroe. American actress [Marilyn Monroe]—who achieved stardom as a sex symbol in such films as *Gentlemen Prefer Blondes* (1953) and later became a cultural icon—died on this day in 1962 after taking an overdose of sleeping pills. [Marilyn Monroe] [![Photograph:Marilyn Monroe.]] - Marilyn Monroe. American actress [Marilyn Monroe]—who achieved stardom as a sex symbol in such films as *Gentlemen Prefer Blondes* (1953) and later became a cultural icon—died on this day in 1962 after taking an overdose of sleeping pills.

[William Hogarth]

[![Photograph:Morning, oil painting, part of the Marriage à la Mode series by William ...]] - *Morning*, oil painting, part of the *Marriage à la Mode* series by William ... [William Hogarth], the first great English artist to attract admiration abroad, who was best known for moral and satirical engravings and paintings such as *A Rake's Progress* (begun 1732), was born this day in 1697. William Hogarth [![Photograph:Morning, oil painting, part of the Marriage à la Mode series by William ...]] - *Morning*, oil painting, part of the *Marriage à la Mode* series by William ... William Hogarth, the first great English artist to attract admiration abroad, who was best known for moral and satirical engravings and paintings such as *A Rake's Progress* (begun 1732), was born this day in 1697.

[Mstislav Rostropovich]

[![Photograph:Mstislav Rostropovich, 1965.]] - Mstislav Rostropovich, 1965. Born this day in 1927 in Azerbaijan was [Mstislav Rostropovich], one of the best-known cellists of the 20th century and music director of the [National Symphony Orchestra] in Washington, D.C., from 1977 to 1994. Mstislav Rostropovich [![Photograph:Mstislav Rostropovich, 1965.]] - Mstislav Rostropovich, 1965. Born this day in 1927 in Azerbaijan was Mstislav Rostropovich, one of the best-known cellists of the 20th century and music director of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C., from 1977 to 1994.

[Il Bronzino]

[![Photograph:Portrait of a Young Girl with a Prayer Book, tempera on wood by Il ...]] - *Portrait of a Young Girl with a Prayer Book*, tempera on wood by Il ... Florentine painter [Il Bronzino], whose portraits are prime examples of the [Mannerist style] and whose works are classic embodiments of the courtly ideal under the [Medici] dukes of the mid-16th century, died this day in 1572. Il Bronzino [![Photograph:Portrait of a Young Girl with a Prayer Book, tempera on wood by Il ...]] - *Portrait of a Young Girl with a Prayer Book*, tempera on wood by Il ... Florentine painter Il Bronzino, whose portraits are prime examples of the Mannerist style and whose works are classic embodiments of the courtly ideal under the Medici dukes of the mid-16th century, died this day in 1572.

[Sam Walton]

[![Photograph:Sam Walton, 1988.]] - Sam Walton, 1988. Retail magnate [Sam Walton], born this day in 1918, became one of the wealthiest individuals in American history, founding [Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.], and developing it into the largest retail sales chain in the United States. Sam Walton [![Photograph:Sam Walton, 1988.]] - Sam Walton, 1988. Retail magnate Sam Walton, born this day in 1918, became one of the wealthiest individuals in American history, founding Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., and developing it into the largest retail sales chain in the United States.

Abdullah, King

[![Photograph:Saudi King Abdullah]] - Saudi King Abdullah Upon the death of King Fahd on Aug. 1, 2005, Crown Prince Abdullah, a half brother, became king of Saudi Arabia. He formally assumed the throne, as the kingdom's sixth ruler, on August 3. Throughout the previous decade, after Fahd suffered a stroke, Abdullah had exercised control over the government. He had a reputation as a conservative leader who was, nonetheless, committed to reforming and modernizing government operations. Saudi Arabia had come under attacks by militants opposed to secularizing forces within the country, but by virtue of his character, the new king was seen as an effective power against destabilization. ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAziz al-Saʿud was born *c.* 1923 in Riyadh, in what was then Arabia. A son of Ibn Saʿud, who had founded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, and his eighth wife, Abdullah was educated at court. For a time he lived among the Bedouin, and throughout his life he retained a high regard for traditional desert ways. His first government position was as mayor of the Islamic holy city of Mecca, and in 1962 then crown prince Faysal appointed him commissioner of the National Guard. Abdullah modernized the force, which was made up of descendants of the followers of Ibn Saʿud and which was responsible for domestic security. In 1975 he was named second deputy prime minister, and in 1982 he was designated crown prince and first deputy prime minister. An Arab nationalist, he opposed the Persian Gulf War of 1991 and the stationing of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia. When King Fahd was disabled by a stroke in 1995, Abdullah became the de facto head of the Saudi government. Known as a religious man who had avoided the scandals frequently associated with the large royal family, Abdullah introduced a number of measured reforms, including limited political and civil liberties. As crown prince during the late 1980s and early '90s, he attempted to curb corruption among members of the royal family. He balanced the Saudi budget and introduced reforms in the government bureaucracy as well as in the country's economic institutions. Following terrorist attacks in Riyadh in 2003, he cracked down on extremist religious leaders but also introduced changes to the educational and legal systems and allowed a more open press. He was equally active in putting his stamp on Saudi foreign relations. In 2002 he proposed a comprehensive Middle East peace settlement that would include Arab recognition of Israel in exchange for the return of land to the Palestinians. He refused U.S. requests for the use of Saudi bases in the 2003 war against Iraq. In addition to holding frequent meetings with other Arab leaders, he traveled throughout the world for talks with government heads. Robert Rauch

achondrite

[![Photograph:Sawed and polished section of a fragment of the Johnstown meteorite, an achondrite that was seen to ...]] - Sawed and polished section of a fragment of the Johnstown meteorite, an achondrite that was seen to ... any [stony meteorite] containing no [][chondrule]s (small, roughly spherical objects that formed in the [solar nebula]). The only exclusions are [][carbonaceous chondrite]s of the CI group, which, though they are clearly [chondrite]s, are so heavily altered by water that any evidence for their having contained chondrules is lost. Achondrites, constituting about 4 percent of the known [meteorite]s, are similar in appearance to terrestrial [igneous rock]s that have a low silica content, such as basalts, peridotites, and pyroxenites. Most formed by various melting and crystallization processes within [asteroid]s. The majority of achondrites belong to one of the following groups: acapulcoites, angrites, aubrites, []chassignites, []diogenites, eucrites, howardites, lodranites, []nakhlites, [shergottites], and ureilites. The shergottites, nakhlites, and chassignites almost certainly came from [][Mars]. In addition, a small group of achondrites are believed to be derived from the [][Moon].

Aberdeen

[![Photograph:Ships serving North Sea oil platforms at dock in the port of Aberdeen, Scot.]] - Ships serving North Sea oil platforms at dock in the port of Aberdeen, Scot. city and historic royal burgh (town) astride the Rivers Dee and Don on [Scotland]'s North Sea coast. Aberdeen is a busy seaport, a centre of Scotland's fishing industry, and the commercial capital of northeastern Scotland. It also is the principal British centre of the North Sea oil industry and associated service and supply industries. Aberdeen city constitutes an independent council area that covers the burgh of Aberdeen and the surrounding countryside. Most of the city, including the historic centres of Old Aberdeen and New Aberdeen, lies in the historic county of [Aberdeenshire], but the city also includes a small area in the south that belongs to the historic county of [Kincardineshire]. Aberdeen is the historic county town (seat) of Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen originated as two separate burghs: Old Aberdeen, the cathedral and university settlement on the Don, and New Aberdeen, the neighbouring trading and fishing village on the Dee. Old Aberdeen, reputedly founded in 580 by St. Machar, a disciple of the Celtic missionary St. Columba, became the seat of the bishopric of Aberdeen and was virtually destroyed by the English in 1336. The present St. Machar's Cathedral, begun in 1424, is a fortified granite building. Royal charters of 1489 and 1498 created a "free burgh" with the church as its administrator. Remnants of this ecclesiastical power survived until 1891, when the episcopal burgh was incorporated with New Aberdeen to form the present city. The oldest surviving charter (1179) confers several trade privileges on the burgesses of Aberdeen. Some of the oldest streets, from the 13th and 14th centuries, survive near []the Castlegate, the historic marketplace of New Aberdeen and commercial heart of the modern city. The Castlegate still contains an old Market (City) Cross (1686). Nearby are two ancient houses, Provost Skene's House (*c.* 1545), now a local history museum, and Provost Ross's House (1593). The parish church of St. Nicholas (Union Street) is divided into two parts: the West Church (built in 1755 by James Gibbs) is separated from the East Church (built in 1838 by Archibald Simpson) by the original 13th-century transept and 19th-century steeple. Two medieval bridges have survived, the Brig o' Balgownie (1320), spanning the Don, and the Old Bridge of Dee (1527). Other significant buildings include several modern municipal buildings, the Music Hall (1822; Neoclassical), and Marischal College (Broad Street), reputedly the world's largest granite building, begun in 1844 by Archibald Simpson.

[Soong Mei-ling]

[![Photograph:Soong Mei-ling, wife of Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, with U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt in ...]] - Soong Mei-ling, wife of Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, with U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt in ... [Soong Mei-ling], born this day in 1897, was the wife of Chinese President [Chiang Kai-shek], launched the anticommunist New Life Movement, and led the effort to secure Chiang's release after his abduction in the [Sian Incident]. Soong Mei-ling [![Photograph:Soong Mei-ling, wife of Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, with U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt in ...]] - Soong Mei-ling, wife of Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, with U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt in ... Soong Mei-ling, born this day in 1897, was the wife of Chinese President Chiang Kai-shek, launched the anticommunist New Life Movement, and led the effort to secure Chiang's release after his abduction in the Sian Incident.

abaca

[![Photograph:Stripping fibre from abaca (Musa textilis) in the Philippines]] - Stripping fibre from abaca (*Musa textilis*) in the Philippines (*Musa textilis*), plant of the family Musaceae, and its fibre, which is second in importance among the [leaf fibre] (*q.v.*) group. Abaca fibre, unlike most other leaf fibres, is obtained from the plant leaf stalks ([petioles]). Although sometimes known as Manila hemp, Cebu hemp, or Davao hemp, the abaca plant is not related to true hemp. The plant, native to the [][Philippines], achieved importance as a source of cordage fibre in the 19th century. In 1925 the Dutch began cultivating it in Sumatra, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture established plantings in Central America. A small commercial operation was started in British North Borneo (now Sabah, part of Malaysia) in 1930. During World War II, with Philippine abaca no longer available to the Allies, American production greatly increased. The Philippines remain the world's largest producer of abaca. The abaca plant is closely related to and resembles the banana plant (*Musa sapientum*). The abaca plant grows from rootstock that produces up to about 25 fleshy, fibreless stalks, forming a circular cluster called a mat, or hill. Each stalk is about 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter and produces about 12 to 25 leaves with overlapping leaf stalks, or petioles, sheathing the plant stalk to form an herbaceous (nonwoody) false trunk about 30 to 40 cm in diameter. The oblong, pointed leaf blade topping each petiole is bright green on the upper surface and yellowish green below and grows to about 1 to 2.5 m (3 to 8 feet) in length and 20 to 30 cm in width at its widest portion.

[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]

[![Photograph:The Attributes of Music, oil on canvas by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon ...]] - *The Attributes of Music*, oil on canvas by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon ... French painter [Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin], whose famous still lifes and domestic scenes were remarkable for their intimate realism, tranquil atmosphere, and luminous quality, was born this day in 1699. Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin [![Photograph:The Attributes of Music, oil on canvas by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon ...]] - *The Attributes of Music*, oil on canvas by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon ... French painter Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, whose famous still lifes and domestic scenes were remarkable for their intimate realism, tranquil atmosphere, and luminous quality, was born this day in 1699.

[Francisco Bayeu]

[![Photograph:The Painter Francisco Bayeu, oil painting by Francisco de Goya; in the ...]] - *The Painter Francisco Bayeu*, oil painting by Francisco de Goya; in the ... [Francisco Bayeu], considered by his contemporaries to be the finest Spanish painter of their period and who was greatly influenced by [Anton Raphael Mengs] and [Giovanni Battista Tiepolo], was born this day in 1734. Francisco Bayeu [![Photograph:The Painter Francisco Bayeu, oil painting by Francisco de Goya; in the ...]] - *The Painter Francisco Bayeu*, oil painting by Francisco de Goya; in the ... Francisco Bayeu, considered by his contemporaries to be the finest Spanish painter of their period and who was greatly influenced by Anton Raphael Mengs and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, was born this day in 1734.

[Fazlur R. Khan]

[![Photograph:The Sears Tower (right) in Chicago, designed by Fazlur R. Khan.]] - The Sears Tower (right) in Chicago, designed by Fazlur R. Khan. Born this day in 1929 in Dacca, India (now Dhaka, Bangladesh), Bangladeshi American civil engineer [Fazlur R. Khan] was known for his innovations in high-rise building construction, and among his works is Chicago's [Sears Tower]. Fazlur R. Khan [![Photograph:The Sears Tower (right) in Chicago, designed by Fazlur R. Khan.]] - The Sears Tower (right) in Chicago, designed by Fazlur R. Khan. Born this day in 1929 in Dacca, India (now Dhaka, Bangladesh), Bangladeshi American civil engineer Fazlur R. Khan was known for his innovations in high-rise building construction, and among his works is Chicago's Sears Tower.

abbey

[![Photograph:The ruins of Fountains Abbey, a Cistercian monastery founded in the 12th century, near Ripon, North ...]] - The ruins of Fountains Abbey, a Cistercian monastery founded in the 12th century, near Ripon, North ... group of buildings housing a [][monastery] or a [][convent], centred on an abbey church or a cathedral and under the direction of an abbot or an abbess. In this sense, an abbey consists of a complex of buildings serving the needs of a self-contained religious community. The term abbey is also used loosely to refer to priories, smaller monasteries under a prior. In England, since the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII, all that remains in many cases is the abbey church, now simply called an abbey; Westminster Abbey is the best known example. Monasteries originally developed in the Middle East and Greece from the earlier streets of hermits' huts, or lauras. Walls were built for defense, and the cells were later constructed against the walls, leaving a central space for church, chapels, fountain, and dining hall, or refectory. This Eastern type of monastery can be seen at Mt. Athos in Greece. [![Photograph:Ross Abbey, County Galway, Connaught (Connacht), Ire.]] - Ross Abbey, County Galway, Connaught (Connacht), Ire. The first European abbey was [Montecassino] (*see* [Cassino]) in Italy, founded in 529 by St. [][Benedict of Nursia], who wrote the order that formed the basic foundation of monastic life in the Western world. His plan for an ideal abbey was circulated (about 820) to orders throughout Europe, and abbeys were generally built in accord with it in subsequent centuries. The [][cloister] (*q.v.*) linked the most important elements of the abbey together and also served the monks for their contemplative meditation; it was usually an open, arcaded court, surfaced with grass or paving and sometimes with a fountain in the centre. The side adjoining the nave of the church had book presses and formed an open-air but sheltered library. The dormitory was often built over the refectory on the east side of the cloister and was linked to the central church by a "day-stair," which led to the arcaded cloister and so into the church, and by a "night-stair," which led directly to the church. The church assembly room, the [][chapter house] (*q.v.*), was often attached to the chancel near the eastern side of the cloister.

[Tomás de Torquemada]

[![Photograph:Tomás de Torquemada.]] - Tomás de Torquemada. [Tomás de Torquemada], whose name is synonymous with the Spanish [Inquisition]'s horror, bigotry, and cruel fanaticism and during whose tenure as grand inquisitor some 2,000 people were burned at the stake, died this day in 1498. Tomás de Torquemada [![Photograph:Tomás de Torquemada.]] - Tomás de Torquemada. Tomás de Torquemada, whose name is synonymous with the Spanish Inquisition's horror, bigotry, and cruel fanaticism and during whose tenure as grand inquisitor some 2,000 people were burned at the stake, died this day in 1498.

[François-Auguste-René, viscount de Chateaubriand]

[![Photograph:Viscount de Chateaubriand, detail of an oil painting by Girodet-Trioson; in the National Museum of ...]] - Viscount de Chateaubriand, detail of an oil painting by Girodet-Trioson; in the National Museum of ... French author and diplomat [François-Auguste-René, viscount de Chateaubriand], born this day in 1768, was one of the country's first [Romantic] writers and France's preeminent literary figure in the early 19th century. François-Auguste-René, viscount de Chateaubriand [![Photograph:Viscount de Chateaubriand, detail of an oil painting by Girodet-Trioson; in the National Museum of ...]] - Viscount de Chateaubriand, detail of an oil painting by Girodet-Trioson; in the National Museum of ... French author and diplomat François-Auguste-René, viscount de Chateaubriand, born this day in 1768, was one of the country's first Romantic writers and France's preeminent literary figure in the early 19th century.

[W.E.B. Du Bois]

[![Photograph:W.E.B. Du Bois.]] - W.E.B. Du Bois. Born this day in 1868, [W.E.B. Du Bois] was the most important African American protest leader during the first half of the 20th century, helping to create the [NAACP] in 1909 and editing *[The Crisis]*, its magazine, for 24 years. [W.E.B. Du Bois] [![Photograph:W.E.B. Du Bois.]] - W.E.B. Du Bois. Born this day in 1868, [W.E.B. Du Bois] was the most important African American protest leader during the first half of the 20th century, helping to create the NAACP in 1909 and editing *The Crisis*, its magazine, for 24 years.

absinthe

[![Photograph:Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium).]] - Wormwood (*Artemisia absinthium*). flavoured, distilled liquor, yellowish green in colour, turning to cloudy, opalescent white when mixed with water. Highly aromatic, this liqueur is dry and somewhat bitter in taste. Absinthe is made from a spirit high in alcohol, such as brandy, and marketed with alcoholic content of 68 percent by volume. [][Wormwood] (*Artemisia absinthium*; *see* [photograph]) is the chief flavouring ingredient; other aromatic ingredients include [][licorice] (which usually predominates in the aroma), hyssop, fennel, angelica root, aniseed, and star aniseed. The beverage was first produced commercially in 1797 by []Henry-Louis Pernod, who purchased the formula from a French exile living in Switzerland. Absinthe came to be considered dangerous to health because it appeared to cause convulsions, hallucinations, mental deterioration, and psychoses. These symptoms are evidently caused by []thujone, a toxic chemical present in wormwood. Absinthe manufacture was prohibited in Switzerland in 1908, in France in 1915, and eventually in many other countries. In 1918 Pernod Fils established a factory in Tarragona, Spain, to manufacture both absinthe and a similar beverage, without wormwood, for export to those countries prohibiting true absinthe. Beverages developed as substitutes, similar in taste but lower in alcohol content and without wormwood, are known by such names as Pernod, []anis (or anisette), []pastis, [ouzo], or raki. Absinthe is usually served diluted with water and ice and may be used to flavour mixed drinks. The classic absinthe drink, the absinthe drip, is served in a special drip glass, allowing water to slowly drip through a sugar cube into the liquor. Pastis also turns cloudy white when mixed with water, and anis turns to a cloudy, greenish-tinged white.

Abel Prize

[![]][]award granted annually for research in [mathematics], in commemoration of the brilliant 19th-century Norwegian mathematician [Niels Henrik Abel]. The Niels Henrik Abel Memorial Fund was established on Jan. 1, 2002, and it is administered by the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. The main purpose of the fund is to award an international prize for "outstanding scientific work in the field of mathematics." The prize is also intended to help raise the status of mathematics in society and to stimulate the interest of young people in mathematics. Responsibility for the Abel Prize and for other uses of the funds lies with the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. The fund also supports one or two Abel Symposia per year on various branches of mathematics, and in 2005 the fund created the Bernt Michael Holmboe Memorial Prize for the promotion of excellence in teaching mathematics, in honour of Abel's own mathematics teacher. As the 100th anniversary of Abel's birth approached in 1902, plans for creating a prize in Abel's name had been promoted by the Norwegian mathematician [Sophus Lie], but he died in 1899, and the impetus faded with him. It was revived in 1902 by King [Oscar II], who organized many prizes during his reign, including one in the 1880s on [celestial mechanics] that was won by the French mathematician [Henri Poincaré]. The demise of the union between Sweden and Norway, and the resulting loss of revenue, ended efforts to establish an annual mathematics prize. Abel's status in Norway remained high, though, and, when plans for a prize were revived in 2000—which the International Mathematical Union had designated the World Mathematical Year—they met with widespread acceptance. The prize, which is worth about \$1 million, was first awarded in 2003 to the French mathematician [Jean-Pierre Serre]. [Jeremy John Gray]

[Robert Mugabe]

[Robert Mugabe], born this day in 1924, was the first prime minister (1980-87) of [Zimbabwe] (formerly Rhodesia), its president from 1987, and a black nationalist of Marxist persuasion who established one-party rule. Robert Mugabe Robert Mugabe, born this day in 1924, was the first prime minister (1980-87) of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia), its president from 1987, and a black nationalist of Marxist persuasion who established one-party rule.

acanthite

a [][silver] sulfide mineral (Ag~2~S) that is the most important ore of silver. It is abundant, with other silver minerals, in the sulfide mineral deposits of Kongsberg, Nor.; Kremnica, Slovakia; Zacatecas, Mex.; and the Comstock Lode, Nev., U.S. []Argentite is the high-temperature form of acanthite. Like several other sulfides, selenides, and tellurides of silver and copper, argentite forms isometric crystals at high temperatures. Upon cooling these crystals invert from isometric (cubic) to monoclinic structures while remaining unchanged in external appearance. For detailed physical properties, *see* [sulfide mineral] (table).

abscess

a localized collection of [][pus] in a cavity formed from tissues that have been broken down by []infectious [][bacteria]. An abscess is caused when such bacteria as staphylococci or streptococci gain access to solid tissue (*e.g.,* by means of a small wound on the skin). The toxins released by these multiplying bacteria destroy cells and thus trigger an acute inflammation at the site, with its characteristic signs of redness, pain, swelling, and heat. (*See* [inflammation].) White blood cells ([][leukocytes]) collect at the site; these leukocytes break down the dead tissues and absorb the bacteria by means of phagocytosis. Thick yellowish pus is formed from the broken-down tissues, the dead bacteria and leukocytes, and the extracellular fluid that has accumulated. At the same time, nearby healthy cells form a capsule of tissue around the pus and develop a cell wall that delimits the abscess from nearby healthy tissues. When the abscess is ruptured, either naturally or through medical intervention, the pus escapes, the swelling and pain are relieved, and the delimiting cell wall eventually grows back into the abscess cavity. Abscesses may occur on the skin surface or within the body on such internal organs as the lungs, brain, kidneys, or tonsils. Treatment for those abscesses that do not naturally resolve themselves consists of cutting into the capsule and draining its pus contents. Antibiotics are also administered to help fight the infection. Antihistamines may be prescribed to reduce swelling. Care must be taken to prevent the pus and other infective contents from entering the bloodstream and thus being carried to surrounding tissues, where they can result in new abscesses. *See also* [boil].

academy

a society of learned individuals organized to advance art, science, literature, music, or some other cultural or intellectual area of endeavour. From its original reference in Greek to the philosophical school of Plato, the word has come to refer much more generally to an institution of learning or a group of learned persons. At the close of the Middle Ages, academies began to be formed in Italy, for the study first of classical and then of [][Italian literature]. One of the earliest was the [][Platonic Academy], founded in Florence in 1442 by two Greek scholars with the encouragement of [Cosimo de' Medici]. []Literary academies sprang up throughout Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries; the most famous of these was the [][Crusca Academy], founded in Florence by [A.F. Grazzini] in 1582. The [French Academy], which would become Europe's best-known literary academy, began in 1635. The [][Royal Spanish Academy]was founded in 1713 to preserve the Spanish language, and it published a landmark Spanish dictionary for that purpose. Academies of science began to appear in the 16th century, and academies of fine arts, music, social sciences, medicine, mining, and agriculture were formed from the 18th century on. More than 50 countries now have at least one academy or learned society that is sanctioned by the state and represented on international councils of learned societies. The influence of the academies was greatest during the 17th and 18th centuries but declined during the 19th, in part because academies tended to resist new and unorthodox developments in science and culture.

acoustic impedance

absorption of sound in a medium, equal to the ratio of the sound pressure at a boundary surface to the sound flux (flow velocity of the particles or volume velocity, times area) through the surface. In analogy to electrical circuit theory, pressure corresponds to voltage, volume velocity to current, and acoustic impedance is expressed as a complex number, the real part being referred to as the resistance and the imaginary part the reactance.

acid-base catalysis

acceleration of a chemical reaction by the addition of an acid or a base, the acid or base itself not being consumed in the reaction. The catalytic reaction may be acid-specific (acid [][catalysis]), as in the case of decomposition of the sugar sucrose into glucose and fructose in sulfuric acid; or base-specific (base catalysis), as in the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Many reactions are catalyzed by both acids and bases. The mechanism of acid- and base-catalyzed reactions is explained in terms of the [][Brønsted-Lowry] concept of acids and bases as one in which there is an initial transfer of protons from an acidic [][catalyst] to the reactant or from the reactant to a basic catalyst. In terms of the [][Lewis theory] of acids and bases, the reaction entails sharing of an electron pair donated by a base catalyst or accepted by an acid catalyst. Acid catalysis is employed in a large number of industrial reactions, among them the conversion of petroleum [][hydrocarbons] to gasoline and related products. Such reactions include decomposition of high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (cracking) using alumina-silica catalysts (Brønsted-Lowry acids), polymerization of unsaturated hydrocarbons using sulfuric acid or hydrogen fluoride (Brønsted-Lowry acids), and isomerization of aliphatic hydrocarbons using aluminum chloride (a Lewis acid). Among industrial applications of base-catalyzed reactions is the reaction of diisocyanates with polyfunctional alcohols in the presence of amines, used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams.

Acto Adicional of 1834

amendment to the [][Brazilian] constitution of 1824 that abolished some of that charter's extremely centralist and authoritarian aspects. It was enacted as a concession to federalists and republicans who threatened to sunder the nation. The abdication of the unpopular Brazilian emperor Pedro I in 1831 precipitated the surfacing of violently opposed factions and civil wars—in Pará in 1831, in Minas Gerais in 1833, and in Maranhão and Mato Grosso in 1834. The constitution, which on the whole remained in effect until the inception of the First Republic in 1889, had been drawn up by a council of state appointed by Pedro I. The extensive powers it gave to the emperor, referred to as the *[]poder moderador* ("mediative power"), included the appointment of the members of the upper house of Parliament for life from lists of nominees prepared by special electors; the convening and dissolving of the lower house of Parliament, composed of popularly elected representatives; and the right to veto parliamentary acts, although a veto could be overridden if Parliament repassed the measure in three consecutive sessions. Moreover, the popularly elected provincial and municipal assemblies were dominated by imperially appointed presidents. The Acto Adicional eliminated the reactionary Council of State. It also replaced a three-member regency, which had been instituted for the minority (1831-40) of Pedro II, with a single regent, to make the government more efficient. The amendment also created provincial legislatures, allowed for provincial control over primary and secondary education, and ended the entailing of estates. Opposition to the central government continued, however, even after the reform: slaves in Bahia revolted in 1835, Maranhão broke out in revolts once again, and a 10-year revolt in Rio Grande do Sul, called the Guerra dos Farrapos ("War of the Ragged Ones"), began in 1835.

acervulus

an open, saucer-shaped asexual fruiting body found in fungi (kingdom Fungi). Always developed below the epidermis of the host tissue, it bears conidiophores (specialized filaments, or hyphae) that form conidia (spores).

Abydos

ancient Anatolian town located just northeast of the modern Turkish town of Çanakkale on the east side of the Dardanelles (Hellespont). Probably originally a Thracian town, it was colonized about 670 BC by the Milesians. There Xerxes crossed the strait on his bridge of boats to invade Greece in 480 BC. Abydos is celebrated for its vigorous resistance to Philip V of Macedon (200 BC) and for the legend of Hero and Leander. It survived until late Byzantine times as the toll station of the Hellespont.

Abae

ancient town in the northeast corner of Phocis, Greece. The town was famous for its [][oracle] of [][Apollo], which was one of those consulted by the Lydian king Croesus. Although the Persians sacked and burned the temple in 480 BC, the oracle continued to be consulted—*e.g.,* by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC). The temple, burned again during the Sacred War (355-346 BC), was partly restored by the Roman emperor Hadrian. Ruins of the town walls and the acropolis remain on the town's site.

account payable

any amount owed by a company as the result of a purchase of goods or services from another company on a credit basis. Under a trade-credit arrangement, the purchasing company, after placing its order with the seller, receives the goods and an invoice denoting the price of the goods and the terms for payment. The purchasing firm does not send a trade acceptance or promissory note for payment but enters the amount owed as a current liability in its accounts. Companies incur this type of short-term debt primarily to finance their inventories; if inventory turnover is rapid within an industry, a company may be expected to have large accounts payable. Within any given industry, smaller companies are more likely to make use of this type of trade credit because they are less able to pay cash and take advantage of discounts than larger companies and have fewer sources of credit open to them. Accounts payable are a customary means of conducting domestic trade in the United States. In international trade and in the domestic trade of many European countries, the use of the [][acceptance] and [][promissory note] is common. *Compare* [account receivable].

account receivable

any amount owed to a business by a customer as a result of a purchase of goods or services from it on a credit basis. The company making the sale does not receive an [acceptance] or [promissory note] (*i.e.,* written orders or promises to pay) from the purchaser but merely enters the amount due as a current asset in its books. Accounts receivable constitute a major portion of the assets of many companies and tend to vary directly with sales. Accounts receivable may be sold to finance companies or pledged as collateral to obtain loans from commercial banks or finance companies. This kind of financing differs from [][factoring] (*q.v.*) in that the company's customers are not notified that their accounts have been sold or pledged as collateral, and the company remains responsible for credit losses. This type of financing is frequently employed by smaller companies that cannot obtain additional credit from commercial banks and have no other highly liquid assets to offer as security. Although it offers a flexible source of credit, varying with the volume of sales, accounts-receivable financing is considered a relatively expensive form of borrowing. *Compare* [account payable].

acne

any inflammatory disease of the sebaceous, or oil, glands of the skin. There are some 50 different types of acne. In common usage, the term acne is frequently used alone to designate [acne vulgaris], or common acne, probably the most prevalent of all chronic skin disorders. Acne vulgaris results from an interplay of heredity factors, hormones, and bacteria. In susceptible individuals, it begins in the teen years, being caused by overactive sebaceous glands, which are stimulated by the upsurge in the circulating level of male sex hormones that accompanies the onset of puberty. The primary lesion of acne vulgaris is the comedo, or []blackhead, which consists of a plug of sebum (the fatty substance secreted by a sebaceous gland), cell debris, and microorganisms (especially the bacterium *Propionibacterium acnes*) filling up a hair follicle. Comedones may be open, their upper or visible portion being darkened by oxidative changes; or they may be closed (*i.e.,* not reaching the surface to be extruded), in which case, they may be starting points for pustules and deep inflammatory lesions. The severity of acne is divided generally into four grades. In grade I, comedones may be sparse or profuse but there is little or no inflammation. In grade II, comedones are intermingled with superficial pustules and papules (small, solid, usually conical elevations). The lesions are ordinarily confined to the face and do not produce significant scarring, unless there has been continued scratching and picking. At this stage, topical (locally applied) medication is reasonably effective. Complete spontaneous remission is ordinarily seen within one to two years. In grades III and IV, the acne is characterized by comedones and pustules and deeper inflamed nodules, which are thought to result from the rupture of the sebaceous duct, with extrusion of sebum and bacterial products into the skin tissue. The lesions are likely to extend from the face to the neck and upper trunk and to produce a permanent scarring of the skin. The course of acne vulgaris is variable, persistence being ordinarily directly related to the severity of the lesions, although changes of climate and emotional stress may markedly improve or exacerbate the acne lesions. Methods of treatment vary from topical medication to sunlight and ultraviolet light, antibiotics, and hormones. In a high proportion of cases, however, the tendency is toward spontaneous cure over several months.

actinomycete

any member of a heterogeneous group of gram-positive, generally anaerobic bacteria noted for a filamentous and branching growth pattern that results, in most forms, in an extensive colony, or mycelium. The mycelium in some species may break apart to form rod- or coccoid-shaped forms. Many genera also form spores; the sporangia, or spore cases, may be found on aerial hyphae, on the colony surface, or free within the environment. Motility, when present, is conferred by flagella. Many species of actinomycetes occur in soil and are harmless to animals and higher plants, while some are important pathogens, and many others are beneficial sources of antibiotics. Many authorities recognize eight different groups of actinomycetes, though these groups are themselves heterogeneous and will require further study to classify fully. Of the specific types of actinomycetes, *[Nocardia asteroides]* causes tissue infections in humans, and *[]Dermatophilus congolensis* causes []dermatophilosis, a severe dermatitis of cattle, sheep, horses, and occasionally humans. Several species of *[][Streptomyces]* cause the disease [][actinomycosis] in humans and cattle. Many of the actinomycetes are sources of [][antibiotics] such as [][streptomycin].

accessory mineral

any mineral in an igneous rock not essential to the naming of the rock. When it is present in small amounts, as is common, it is called a minor accessory. If the amount is greater or is of special significance, the mineral is called a varietal, or characterizing, accessory and may give a varietal name to the rock (*e.g.,* the mineral biotite in biotite granite). Accessory minerals characteristically are formed during the solidification of the rocks from the magma; in contrast are [secondary minerals], which form at a later time through processes such as weathering by hydrothermal alteration. Common minor accessory minerals include topaz, zircon, corundum, fluorite, garnet, monazite, rutile, magnetite, ilmenite, allanite, and tourmaline. Typical varietal accessories include biotite, muscovite, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine.

acrylic compound

any of a class of synthetic plastics, resins, and oils used to manufacture many products. By varying the starting reagents and the process of forming, a material may be produced that is hard and transparent, soft and resilient, or a viscous liquid. Acrylic compounds are used to make molded structural and optical parts, jewelry, adhesives, coating compounds, and textile fibres. Orlon and Acrilan are trademark names of acrylic fibres; [Lucite] (*q.v.*) and Plexiglas are glasslike acrylic materials. *See also* [vinyl compound]s.

acacia

any of about 800 species of trees and shrubs comprising a genus (*Acacia*) in the mimosa family (Mimosaceae) and native to tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly Australia (there called wattles) and Africa. Acacias' distinctive leaves take the form of small, finely divided leaflets that give the leafstalk a feathery or fernlike (*i.e.,* pinnate) appearance. In many Australian and Pacific species, the leaflets are suppressed or absent altogether, and the leafstalks (petioles) are flattened and perform the physiological functions of leaves. The leafstalks may be vertically arranged and bear thorns or sharp spines at their base. Acacias are also distinguished by their small, often fragrant flowers, which are arranged in compact globular or cylindrical clusters. The flowers are usually yellow but occasionally white and have many stamens apiece, giving each one a fuzzy appearance. About 600 species are native to Australia and various Pacific Ocean islands, with the rest native to either Africa or the Americas. Acacias are especially numerous on the plains of southern and eastern Africa, where they are well-known landmarks on the veld and savanna. Several [acacia] species are important economically. *A. senegal,* native to the Sudan region in Africa, yields true [gum arabic], a substance used in adhesives, pharmaceuticals, inks, confections, and other products. The bark of most acacias is rich in [][tannin], which is used in tanning and in dyes, inks, pharmaceuticals, and other products. The []babul tree (*A. arabica*), of tropical Africa and across Asia, yields both an inferior type of gum arabic and a tannin that is extensively used in India. Several Australian acacias are valuable sources of tannin, among them the []golden wattle (*A.* *pycnantha*), the []green wattle (*A. decurrens*), and the []silver wattle (*A. dealbata*). A few acacias produce valuable timber, among them the []Australian blackwood (*A. melanoxylon*); the []yarran (*A. homalophylla*), also of Australia; and *A. koa* of Hawaii. Sweet [acacia] [](*A. farnesiana*) is native to the southwestern United States. Many of the Australian species have been widely introduced elsewhere as cultivated small trees valued for their spectacular floral displays.

accentor

any of the 12 species of the bird genus *Prunella,* constituting the Old World family Prunellidae (order Passeriformes). They have thrushlike bills and rounded wings, and they frequently hop or move with a peculiar motion that has given them another name, shufflewing. Accentors breed chiefly in mountains but winter at lower elevations. A widespread lowland species is the [][dunnock], or hedge sparrow (*P. modularis*), which nests in hedges and shrubbery evergreens. A typical member is the []alpine accentor (*P. collaris*), of northwestern Africa and from Spain to Japan; 18 centimetres (7 inches) long and mostly brown, it has reddish-spotted flanks and a heavily stippled throat (sexes alike). In courtship the male warbles from a station near the ground or may ascend, larklike.

abdominal muscle

any of the muscles of the anterolateral walls of the [][abdominal cavity], composed of three flat muscular sheets, from without inward: external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominis, supplemented in front on each side of the midline by rectus abdominis. The first three muscle layers extend between the vertebral column behind, the lower ribs above, and the iliac crest and pubis of the hip bone below. Their fibres all merge toward the midline, where they surround the [rectus abdominis] in a sheath before they meet the fibres from the opposite side at the linea alba. Strength is developed in these rather thin walls by the crisscrossing of fibres. Thus, the fibres of the external oblique are directed downward and forward, those of the internal oblique upward and forward, and those of the transverse horizontally forward. Around the rectus abdominis, which extends from the pubis upward to the ribs, the above muscles are all fibrous. In the region of the groin, between the pubic bone and the anterior superior iliac spine, a specialized arrangement of these fibres permits the formation of the [inguinal canal], a passage through the muscular layers. This develops at birth as the testes descend out of the abdominal cavity through its wall into the scrotum. In the female this is replaced by a fibrous cord from the uterus. This gap is a potentially weak area where inguinal hernias can occur. The muscles of the abdominal walls perform a variety of functions: (1) They provide a tonic, elastic muscular support for the viscera and, by their recoil, pull down the rib cage in expiration. (2) They contract against blows to form a rigid protective wall for the viscera. (3) When the glottis is closed and the thorax and pelvis are fixed, these muscles take part in the expulsive efforts of urination, defecation, childbirth, vomiting, and of singing and coughing. (4) When the pelvis is fixed, they initiate the movement of bending the trunk forward. Thereafter, gravity comes into play, the abdominal muscles relax, and the muscles of the back then take on the strain. (5) Conversely, the abdominal muscles come into play in preventing hyperextension. (6) When the thorax is fixed, the abdominal muscles can pull up the pelvis and lower limbs. (7) The muscles of one side can bend the vertebral column sideways and assist in its rotation.

abductor muscle

any of the muscles that cause movement of a limb away from the midplane of the body or away from a neighbouring part or limb (*compare* adductor muscle), as in raising the arms to the side (effected by the deltoideus muscle) or spreading the fingers or toes. In man certain muscles of the [][hands] and feet are named for performing this function. In the hand, the abductor digiti minimi manus acts upon the little finger, and both the abductor pollicis longus and abductor pollicis brevis act upon the thumb. The corresponding [][foot] muscles are the abductor digiti minimi pedis and the abductor hallucis, which act on the little and great toes, respectively.

acid

any substance that in water solution tastes sour, changes the colour of certain indicators (*e.g.,* reddens blue litmus paper), reacts with some metals (*e.g.,* iron) to liberate hydrogen, reacts with bases to form salts, and promotes certain chemical reactions (acid catalysis). Examples of acids include the inorganic substances known as the mineral acids—sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acids—and the organic compounds belonging to the carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid, and phenol groups. Such substances contain one or more hydrogen atoms that, in solution, are released as positively charged hydrogen ions (*see* [Arrhenius theory]). Broader definitions of an acid, to include substances that exhibit typical acidic behaviour as pure compounds or when dissolved in solvents other than water, are given by the [Brønsted-Lowry theory] (*q.v.*) and the [Lewis theory] (*q.v.*). Examples of nonaqueous acids are sulfur trioxide, aluminum chloride, and boron trifluoride. *Compare* [base].

ad valorem tax

any tax imposed on the basis of the monetary value of the taxed item. Literally the term means "according to value." Traditionally, most customs and excises had "specific" rates; the tax base was defined in terms of physical units such as gallons, pounds, or individual items. Ad valorem rates, which have come into increased use, have the important advantage of adjusting the tax burden according to the amount the consumer spends on the taxed items. They thus avoid the serious discrimination of specific rates against the low-priced varieties of the commodities. The primary difficulty with the ad valorem taxation, especially in the case of tariffs, is in establishing a satisfactory value figure. Sales taxes of broad scope must of necessity have ad valorem rates. [][Property taxes] are sometimes considered ad valorem taxes, since the rates are applied to the value of the property, as distinguished from special assessments, which are frequently imposed on a specific unit (*e.g.,* front footage) basis.

absolute temperature scale

any thermometric scale on which a reading of zero coincides with the theoretical [][absolute zero] of temperature—i.e., the thermodynamic equilibrium state of minimum energy. The standard measure of temperature in the [International System of Units] is the Kelvin (K) scale, on which the only point established by arbitrary definition is the unique temperature at which the liquid, solid, and vapour forms of water can be maintained simultaneously. The interval between this temperature and absolute zero is defined as 273.16 kelvins, and the temperature of this "triple point" is designated 273.16 K (since 1967, no longer written °K). In essence, the Kelvin scale is the [][Celsius (°C) temperature scale]%20temperature%20scale#9022033.toc) shifted by 273.15 degrees (because the triple point of water is actually 0.01 °C), with the same size unit of temperature. Another absolute temperature scale is the Rankine (°R) scale, once used by engineers in the United States and based on the [Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale]%20temperature%20scale#9033563.toc), with the freezing point of water defined as 491.67 °R. A degree Rankine, like a degree Fahrenheit, is ^^5^^/~~9~~ of a kelvin or degree Celsius. Many physical laws and formulas are simpler in form when an absolute temperature is used. In the physical sciences the Kelvin scale is used wherever thermodynamic considerations are important.

Abstraction-Création

association of international painters and sculptors that from 1931 to 1936 promoted the principles of pure [][abstraction] in art. The immediate predecessor of the Abstraction-Création group was the [Cercle et Carré] ("Circle and Square") group, founded by []Michel Seuphor and [Joaquin Torres-Garcia] in 1930. Artists [Georges Vantongerloo], [][Jean Hélion], and []Auguste Herbin worked together to form a similar association, and by 1931 they managed to attract over 40 members to a group they called Abstraction-Création. That same year an annual periodical published by Hélion and Herbin, *Abstraction-Création*, debuted and took over the Cercle et Carré's mailing list. The members whose work was represented in the first issue of the journal did not have a unified style, but rather they came from a variety of international movements that promoted formal purity and nonobjectivity: members Theo van Doesberg and [Piet Mondrian] were active in [De Stijl] ("The Style"), [László Moholy-Nagy] came from the [Bauhaus], and [Robert Delaunay] practiced elements of late [Cubism]. While its central members leaned toward geometric abstraction, as a group Abstraction-Création advocated the general cause of abstraction and actively promoted it through its journal and regular exhibitions of its members' work. The loosely affiliated association, which was centred in Paris, eventually counted over 400 members, including international artists such as [Wassily Kandinsky],[Naum Gabo], [Josef Albers], [Arshile Gorky], and [Barbara Hepworth], most of whom lived in Paris for a time. The group's last journal appeared in 1936. Abstraction-Création's advocacy of abstraction was taken up after World War II by the []Salon des Réalités Nouvelles ("Salon of New Realities").

Ackermann, Konrad Ernst

baptized Feb. 4, 1712, Schwerin, Mecklenburg [Germany] died Nov. 13, 1771, Hamburg actor-manager who was a leading figure in the development of German theatre. Conflicting accounts exist of Ackermann's early adult years. He was probably not a trained scientist and surgeon, as has been widely reported, but was instead a soldier—and later an officer—in the Russian army until 1738. He was attracted to the theatre by reading the French playwright [Molière] and the Scandinavian writer [Ludvig Holberg]. During the years 1740-41 Ackermann received formal acting training in the Lüneburg company of [][Johann Friedrich Schönemann], who specialized in German adaptations of the French plays of [Pierre Corneille], [Jean Racine], Molière, and [Voltaire]. In 1749 Ackermann married []Sophie Charlotte Schröder, the leading lady of Schönemann's company, and with her and a skilled troupe toured Russia, the Baltic states, and East Prussia for many years. It was also during this period that Ackermann was authorized to build an 800-seat theatre in Königsberg; it opened in 1755 and was the first privately owned playhouse in Germany. Soon afterward, however, the [Seven Years' War] forced Ackermann to move to Switzerland and resume touring.

acoustic neuroma

benign tumour on the vestibulocochlear nerve (also called acoustic nerve) near its point of entry into the inner ear. The tumour, though benign, may spread into the brain cavity if not detected in its first stages. Early symptoms include mild unilateral hearing impairment, tinnitus (ringing in the ear), and sometimes dizziness. If the tumour has extended into the brain cavity, headache and paralysis are experienced. Treatment of acoustic neuroma is surgical excision.

Absalon

born *c.* 1128, , Fjenneslev, Den. died March 21, 1201, Sorö archbishop, statesman, and close adviser of the Danish kings [][Valdemar I] and Canute VI. Scion of a powerful Zealand family, Absalon helped his childhood friend gain the Danish throne as Valdemar I (1156-57) and was named bishop of Roskilde in 1158. As the king's closest adviser, he initially supported Valdemar's alliance with Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman emperor, against Pope Alexander III. By 1167 Absalon and Valdemar had become reconciled with the pope. Absalon helped end the Wend (Slav) threat to Danish shipping by leading a campaign in 1169 that captured the Wend stronghold of [][Rügen]. The incorporation of Rügen into Absalon's diocese of Roskilde initiated a period of Danish supremacy in northern Germany that lasted until 1225. At that time he also directed the building of a fortress at Havn, which later developed into Copenhagen. He was a key advocate of the canonization of Valdemar's father, Canute Lavard, and of the coronation of Valdemar's son [][Canute VI] as joint king (1170), which established the hereditary rights of the Valdemar dynasty.

Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī

born *c.* 1297 died May 24, 1351, Hintato, Mor. Marīnid sultan of Morocco (reigned 1331-51) who increased the territories of his dynasty and, for a brief time, created a united North African empire. In 1331 Abū al-Ḥasan succeeded his father, Abū Saʿīd, to the throne. With the goals of expelling the Christians from Spain and uniting all the Islāmic lands of North Africa, Abū al-Ḥasan attacked and captured Algeciras and Gibraltar in Spain (1333). He next attacked the Algerian territories of the ʿAbd al-Wādid dynasty and after a three-year siege took the strategic town of [][Tlemcen] (1337). Taking advantage of the internal weakness of Spain, he won a brilliant naval victory in the Strait of Gibraltar on April 5, 1340, but was defeated six months later at the Battle of []Rio Salado and was forced to abandon his "holy war" against Spain. Abū al-Ḥasan expanded his influence in Tunisia and married a daughter of []Abū Bakr, the [][Ḥafṣid] ruler of Tunisia, which by 1342 had become a virtual vassal state. After Abū Bakr's death Abū al-Ḥasan invaded Tunisia and captured Tunis (Sept. 15, 1347), but in the following April he was badly defeated by a confederation of Tunisian tribes at Kairouan. Forced to flee Tunisia by sea during December 1349, he landed at Algeria in January and set out for Morocco to put down a rebellion led by his son Abū ʿInān. Deserted by his troops, he abdicated in favour of Abū ʿInān in 1351, and he died shortly afterward of an infected wound.

Abe Isoo

born , March 1, 1865, Fukuoka, Japan died Feb. 10, 1949, Tokyo one of the founders of the Japanese socialist movement and titular head of the Social Mass Party (Shakai Taishūtō) from its inception in 1932 until 1940. He is also remembered for introducing the game of baseball to Japan. Abe was attracted to socialism while studying for the ministry in the United States, where he graduated from the Hartford (Conn.) Theological Seminary. He returned to Japan in 1899 and two years later became a professor at Tokyo Semmon Gakkō (later Waseda University), a position he held for 25 years. He helped the embryonic Japanese labour movement and played a part in the founding of the [][Social Democratic Party] (1899), which was suppressed almost immediately by the government. A pacifist, Abe opposed the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05); when the antiwar newspaper *Heimin shimbun* ("People's Weekly News") was banned, Abe started his own magazine, *Shinkigen* ("A New Era"), as a platform to promote parliamentary socialism rooted in Christian humanism. After the war Abe objected to the takeover of the socialist movement by radical anarcho-syndicalist groups and to their terrorist activities; he retired from politics and devoted himself to educational causes.

İbrahim Paşa

born *c.* 1493, , Párga [Greece] died March 15, 1536, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] Ottoman grand vizier (1523-36) who played a decisive role in diplomatic and military events during the reign of Sultan [][Süleyman I] (1520-66). İbrahim's first military expedition was to Egypt (1524), where he reestablished order and introduced administrative and fiscal measures that solidified Ottoman authority there. After his Egyptian success, he was appointed commander in chief of the Danubian campaigns of 1526, 1529 (a siege of Vienna), and 1532. In 1533, vested with full powers, he represented the sultan in negotiations with the Holy Roman emperor Charles V over the Hungarian question; these negotiations established most of Hungary as tributary to the Ottomans and confirmed the extraordinary powers of the grand vizier. In the eastern provinces, İbrahim, as early as 1526, had put down a revolt of the Turkmen tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor). At the outbreak of war with the Ṣafavids of Iran, as commander of the Ottoman army, he occupied []Tabriz, Iran, in August 1534. Five months later [][Baghdad] was taken. In Constantinople (January 1536) he conducted preliminary negotiations with the representative of the French king for a commercial treaty. Alarmed by his usurpation of the titles of sovereignty and fearing for his own throne, Süleyman had him executed.

Adair, John

born *c.* 1655 died *c.* 1722, , London? Scottish surveyor and cartographer whose maps established a standard of excellence for his time and probably inspired the early 18th-century surveys of Scotland. Between 1680 and 1686 he completed maps of the counties adjoining the River Forth as well as charts of the Firth of Forth, the River Clyde, and the west of Scotland. Manuscripts of these are in the National Library of Scotland and other libraries. Other maps and charts prepared by Adair also exist in manuscript. In 1703 he published the first part of his *[]Description of the Sea-coast and Islands of Scotland, With Large and Exact Maps, for the Use of Seamen.* The second part was never printed. Judging from his scrupulous delineations, Adair's search for perfection may have delayed completion of his work, but he was also hampered by the inadequacy of the public funds available for his work. In 1723 an annuity was granted to his widow for unpublished manuscripts that were later deposited in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and in the British Museum.

ʿAbdor Raḥmān Khān

born *c.* 1844, Kābul, Afg. died 1901, Kābul *amīr* of Afghanistan (1880-1901) who played a prominent role in the fierce and long-drawn struggle for power waged by his father and his uncle, Aʿẓam Khān, against his cousin [][Shīr ʿAlī], the successor of Dōst Moḥammad Khān. ʿAbdor Raḥmān was the son of Afzal Khān, whose father, Dōst Moḥammad Khān, had established the Barakzāi dynasty in Afghanistan. Shīr ʿAlī's victory in 1869 drove ʿAbdor Raḥmān into exile in Russian Turkistan, where he lived at Samarkand until Shīr ʿAlī's death in 1879, a year after the outbreak of the war between the British and the Afghans. ʿAbdor Raḥmān returned to Afghanistan in 1880, was heartily welcomed by his people, and remained in northern Afghanistan until the British negotiated a settlement recognizing ʿAbdor Raḥmān as *amīr* in return for his acknowledgment of the British right to control his foreign relations. ʿAbdor Raḥmān pacified the country and consolidated his authority. During the years 1880-87, he crushed a revolt by the powerful Ghilzai tribe and an unexpected rebellion led by his cousin Isḥāq Khān; he also decisively defeated Shīr ʿAlī's son Ayūb, who raided intermittently from his base in Herāt. ʿAbdor Raḥmān's reign is notable for the agreement reached on the demarcation of Afghanistan's northwestern border with Russia, the result of talks held near Kābul in 1893 with a British delegation led by Sir Mortimer Durand, under which ʿAbdor Raḥmān accepted the [][Durand line] as his frontier, relinquishing some hereditary rights over the tribes on the eastern border.

Abu Madi, Iliya

born *c.* 1890, Al-Muḥaydithah, Lebanon died 1957 Arab poet and journalist whose poetry achieved popularity through his expressive use of language, his mastery of the traditional patterns of Arabic poetry, and the relevance of his ideas to contemporary Arab readers. When he was 11 years old, Abu Madi moved with his family from their mountain village in Lebanon to Alexandria, Egypt. As a young man, he earned money selling cigarettes. He published his first collection of poetry in Alexandria in 1911. The following year he migrated to the United States, settling in Cincinnati, where he worked with his brother. In 1916 he moved to New York City and began editing several Arabic newspapers and magazines, which were supported by New York City's Arab community. He worked for 10 years with the magazine *Mir ʾāt al-gharb* ("Mirror of the West") and married the owner's daughter. In 1929 he started his own bimonthly magazine, *[]Al-Samīr* ("The Companion"), which he expanded into a daily newspaper in 1936 and continued to publish until his death. He spent much of his life in the United States. Abu Madi's first collection of poetry, *Tadhkār al-māḍī* ("Remembrance of the Past"), was published in Cairo in 1911. A second collection was published in New York City in 1916 and a third, *Al-Dīwān al-thānī*, in 1919, with an introduction by the Lebanese American poet [Khalil Gibran]. *Al-Jadāwil* ("Streams"), appeared in 1927. *Al-Khamāʾil* (1946; "Thickets") was printed in Beirut, as was the posthumous *Tibr wa-turāb* (1960; "Ore and Dust").

Adamov, Arthur

born , Aug. 23, 1908, Kislovodsk, Russia died March 16, 1970, Paris, Fr. avant-garde writer, a founder and major playwright of the [][Theatre of the Absurd]. In 1912 Adamov's wealthy Armenian family left Russia and settled in Freudenstadt, Ger. He was subsequently educated in Geneva, Mainz, and Paris, where, having mastered French, he settled in 1924, associating with Surrealist groups. He edited a periodical, *Discontinuité,* and wrote poetry. In 1938 he suffered a nervous breakdown, later writing []*L'Aveu* (1938-43; "The Confession"), an autobiography that revealed his tortured conscience, delving into a terrifying sense of alienation and preparing his personal, neurotic stage for some of the most powerful of all Absurdist dramas. He spent almost a year of World War II in the internment camp of Argelès, Fr. A severe depression followed. Strongly influenced by the Swedish dramatist August Strindberg—with whose own mental crisis Adamov identified—and by Franz Kafka, he began writing plays in 1947. Believing that God is dead and that life's meaning is unobtainable, Adamov turned to a private, metaphysical interpretation of Communistic ideals. His first play, *[]La Parodie,* features a handless clock that looms eerily over characters who are constantly questioning one another about time. The world of the play is a parody of man, whom Adamov saw as helplessly searching for life's meaning, which, although it exists, is tragically inaccessible to him. In []*L'Invasion,* he attempted to depict the human situation more realistically; it impressed André Gide and the director Jean Vilar, and, under Vilar's direction, it opened in Paris in 1950, with his third play, *La grande et la petite manoeuvre.* The latter reveals the influence of his friend, Antonin Artaud, theoretician of the "theatre of cruelty."

Abdul Razak bin Hussein, Tun Haji

born , March 11, 1922, Pekan, Pahang state, Federated Malay States [now Malaysia] died Jan. 14, 1976, London, Eng. prime minister, foreign minister, and defense minister of Malaysia from 1970 to 1976. A lawyer by training, Abdul Razak joined the civil service in 1950, entered politics in 1955, and was a key figure in gaining his country's independence from Britain in 1957. As deputy prime minister and defense minister (1957-70) and as minister of rural development (1959-69) under Tunku Abdul Rahman, first prime minister of independent Malaya (Malaysia from 1963), Abdul Razak was largely responsible for the country's progress in rural and national development. Appointed head of the National Operations Council set up with emergency powers in 1969, he steered the country through that year's violent disturbances between Malays and Chinese. As prime minister from 1970, he pursued a policy of nonalignment, in furtherance of which he established relations with mainland China in 1974. In 1959 he was awarded the Seri Maharaja Mangku Negara, one of Malaya's (and Malaysia's) highest honours, which carries the title of *tun.*

Abdülmecid II

born , May 30, 1868, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] died Aug. 23, 1944, Paris, Fr. [![Photograph:Abdülmecid II, portrait by an unknown artist, 20th century; in the Topkapı Saray ...]] - Abdülmecid II, portrait by an unknown artist, 20th century; in the Topkapı Saray ... the last caliph and crown prince of the Ottoman dynasty of Turkey. Following Ottoman custom, Abdülmecid was confined to the palace until he was 40, during which time his father, Abdülaziz, and three of his cousins reigned. When his fourth cousin took the throne as [][Mehmed VI] in 1918, Abdülmecid became crown prince. He was elected [][caliph] by the Grand National Assembly on Nov. 18, 1922, after the sultanate was abolished; and he lost his title of crown prince after Mehmed left Constantinople on the assumption of power by the Young Turks under [][Mustafa Kemal] (Atatürk). Although the caliphate was severed from all political power, Abdülmecid, a gentle and scholarly man, was the living symbol of Turkey's link to the Islāmic-Ottoman past. The forces of tradition and the opponents of Mustafa Kemal's regime rallied around him. Mustafa Kemal, determined to break with the Islāmic past, first proclaimed the Turkish Republic (Oct. 29, 1923), and on March 3, 1924, the Grand National Assembly abolished the caliphate. The next day Abdülmecid was exiled.

ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī

born 1077/78, Nif, Persia died 1166, Baghdad traditional founder of the Qādirīyah order of the mystical Ṣūfī branch of Islām. He studied Islāmic law in Baghdad and was introduced to Ṣūfism rather late in life, first appearing as a preacher in 1127. His great reputation as a preacher and teacher attracted disciples from the entire Islāmic world, and he is said to have converted numerous Jews and Christians to Islām. His achievement as a thinker was to have reconciled the mystical nature of the Ṣūfī calling with the sober demands of Islāmic law. His concept of Ṣūfism was that of a holy war or *jihād* waged against one's own will in order to conquer egotism and worldliness and to submit to God's will. Numerous legends of his saintliness arose after his death, and he retains a popular following among those who consider him a divine mediator.

Acosta, José de

born 1539, Medina del Campo, Spain died Feb. 15, 1600, Salamanca Jesuit theologian and missionary to the New World, chiefly known for his *Historia natural y moral de las Indias,* the earliest survey of the New World and its relation to the Old. His works, missionary and literary, mark the end of the period of the religious and scientific incorporation of the newly discovered lands into Western culture. Acosta joined the Jesuits in 1570, going as a missionary to Peru in 1571. Having been provincial of his order there (1576-81), he was appointed theological adviser to the Third Provincial Council of Lima (1582), later writing a catechism in local Indian languages, the first book printed in Peru. On returning to Spain in 1587, he wrote *Historia natural y moral de las Indias* (1590; *[]Natural and Moral History of the Indies*), which attempted to place his observations of the physical geography and natural history of Mexico and Peru (including the aboriginal religious and political institutions) in the context of contemporary Jesuit and scientific thought. Acosta's work is especially valuable as a firsthand account of western South America at this time, based on his 16 years' life and travel in the region. Acosta led the opposition to [][Claudio Aquaviva] (the general of the Jesuits), helping to call the fifth Jesuit congregation to redress alleged grievances. The reformers' proposals were rejected and Acosta was imprisoned (1592-93). After submitting in 1594 Acosta became superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid and rector of the Jesuit college at Salamanca (1598), where he remained until his death.

ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad, Khwāja

born 16th century Persian painter who, together with [][Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī], was one of the first members of the imperial atelier in India and is thus credited with playing a strong part in the foundation of the Mughal school of miniature painting (*see* [][Mughal painting]). ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad was born into a family of good social standing in Iran, and he had already gained a reputation as a calligrapher as well as a painter when he met the Mughal emperor [][Humāyūn], who was in exile in Iran. At Humāyūn's invitation, he followed him to India in 1548, first to Kābul and later to Delhi. He instructed both Humāyūn and his young son, the future emperor [][Akbar], in drawing. Among his students while he was superintendent of Akbar's atelier were [][Dasvant] and [][Basāvan], Hindus who became two of the most renowned Mughal painters. ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad received many honours from Akbar. In 1576 he was appointed master of the mint, and in 1584 at the end of his career he was made dewan (revenue commissioner) of Multān. Among ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad's greatest achievements was the supervision, together with his fellow Persian Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī, of a large part of the illustrations of the *[Dāstān-e]* ("Stories of") *Amīr Ḥamzeh,* a series that numbered about 1,400 paintings, all of unusually large size. As none of the paintings is signed, it is not certain whether he himself did any of them. Among the miniatures bearing his signature is one in the Royal Library in the Golestān Palace, Tehrān, depicting Akbar presenting a miniature to his father, Humāyūn. The work, though Persian in its treatment of many details, hints of the Indian style to come, evident in the realistic presentation of the life of the court. A more thoroughly Indianized version of ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad's painting style is found in an illustrated manuscript of the *Khamseh* of Neẓāmī dated 1595, now part of the collection of the British Museum.

Abū Rīshah, ʿUmar

born April 10, 1910, ʿAkko, Palestine [now in Israel] died July 15, 1990, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Syrian poet and diplomat, noted for his early poetry, which broke with the traditions of Arab classicism. Abū Rīshah attended the University of Damascus in Syria, the American University in Beirut, Lebanon, and the University of Manchester, England. He was an early contributor to the influential Egyptian literary journal *Apollo,* and from 1940 he worked as a librarian in Aleppo, Syria. In 1949 his increasingly political poems attracted the attention of the new military government, and he was appointed ambassador to Brazil, a position he held until 1953. Despite frequent, often violent upheavals in the Syrian government, Abū Rīshah continued to serve in diplomatic posts, including ambassadorships to Argentina (1953-54), India (1954-59), and the United States (1961-64). After his retirement he settled in Saudi Arabia. Abū Rīshah published verse dramas and several volumes of poetry in Arabic, as well as one volume that was translated into English as *Roving Along*.

ʿAbbās I

born 1813 died July 13, 1854, Banhā, Egypt khedive (viceroy) of Egypt under the Ottomans from 1848 to 1854. During his reign he deliberately opposed change, such as the Western-inspired reforms initiated by his grandfather Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha (viceroy 1805-48). ʿAbbās, distrustful of Europeans and European-educated Egyptians, reacted to the reforms of Muḥammad ʿAlī by closing down or neglecting the public and military schools and factories. He reduced the armed forces, stopped the construction of the Delta Dam, and opposed the construction of the Suez Canal that had been proposed by the French. He allowed the construction, however, of the Alexandria-Cairo Railway by the British, who in return assisted him in his dispute with the Ottoman government over the application of the Western-inspired reforms (*[][tanzimat]*) in Egypt. Although he was opposed to the reforms, ʿAbbās showed his loyalty by sending an expeditionary force to assist the Ottomans in the Crimean War (1853); he also abolished the state trade monopolies, which had defied Ottoman treaties with the European powers. Although ʿAbbās' aversion to reforms won him the reputation of a reactionary, his curtailment of government spending benefited the poorer classes, who received tax remissions and suffered less from compulsory labour and conscription into the army. A man of secretive nature, ʿAbbās lived in isolation in his palace at Banhā, where he was strangled by two of his servants.

Abu Bakar

born 1843? died June 4, 1895, London, Eng. sultan of the Malay state of [][Johore] (now part of Malaysia) from 1885 to 1895. He maintained independence from Britain and stimulated economic development in Johore at a time when most Southeast Asian states were being incorporated into European colonial empires. Under an 1824 British treaty, supplemented by an agreement in 1855, the Malay state of Johore was ruled not by the sultan but by a lower-ranking official called a *temenggong.* These arrangements were in part an outgrowth of British machinations in acquiring Singapore in 1819. Abu Bakar, who became *temenggong* in 1862, was the third ruler under that agreement. He elevated his title to maharaja in 1868, and in 1885 he was acknowledged by Great Britain as sultan of Johore, disestablishing the former sultan's lineage. An able and clever ruler, he did much to promote trade, investment, and agriculture in his state. In particular he encouraged the development of gambier and pepper plantations. Western in his interests, Abu Bakar lived in the British colony of Singapore, and, in his conduct of Johore's internal affairs (Britain had control of Johore's foreign affairs under terms of an 1861 agreement), he made use of Western advisers and methods. This practice stood him in good stead in persuading the British that the government of Johore was stable and just. He also elicited British positions on important issues and established his own policy accordingly, compromising when necessary. Thus, he not only maintained his independence but also strengthened his position vis-à-vis other Malay rulers.

ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad

born 1901?, Cairo, Egypt died May 4, 1991, Cairo Egyptian composer and musician, who changed the direction of modern Arabic music by incorporating European and Latin American instruments, melodies, and dance rhythms into his work. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb was born into a poor family, and, while still a child, he began singing at religious festivals and in nightclubs. His musical education was paid for by the famous poet [][Aḥmad Shawqī], who was impressed by his singing and many of whose poems ʿAbd al-Wahhāb set to music. Much admired for his fine baritone voice, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb also became noted for his skillful playing of the [*ʿud*] (a short-necked instrument similar to a lute). ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, who recorded many of his own songs, was a successful composer and accompanist for other popular Egyptian singers, notably the legendary diva [][Umm Kulthūm] and Najāt al-Ṣaghīrah (Nagat al-Saghira). He set to music both classical and contemporary Arabic poems and composed nationalist ballads that became modern classics and earned him awards in Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon. A prolific composer, he wrote some 1,800 popular songs. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb also appeared in several musical films.

ʿAbd al-Ilāh

born 1913, aṭ-Ṭāʾif, Arabia died July 14, 1958, Baghdad [![Photograph:ʿAbd al-Ilāh]] - ʿAbd al-Ilāh regent of [Iraq] (1939-53) and crown prince to 1958. Son of the Hāshimite king ʿAlī ibn Ḥusayn of the Hejaz (northwestern Arabia), who was driven from Arabia by Ibn Saʿūd, ʿAbd al-Ilāh accompanied his father to Iraq in 1925. Upon King Ghāzī's death in 1939, he was appointed regent for his four-year-old nephew, [][Fayṣal II]. ʿAbd al-Ilāh ruled Iraq for 14 turbulent years, loyally serving the throne and supporting the Allies during World War II. In April 1941, faced with an uprising of army officers led by [][Rashīd ʿĀlī al-Gaylānī], who was sympathetic to Germany and Italy, the regent was forced to leave Iraq. With British assistance, however, the revolt was suppressed by the end of May, and ʿAbd al-Ilāh returned to Baghdad. Thereafter, in close collaboration with Nuri as-Said, he pursued a policy of moderate Iraqi nationalism and maintained strong ties with the West. When King Fayṣal reached legal age on May 23, 1953, the regent relinquished his functions but remained as the young king's chief adviser and companion until both were killed during the Iraq revolution of 1958.

Abbey, Edwin Austin

born April 1, 1852, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. died Aug. 1, 1911, London, Eng. American painter and one of the foremost illustrators of his day. While working as an illustrator for the publishing house of Harper and Brothers, New York City, Abbey began to create illustrations for the poems of [Robert Herrick] in 1874. He went on to create illustrations for some of the works of [Oliver Goldsmith] and [William Shakespeare]. He moved to England in 1878, where he would remain for the rest of his life. He was elected in 1883 to the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours. In 1884 Abbey turned to oil painting and specialized in large literary and historical works encompassing the various period revivals then in fashion: medieval, Shakespearean, and 17th century. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1896 and an academician two years later. He became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1902. Abbey's later works include decorative schemes for several public buildings, among them the state capitol at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, as well as the royal commission in 1902 to paint the coronation of King Edward VII of England. A celebrated success in England, Abbey also maintained a prestigious reputation in the United States. Additional Reading {#214626.toc} ------------------

Adams, Charles Francis

born Aug. 18, 1807, Boston, Mass., U.S. died Nov. 21, 1886, Boston [![Photograph:Charles Francis Adams]] - Charles Francis Adams U.S. diplomat who played an important role in keeping Britain neutral during the U.S. Civil War (1861-65) and in promoting the arbitration of the important []["Alabama" claims]. The son of Pres. John Quincy Adams and the grandson of Pres. John Adams, Charles was early introduced to a cosmopolitan way of life when his father was appointed minister to Russia in 1809. He graduated from Harvard in 1825, and then, during his father's presidency (1825-29), lived for two years in the White House, studying law and moving freely among the political leaders of the period.

Acker, Kathy

born April 18, 1948, New York, New York, U.S. died Nov. 30, 1997, Tijuana, Mex. American novelist whose writing style and subject matter reflect the so-called punk sensibility that emerged in the 1970s. Acker studied classics at Brandeis University and the University of California, San Diego. Her early employment ranged from clerical work to performing in pornographic films. In 1972 she began publishing willfully crude, disjointed prose that drew heavily from her personal experience and constituted a literary analog to contemporary developments in music, fashion, and the visual arts. From the outset, Acker blatantly lifted material from other writers, manipulating it for her own often unsettling purposes. In the early novel *[]The Childlike Life of the Black Tarantula* (1973), this process of appropriation is central to the narrator's quest for identity. The book's themes of alienation and objectified sexuality recur in such later novels as *Great Expectations* (1982), *Blood and Guts in High School* (1984), *Don Quixote* (1986), and *Empire of the Senseless* (1988). In 1991 a collection of some of Acker's early works were published under the title *Hannibal Lecter, My Father*. This was followed by *My Mother: Demonology* (1993), which consists of seven love stories. Her 1996 novel, *Pussy, King of the Pirates*, was adapted for the stage by the seminal punk band the Mekons. The band and Acker released a CD under the same title. Her works elicited frequent comparison with those of [William S. Burroughs] and [Jean Genet], and Acker herself cited the influence of the French nouveau roman, or antinovel.

Acevedo Díaz, Eduardo

born April 20, 1851, Villa de la Unión, Uruguay died June 18, 1924, Buenos Aires, Argentina writer and politician, considered Uruguay's first novelist. Acevedo Díaz attended the University of Montevideo, where he first became active in politics. He took part in the Revolución Blanca (1870-72) and the Revolución Tricolor (1885), supporting the cause of the Blancos, a nationalist, rurally oriented political party. Often depicted as the founder of *gauchismo*, a literary movement that emphasized the role of the [][gaucho] in Spanish American history and often romanticized his personality, Acevedo Díaz did most of his writing while in exile in Argentina. The traditionalist sensibilities put forth in his novels reflect his mistrust and resentment of the incomprehension and arrogance of his urban contemporaries in Argentina. His first novel, *Brenda*, was published in 1886. His best-known works include a trilogy of historical novels concerned with the Uruguayan wars for independence (from about 1808 to the late 1820s): *Ismael* (1888), *Nativa* (1890), and *Grito de gloria* (1893; "The Battle Cry of Glory"). *[]Soledad* (1894; "Solitude"), his masterpiece, had a continuing influence on gaucho novelists in Uruguay and Argentina. His son, also named Eduardo Acevedo Díaz, was an Argentine novelist.

Abdülmecid I

born April 25, 1823, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] died June 25, 1861, Constantinople [![Photograph:Abdülmecid I, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 19th century; in the Topkapı ...]] - Abdülmecid I, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 19th century; in the Topkapı ... Ottoman sultan from 1839 to 1861 who issued two major social and political reform edicts known as the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane ([Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber]) in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun ([Imperial Edict]) in 1856, heralding the new era of [][Tanzimat] ("Reorganization"). Well educated, liberal minded, and the first sultan to speak French, Abdülmecid continued the reform program of his father, Mahmud II, and was strongly assisted by his ministers [][Mustafa Reşid Paşa], [][Mehmed Emin Âli Paşa], and [][Fuad Paşa]. The reform edicts were in part directed toward winning the support of European powers. The edicts proclaimed the equality of all citizens under the law and granted civil and political rights to the Christian subjects. The main purpose of the reforms, however, remained the preservation of the Ottoman state. The army was reorganized (1842) and conscription introduced; new penal, commercial, and maritime codes were promulgated; and mixed civil and criminal courts with European and Ottoman judges were established. In 1858 a new land law confirming the rights of ownership was introduced, and an attempt was made to establish a new system of centralized provincial administration. The sultan's educational reforms included the formation of a Ministry of Education and the establishment of military preparatory schools and secondary schools; he also established an Ottoman school in Paris (1855).

Abdulla, Muhammed Said

born April 25, 1918, Zanzibar, Tanz. Tanzanian novelist generally regarded as the father of Swahili popular literature. Abdulla, after completing his formal education, began his career as an inspector in the Colonial Health Department. After 10 years there, however, he decided to become a journalist. In 1948 he was made editor of the newspaper *Zanzibari*, and during the next decade he also served as assistant editor of *Al Falaq*, *Al Mahda*, and *Afrika Kwetu*. In 1958 he became editor of *Mkulima*, the national agricultural magazine, where he served until his retirement in 1968. Coinciding with his shift to *Mkulima* was Abdulla's first success as a writer of fiction. His []"Mzimu wa Watu wa Kale" ("Shrine of the Ancestors") won first prize in the Swahili Story-Writing Competition of 1957-58, conducted by the East African Literature Bureau, and was published as a novel in 1966. In this work, Abdulla introduced his detective hero, Bwana Msa—loosely based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes—and other characters who recur in most of his subsequent novels, which include *Kisima cha Giningi* (1968; "The Well of Giningi"), also a prizewinner; *Duniani Kuna Watu* (1973; "In the World There Are People"); *Siri ya Sifuri* (1974; "The Secret of the Zero"); *Mke Mmoja Waume Watatu* (1975; "One Wife, Three Husbands"); and *Mwana wa Yungi Hulewa* (1976; "The Devil's Child Grows Up"). With each new title, Abdulla's work developed in complexity and sophistication of plot; his use of the Swahili language is admired throughout East Africa, and his works—reprinted several times—are widely used as school texts. The novels characteristically pit the hero's powers of reason against a web of ignorance and superstition that serves to conceal the true nature of the narrative conflict.

Abelson, Philip Hauge

born April 27, 1913, Tacoma, Washington, U.S. died August 1, 2004, Bethesda, Maryland American physical chemist who proposed the gas diffusion process for separating uranium-235 from uranium-238 and in collaboration with the U.S. physicist [Edwin Mattison McMillan] discovered the element [][neptunium]. After receiving a Ph.D. (1939) in nuclear physics from the University of California at Berkeley, Abelson worked as an assistant physicist (1939-41) in the department of terrestrial magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. There he began investigating a material that emitted beta rays (electrons) and that was produced by irradiating uranium with neutrons. After joining forces with McMillan, he proved the material to be a new element, later named neptunium. During World War II Abelson worked with the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C. His uranium-separation process proved essential to the development of the atomic bomb. At the end of the war his report on the feasibility of building a nuclear-powered submarine gave birth to the U.S. program in that field.

Adams, Charles Francis

born Aug. 2, 1866, Quincy, Mass., U.S. died June 11, 1954, Boston, Mass. American lawyer and businessman, government official, yachtsman, and philanthropist who made [][Harvard University] one of the most abundantly endowed academic institutions. Adams was the son of the lawyer and historian Charles Francis Adams (1835-1915), as well as great-grandson of the sixth U.S. president and great-great-grandson of the second. He was educated at Adams Academy in Quincy and at Harvard (A.B., 1888; LL.B., 1892) and took up the practice of law in Boston, specializing in estates and trusts. From 1900 until his death he served as director on the boards of dozens of American banks and corporations. In 1898 Adams was elected treasurer of the Corporation of Harvard College, and for the next 30 years he had charge of the school's capital funds. During his tenure Harvard's endowment grew from \$15,000,000 to \$120,000,000, largely as a consequence of his financial and managerial skills. When he resigned as treasurer in 1929, Harvard was well prepared to face the ensuing Great Depression. Later, Adams was president of the Harvard Alumni Association (1933-34) and of the Harvard Board of Overseers (1937-43).

Abell, Kjeld

born Aug. 25, 1901, Ribe, Den. died March 5, 1961, Copenhagen dramatist and social critic, best known outside Denmark for two plays, *Melodien der blev væk* (1935; English adaptation, *The Melody That Got Lost,* 1939) and *Anna Sophie Hedvig* (1939; Eng. trans., 1944), which defends the use of force by the oppressed against the oppressor. Abell studied political science but afterward began a career as a stage designer in Paris. He then went on to become Denmark's most unconventional man of the theatre, not only as an original dramatist but also as a stage designer who made full use of the technical apparatus of the theatre to achieve new and striking scenic effects, as in *Daga paa en Sky* (1947; "Days on a Cloud") and *Skrige* (1961; "The Scream").

Abdul Rahman, Tuanku (King)

born August 24, 1895, Sri Menanti, Malaya [now Malaysia] died April 1, 1960, Kuala Lumpur first supreme chief of state of the Federation of Malaya. After the declaration of independence from Great Britain in 1957, the *tuanku* became the first head of state, or paramount ruler, elected by and from the Malay rulers for a five-year term. Abdul Rahman died before completion of his term. The son of Tuanku Mohammed, ruler of the state of Negri Sembilan, Abdul Rahman in 1925 accompanied his father to England, where he remained to study law; he was called to the bar from the Inner Temple in 1928. After returning to Malaya, he held a variety of posts in the civil service. On the death of his father in 1933, he succeeded to the throne of Negri Sembilan. Abdul Rahman was a retiring and kindly man who learned from his father a deep respect for constitutional law and a sympathy for his people. (He should not be confused with Tunku Abdul Rahman, who was independent Malaya's first prime minister.)

Abel, Niels Henrik

born August 5, 1802, island of Finnøy, near Stavanger, Norway died April 6, 1829, Froland [![Photograph:Niels Henrik Abel, lithograph after a drawing by Johan Gorbitz, 1826]] - Niels Henrik Abel, lithograph after a drawing by Johan Gorbitz, 1826 Norwegian mathematician, a pioneer in the development of several branches of modern mathematics. Abel's father was a poor Lutheran minister who moved his family to the parish of Gjerstad, near the town of Risør in southeast Norway, soon after Niels Henrik was born. In 1815 Niels entered the cathedral school in Oslo, where his mathematical talent was recognized in 1817 with the arrival of a new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, who introduced him to the classics in mathematical literature and proposed original problems for him to solve. Abel studied the mathematical works of the 17th-century Englishman [Sir Isaac Newton], the 18th-century German [Leonhard Euler], and his contemporaries the Frenchman [Joseph-Louis Lagrange] and the German [Carl Friedrich Gauss] in preparation for his own research.

Abel, Carl Friedrich

born Dec. 22, 1723, Köthen, duchy of Anhalt-Köthen [Germany] died June 20, 1787, London, Eng. [![Photograph:Carl Friedrich Abel, engraving by A. Saint-Aubin after a portrait by C.-N. Cochin, 1781]] - Carl Friedrich Abel, engraving by A. Saint-Aubin after a portrait by C.-N. Cochin, 1781 symphonist of the pre-Classical school and one of the last virtuosos of the viola da gamba. After playing in the Dresden court orchestra (1743-58), Abel went to London in 1759, where he was appointed chamber musician to Queen Charlotte in 1764. When [][J.C. Bach] arrived in London in 1762, they became friends and in 1765 established the "Bach and Abel" concerts that included the first public performances in England of Joseph Haydn's symphonies. Abel and Bach also befriended the young [][Mozart] when he visited London. Abel composed mainly instrumental music. One of his roughly 45 symphonies and overtures was long attributed (as K 18) to the youthful Mozart, who had copied it out for his own instruction.

Abish, Walter

born Dec. 24, 1931, Vienna, Austria American writer of experimental novels and short stories whose fiction takes as its subject language itself. Abish spent his childhood in Shanghai, where his family were refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe. In 1949 they moved to Israel, where Abish served in the army and developed strong interests in architecture and writing. He immigrated to the United States in 1957 and became a citizen in 1960. From 1975 Abish taught English at several eastern colleges and universities and was a guest professor at Yale University and at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. In *Alphabetical Africa* (1974), the first of the 52 chapters (twice 26) consists solely of words beginning with "A," the second chapter adds words beginning with "B," and so forth through the alphabet and back again. His next book, *Minds Meet* (1975), contains short stories in which language is used symbolically rather than to relay specific information, and the experimental stories of *In the Future Perfect* (1977) juxtapose words in unusual patterns. *How German Is It/Wie Deutsch ist es* (1980), often considered Abish's best work, is a multilayered novel about postwar Germany and its past. Other works by Abish include *Duel Site* (1970), a collection of poems; *99: The New Meaning* (1990), a group of narratives; and the novel *Eclipse Fever* (1993).

Abel, John Jacob

born May 19, 1857, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. died May 26, 1938, Baltimore, Md. American pharmacologist and physiological chemist who made important contributions to a modern understanding of the ductless, or endocrine, glands. He isolated adrenaline in the form of a chemical derivative (1897) and crystallized insulin (1926). He also invented a primitive artificial kidney. Abel taught at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1891-93), and at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (1893), and directed the Laboratory for Endocrine Research (1932). He also helped found and edit several important scientific periodicals, including the *Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics*.

Acosta, Joaquín

born Dec. 29, 1799/1800, Guaduas, New Granada [now in Colombia] died Feb. 21, 1852, Guaduas, Colom. Colombian scientist, historian, and statesman who sought to preserve knowledge of his country's early history. Acosta entered a military career in 1819, becoming an officer in the patriot army under Simón Bolívar. He subsequently became a member of virtually all the scientific and civic societies that were founded in Colombia in his lifetime and contributed generously to the national library and university. On various occasions he was a general, diplomatic envoy, secretary of foreign affairs, and member of Congress; in 1842 he was ambassador in Washington, D.C. In 1841 he first expressed his intent to reprint some of the chronicles originating during the period of Spanish discovery and colonization, but he abandoned his plan on recognizing that the accounts were incomplete, factually inaccurate, and archaic in language. To fill what he considered a civic need, he composed his []*Compendio histórico del descubrimiento y colonización de la Nueva Granada en el siglo décimosexto* ("Historical Compendium of the Discovery and Colonization of New Granada in the 16th Century"), which was published in Paris in 1848. This work covers in 20 chapters the eventful years from Christopher Columbus' earliest landings and explorations on the mainland in 1498 to the death in 1579 of the conqueror of New Granada, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. The account is based partly on Acosta's findings in Colombian archives, partly on his research in the Archives of the Indies in Spain, and partly on his travels throughout Colombia during military operations. Acosta also wrote many shorter historical and scientific works.

Abe Masahiro

born Dec. 3, 1819, Edo [now Tokyo], Japan died Aug. 6, 1857, Edo statesman who negotiated the opening of Japan to trade and communication with Western nations after the arrival of Commodore Matthew C. [][Perry] and his U.S. Navy fleet. Born into an influential noble family, Abe was only 25 years old when he was appointed head of the *rōjū* (senior councillors), the highest administrative office under the shogun, or hereditary military dictator of Japan. The government had previously been in the hands of a group of conservative reformers whose attempts to restore the past virtues of the Japanese state had created considerable unrest among the population; Abe's first years in power were marked by his successful attempt to alleviate the discontent caused by these changes. Western ships had begun to appear off the Japanese coast in the early 19th century, however, and Abe, determined to preserve Japan's traditional isolationism, worked to strengthen coastal defenses. He welcomed Western learning only as a means of increasing Japan's military and economic potential. When Perry's fleet arrived in 1853, it was readily apparent that Japanese armaments were no match for the U.S. warships. After Perry returned the following February, Abe signed the [][Treaty of Kanagawa] (March 31, 1854), opening Japan to limited communication with the United States. Similar treaties were concluded with Great Britain, Russia, and The Netherlands in the following months. Meanwhile, fueled by the seeming weakness of the shogunate, the movement for the restoration of power to the old imperial family began to grow, and Abe, overwhelmed by criticism that he had betrayed his country, was forced to relinquish a great deal of his power; thereafter he devoted himself exclusively to internal affairs.

Abbe, Cleveland

born Dec. 3, 1838, New York City died Oct. 28, 1916, Chevy Chase, Md., U.S. meteorologist who pioneered in the foundation and growth of the U.S. Weather Bureau, later renamed the National Weather Service. Trained as an astronomer, he was appointed director of the Cincinnati (Ohio) Observatory in 1868. His interest gradually turned to meteorology, however, and he inaugurated a public weather service that served as a model for the national weather service, which was organized shortly thereafter as a branch of the Signal Service. In 1871 he was appointed chief meteorologist of the branch (which in 1891 was reorganized under civilian control as the U.S. Weather Bureau) and served in that capacity for more than 45 years.

Aberhart, William

born Dec. 30, 1878, Kippen, Ont., Can. died May 23, 1943, Vancouver, B.C. the first [][Social Credit Party] premier of Alberta, during and after the Great Depression. Trained as a teacher, Aberhart was a high school principal in Calgary, Alta. (1915-35). In 1918 he founded the Calgary Prophetic Bible Institute and in 1932 employed his evangelical rhetoric in promoting the unorthodox Social Credit monetary-reform and political theories of Clifford [][Douglas.] In order to solve economic problems and to build a new society, Aberhart proposed to issue dividends (social credit) to each person, based on the real wealth of the province. After the 1935 provincial election in which the Social Credit Party candidates won 56 of the 63 assembly seats, he was made premier and minister of education, and he determined to make Alberta an example of the Social Credit system. The necessary enabling legislation, however, was declared unconstitutional and was disallowed by the federal government. Aberhart nonetheless continued in office, directing Alberta's economy along orthodox financial lines, until his death.

Adam, Paul

born Dec. 7, 1862, Paris, France died Jan. 1, 1920, Paris French author whose early works exemplify the [naturalist] and [Symbolist] schools and who later won a considerable reputation for his historical and sociological novels. Publication of his first naturalist novel, *[]Chair* *molle* (1885), led to his being prosecuted; his second, *[]Le Thé chez Miranda* (1886), written with [Jean Moréas], is an early example of Symbolism. Adam also founded two literary reviews in 1886: *Led Carcan*, with Jean Ajalbert, and the short-lived *Le Symboliste*, with Moréas and [Gustave Kahn]. In 1899, with *[]La Force,* Adam began a series of novels depicting French life during the period 1800-30; the last, *Au soleil de Juillet,* appeared in 1903. He travelled widely and wrote two books on his American journeys, *Vues d'Amérique* (1906) and *Le Trust* (1910). His autobiography, in the form of a novel, *[]Jeunesse et amours de Manuel Héricourt,* appeared in 1913.

Abbott, Lyman

born December 18, 1835, Roxbury, Massachusetts, United States died October 22, 1922, New York, New York [![Photograph:Lyman Abbott, 1901.]] - Lyman Abbott, 1901. American [Congregationalist] minister and a leading exponent of the [][Social Gospel] movement. Abbott left law practice to study theology and was ordained in 1860. After serving in two pastorates, he became associate editor of *Harper's Magazine* and in 1870 editor of the *Illustrated Christian Weekly*. In 1876 he joined [][Henry Ward Beecher]'s *Christian Union*, a nondenominational religious weekly, and in 1881 Abbott became its editor in chief. He succeeded in 1888 to Beecher's pulpit in the Plymouth Congregational Church, Brooklyn, where he served until 1899.

Accoramboni, Vittoria

born Feb. 15, 1557, Gubbio, Papal States [Italy] died Dec. 22, 1585, Padua, republic of Venice Italian woman whose life story aroused a great deal of contemporary interest and was later the basis for a play by [][John Webster], *The White Devil* (1612), and for a novel by Ludwig [][Tieck], *[Vittoria Accorombona]* (1840). She was the 10th child in a well-to-do but not illustrious family that hoped to better its position by marrying Vittoria, renowned for her beauty, intelligence, and sweet temper, to an influential man. In 1573 she was married to Francesco Peretti, probably because his uncle, Cardinal di Montalto (Felice Peretti), was regarded as likely to become pope. Through the help of Peretti, Vittoria's brother Marcello became chamberlain to the powerful Duke di Bracciano (Paolo Giordano Orsini), who was known to have murdered his wife Isabella de' Medici because of her infidelity. Marcello hoped to get the duke interested in his sister, and, when it became evident that Bracciano was infatuated with her, Marcello—possibly on his own or possibly with the aid of the duke—had Peretti murdered (1581). Vittoria married Bracciano soon thereafter in a private ceremony, but, because of the opposition of Pope Gregory XIII, Vittoria was imprisoned for a while. She was released, untried, because of public pressure. She and Bracciano were married again and lived in Rome until 1585, when Cardinal di Montalto was elected Pope [][Sixtus V]. Guessing correctly that the pope would seek revenge for the death of his nephew, they found refuge in Salò, in Venetian territory, where Bracciano died in November.

Abdul Rahman Putra Alhaj, Tunku (Prince)

born Feb. 8, 1903, Alor Star, Kedah, Malaya [now Malaysia] died Dec. 6, 1990, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia first prime minister of independent Malaya (1957-63) and then of Malaysia (1963-70), under whose leadership the newly formed government was stabilized. After studies in England (1920-31), Abdul Rahman returned to Malaya to enter the Kedah civil service. In 1947 he returned to England, was called to the bar in 1949, and was appointed a deputy public prosecutor in the Malayan Federal Legal Department, a post he resigned in 1951 to begin a political career. He became president of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and effected the alliance of UMNO with the Malayan Chinese Association (1951) and with the Malayan Indian Congress (1955). His Alliance Party won an overwhelming majority in the election of 1955, and Abdul Rahman became chief minister and home minister of Malaya. The mission he led to London (January 1956) to negotiate for independence secured immediate internal self-government and the pledge of independence by August 1957. When Malaya became independent, he became its first prime minister and foreign minister, and he continued in that post when the federation of Malaysia was formed in 1963.

Ace, Goodman

born Jan. 15, 1899, Kansas City, Mo., U.S. died March 25, 1982, New York, N.Y. American radio writer and performer and producer-writer for television, whose literate writing, wry humour, and relaxed style influenced numerous radio and television writers from the 1930s on. From childhood Ace wanted to be a writer, and his writing was admired by his teachers. He was editor of his high school newspaper when he met young Jane Sherwood (1905-74), whom he later married and who, as Jane Ace, was his partner in the most influential years of his career. He was hired as a cub reporter by the *Kansas City Post,* then became its motion-picture critic. He took on a second job with a local radio station and was given a 15-minute daily program. When the participants in the ensuing 15-minute program failed to appear one day, Ace asked his wife to join him and they conducted an ad-lib commentary on a game of bridge that they had played the previous evening. This relaxed and natural conversation, punctuated by Jane Ace's malapropisms—*e.g.,* "We're all cremated equal"—won instant popularity and evolved rapidly into their influential and long-running network radio program, "Easy Aces" (1928-45). A translation of the comedy show to television was attempted in 1949 but was withdrawn the following year. From the mid-1950s through the early '60s, Goodman Ace was the principal comedy writer for such television figures as Milton Berle, Perry Como, and Sid Caesar. He also wrote and produced television variety shows and several books.

Abbe, Ernst

born Jan. 23, 1840, Eisenach, Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died Jan. 14, 1905, Jena, Ger. physicist whose theoretical and technical innovations in optical theory led to great improvements in microscope design (such as the use of a condenser to provide strong, even illumination, introduced in 1870) and clearer understanding of magnification limits. He discovered the optical formula now called the []Abbe sine condition, one of the requirements that a lens must satisfy if it is to form a sharp image, free from the blurring or distortion caused by coma and spherical aberration. In 1863 he joined the University of Jena, rising to professor of physics and mathematics (1870) and director of the astronomical and meteorological observatories (1878). In 1866 he became research director of the Zeiss optical works. Two years later Abbe invented the apochromatic lens system for microscopes, which eliminates both the primary and secondary colour distortion of light. In 1891 Abbe set up and endowed the Carl Zeiss Foundation for research in science and social improvement. Five years later he reorganized the Zeiss optical works into a cooperative, with management, workmen, and the university sharing in the profits.

Adams, Charles Kendall

born Jan. 24, 1835, Derby, Vt., U.S. died July 26, 1902, Redlands, Calif. teacher and historian who introduced the European [seminar] method to U.S. universities. Graduating from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1861, Adams taught history there until 1885. His study in Germany and France in 1867-68 led to his introduction of the seminar method, which spread to other U.S. universities. Among his historical works are *Democracy and Monarchy in France* (1874), *A Manual of Historical Literature* (1882), and *Christopher Columbus* (1892). He edited *Representative British Orations* (1884). He became president of [][Cornell University], Ithaca, N.Y., in 1885, and served as president of the [][University of Wisconsin], Madison, from 1892 until his death.

Abegg, Richard Wilhelm Heinrich

born Jan. 9, 1869, Danzig, Prussia [now Gdansk, Pol.] died April 3, 1910, Köslin, Ger. physical chemist whose work contributed to the understanding of [][valence] (the capacity of an atom to combine with another atom) in light of the newly discovered presence of electrons within the atom. Abegg became professor of chemistry at the University of Breslau, Ger. (now Wrocław, Pol.), in 1897 and two years later gained the chair of chemistry at the Technical Academy, Breslau. From his study of valence, he concluded that, for the most stable configuration, the number of electrons in the outer group of an atom is eight, which is the number found in the inert gases.

Abercrombie, Lascelles

born Jan. 9, 1881, Ashton upon Mersey, Cheshire, Eng. died Oct. 27, 1938, London poet and critic who was associated with Georgian poetry. He was educated at Malvern College, Worcestershire, and Owens College, Manchester, after which he became a journalist and began to write poetry. His first book, *Interludes and Poems* (1908), was followed by *Mary and the Bramble* (1910), a dramatic poem—*Deborah*—and *Emblems of Love* (1912), and the prose work *Speculative Dialogues* (1913). All were marked by lyric power, lucidity, love of natural beauty, and mysticism. After World War I, in which he served as a munitions examiner, Abercrombie was appointed to the first lectureship in poetry at the University of Liverpool. As professor of English literature at Leeds (1922-29) and London (1929-35) and as reader in English literature at the University of Oxford (1935-38), he showed keen critical and philosophical powers. His critical works include *An Essay Towards a Theory of Art* (1922) and *Poetry, Its Music and Meaning* (1932). *Collected Poems* (1930) was followed by his most mature poetic work, *The Sale of St. Thomas* (1931), a poetic drama.

Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus

born July 17, 1827, Woolwich, London, Eng. died Sept. 6, 1902, Westminster, London [![Photograph:Frederick Augustus Abel, engraving.]] - Frederick Augustus Abel, engraving. English chemist and explosives specialist who, with the chemist [][Sir James Dewar], invented [cordite] (1889), later adopted as the standard explosive of the British army. Abel also made studies of dust explosions in coal mines, invented a device for testing the flash point of petroleum, and found a way to prevent guncotton from exploding spontaneously. Abel studied chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution and in 1845 became one of the original 26 students of A.W. von Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry. In 1852 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, succeeding Michael Faraday, who had held that post since 1829. From 1854 until 1888 Abel served as ordnance chemist at the Chemical Establishment of the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, establishing himself as the leading British authority on explosives.

Abbott, Berenice

born July 17, 1898, Springfield, Ohio, U.S. died December 9, 1991, Monson, Maine photographer best known for her photographic documentation of [][New York City] in the late 1930s and for her preservation of the works of Eugène Atget. Abbott studied briefly at Ohio State University before moving in 1918 to New York City, where she explored sculpture and drawing on her own for four years. She continued these pursuits for a time in Berlin and then from 1923 to 1935 worked as a darkroom assistant to the American Dadaist and Surrealist artist [Man Ray] in Paris. In 1925 Abbott set up her own photography studio in Paris and made several well-known portraits of expatriates, artists, writers, and aristocrats, including James Joyce, André Gide, Marcel Duchamp, Jean Cocteau, Max Ernst, Leo Stein, Peggy Guggenheim, and Edna St. Vincent Millay. During this period she came into contact with the French photographer [][Eugène Atget], whose documentary work was at that time little known outside of Paris. After Atget's death in 1927, Abbott retrieved his prints and negatives, saving them from destruction; in the following years she dedicated herself to promoting his work. (Her Atget collection was acquired by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1968.) [![Photograph:Wall Street and Stock Exchange, gelatin silver print by Berenice Abbott, ...]] - *Wall Street and Stock Exchange*, gelatin silver print by Berenice Abbott, ... Abbott returned to New York City in 1929 and was struck by its rapid modernization. Continuing to do portraits, she also began to document the city itself, no doubt inspired by Atget's documentation of Paris. This project evolved into a [][Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration] in 1935. For about three years she continued to document systematically the city's changing architectural character in a series of crisp, objective photographs, some of which were published in 1939 in the book *Changing New York* (reissued as *New York in the Thirties*, 1973). During this period she was also on the advisory board of the Photo League (1936-52), an organization of photographers interested in capturing urban life.

Abney, Sir William de Wiveleslie

born July 24, 1843, Derby, Derbyshire, Eng. died Dec. 3, 1920, Folkestone, Kent [![Photograph:Abney]] - Abney a specialist in the chemistry of photography, especially noted for his development of a photographic emulsion that he used to map the solar spectrum far into the infrared. Commissioned in the Royal Engineers (1861), he taught chemistry and photography at the School of Military Engineering at Chatham. He succeeded to various educational posts there and elsewhere.

Acton, Sir John Francis Edward, 6th Baronet

born June 1736, Besançon, Fr. died Aug. 12, 1811, Palermo commander of the naval forces of Tuscany and then of [][Naples] who as prime minister of Naples allied that kingdom with England and Austria in the period of the [][French] Revolution. Finding the French Navy unappreciative of his skills, Acton, the son of an expatriate Englishman, joined the forces of Peter Leopold (later Holy Roman emperor Leopold II), grand duke of Tuscany, and distinguished himself by commanding a Tuscan squadron when Spain and Tuscany joined forces against Algeria (1774). In 1779 Peter Leopold's brother-in-law [][Ferdinand IV] of Naples invited Acton to reorganize the Neapolitan fleet, of which Acton soon became commander. A favourite of Ferdinand's wife, Maria Carolina, he rose rapidly, disposing of all rivals, becoming minister of the navy, of war, of finance, and finally prime minister with almost absolute powers. His English and Austrian alliances weakened the traditional ruling class and the clergy, which had close ties with Spain. In addition, he engaged Naples in a long struggle against the French Revolution, the liberal ideals of which he opposed.

Adams, Brooks

born June 24, 1848, Quincy, Mass., U.S. died Feb. 13, 1927, Boston historian who questioned the success of democracy in the U.S. and who related the march of civilization to the westward movement of trade centres. Adams graduated from Harvard in 1870 and practiced law in Boston until 1881. Son of the diplomat Charles Francis Adams and grandson of Pres. John Quincy [][Adams], he was enabled by a substantial inheritance to travel extensively in Europe, the Middle East, and India. Adams was particularly close to his brother Henry, a distinguished historian. Through an active correspondence they developed the idea—revolutionary at the time—that by its nature and substance U.S. democracy was foreordained to degradation and decay. In 1895 he published his *[]Law of Civilization and Decay*, in which he expounded his theory of history. It held that the centre of trade had consistently followed a westward movement from the ancient crossroads in the East to Constantinople, Venice, Amsterdam, and finally to London, in accord with a law relating to the density of populations and the development of new and centralizing techniques of trade and industry.

Achenbach, Andreas

born Sept. 29, 1815, Kassel, Hesse died April 1, 1910, Düsseldorf, Ger. landscape painter, a pioneer of the German realist school. He studied at the Düsseldorf academy under Johann Wilhelm Schirmer, but emancipated himself from the contemporary school of landscapists that delighted in the representation of romantic scenery. He was the first artist of the Düsseldorf school to paint nature for its own sake. His pictures of the stormy North Sea, of Dutch canal scenes, and of Rhineland villages contrasted favourably with the sentimental landscapes of his contemporaries. His brother Oswald was also a painter.

Abbado, Claudio

born June 26, 1933, Milan, Italy Italian conductor and music director of the Vienna State Opera (1986-91) and principal conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra (from 1971), the London Symphony Orchestra (1979-88), and the Berlin Philharmonic (from 1989). One of a long line of Milanese musicians—his father, Michelangelo Abbado, was a violinist—Claudio Abbado at first studied privately. He entered the Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory at 16 to concentrate on piano, composition, and conducting and then studied conducting at the Chigiana Academy of Siena and at the Vienna Academy of Music, working with conductor Hans Swarowsky. In 1958 Abbado won the Serge Koussevitzky conducting prize at the Tanglewood (Mass.) Festival and in 1963 the Dimitri Mitropoulos conducting prize. He made his British debut in 1965, leading the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester, and in 1966 he began his long association with the London Symphony Orchestra; he directed it regularly before he succeeded André Previn as principal conductor in 1979. Abbado was for several years the music director at [][La Scala], Milan, where he helped make the opera house more accessible to the working-class operagoer. He was especially known for his Germanic orchestral repertory and, later, his special interest in the music of Gioacchino Rossini and Giuseppe Verdi.

Abernathy, Ralph David

born March 11, 1926, Linden, Ala., U.S. died April 17, 1990, Atlanta, Ga. black American pastor and civil-rights leader who was [][Martin Luther King]'s chief aide and closest associate during the [][Civil Rights Movement] of the 1950s and '60s. The son of a successful farmer, Abernathy was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1948 and graduated with a B.S. degree from Alabama State University in 1950. His interest then shifted from mathematics to sociology, and he earned an M.A. degree in the latter from Atlanta University in 1951. That same year he became pastor of the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Ala., and he met King a few years later when the latter became pastor of another Baptist church in the same city. In 1955-56 the two men organized a boycott by black citizens of the Montgomery bus system that forced the system's racial desegregation in 1956. This nonviolent boycott marked the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement that was to desegregate American society during the following two decades. King and Abernathy continued their close collaboration as the Civil Rights Movement gathered momentum, and in 1957 they founded the [][Southern Christian Leadership Conference] (SCLC; with King as president and Abernathy as secretary-treasurer) to organize the nonviolent struggle against segregation throughout the South. In 1961 Abernathy relocated his pastoral activities to Atlanta, and that year he was named vice president at large of the SCLC and King's designated successor there. He continued as King's chief aide and closest adviser until King's assassination in 1968, at which time Abernathy succeeded him as president of the SCLC. He headed that organization until his resignation in 1977, after which he resumed his work as the pastor of a Baptist church in Atlanta. His autobiography, *And the Walls Came Tumbling Down,* appeared in 1989.

Aba Novák, Vilmos

born March 15, 1894, Budapest, Hung. died Sept. 29, 1941, Budapest painter and printmaker who was one of the most original and controversial talents in modern Hungarian painting. From 1912 to 1914, Aba Novák studied at the College of Fine Arts in Budapest. He then worked at the artists' colonies in Szolnok and in Nagybánya (now Baia Mare, Rom.). From 1928 to 1930 he was a fellow at the Hungarian Academy of Rome, and from 1939 he taught at the College of Fine Arts in Budapest. His style combined elements of [Expressionism] with those of the [Italian Novecento]. His dynamic compositions and use of strong colour conveyed a sense of the fantastic; the worlds of the village fair and the circus were favourite themes. Aba Novák received numerous commissions for frescoes from the Hungarian government and from churches throughout Hungary (notably the frescoes in the Roman Catholic church in Jászszentandrás, on the Heroes' Gate in Szeged, and in St. Stephen's Mausoleum in Székesfehérvár). He won the jury's Grand Prize at the Paris World Exhibition in 1937 and that of the Venice Biennale in 1940. His paintings are held in the Hungarian National Gallery and in other public collections, as well as in several private collections.

Adamic, Louis

born March 23, 1899, Blato, Slovenia, Austria-Hungary [now in Slovenia] died Sept. 4, 1951, near Riegelsville, N.J., U.S. []novelist and journalist who wrote about the experience of American minorities, especially immigrants, in the early 1900s. Adamic immigrated to the United States from Yugoslavia at age 14 and was naturalized in 1918. He wrote about what he called the failure of the American melting pot in *[]Laughing in the Jungle* (1932). He returned to Yugoslavia on a Guggenheim Fellowship and wrote about the experience in *[]The Native's Return* (1934), the story of a man who finds he cannot slip comfortably into his former life as a peasant. Two successful sequels, *Grandsons* (1935) and *Cradle of Life* (1936), were followed by his first novel, *The House in Antigua* (1937). His following book, *[]My America* (1938), a mixture of memoir and social philosophy, outlines his dream of a unified American people. Adamic believed America had great potential but that tensions between ethnic minorities and the status quo were near crisis. Starting in 1940 he edited *[]Common Ground,* a magazine that analyzed the interracial culture of the United States.

Acheson, Edward Goodrich

born March 9, 1856, Washington, Pa., U.S. died July 6, 1931, New York, N.Y. American inventor who discovered the abrasive [][Carborundum] and perfected a method for making [][graphite]. Acheson joined inventor Thomas A. [][Edison's] staff in 1880 and helped to develop the incandescent lamp at Edison's laboratories at Menlo Park, N.J. In 1881 he installed the first electric lights for Edison in Italy, Belgium, and France. Upon returning to the United States, Acheson quit Edison and in 1884 began his own experiments on methods for producing artificial diamonds in an electric furnace. He heated a mixture of clay and coke in an iron bowl with a carbon arc light and found some shiny, hexagonal crystals (silicon carbide) attached to the carbon electrode. Because he at first mistakenly thought the crystals were a compound of carbon and alumina from the clay, he devised the trademark Carborundum, after corundum, the mineral composed of fused alumina. In 1893 he received a patent on this highly effective abrasive. Later, while studying the effects of high temperature on Carborundum, he found that the silicon vaporizes at about 4,150° C (7,500° F), leaving behind graphitic carbon. He was granted a patent for this process in 1896. In all, he received 69 patents and organized several firms to commercialize his inventions, including []The Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, N.Y.

Achterberg, Gerrit

born May 20, 1905, Langbroek, Neth. died Jan. 17, 1962, Oud-Leusden Dutch poet whose use of [surreal] language and imagery influenced a generation of post-World War II poets known as the Experimentalists. His verse, traditional in form, is characterized as romantic and metaphysical. He was a linguistic innovator, often coining new words based on the terminology of science and scholarship. In his first commercially published volume of poetry, *Afvaart* (1931; "Departure"), Achterberg introduced a theme that permeates his oeuvre: the magical power of language, notably his belief that poetry could revitalize the beloved. He often used apostrophe to address this beloved, which represents such things as a lover, God, death, beauty, poetry, and the absolute. His second volume of verse, *Eiland der ziel* (1939; "Island of the Soul"), treats the theme with optimism, but the tone of his next book, *Dead End* (1940), is one of disappointment. A four-volume anthology, *Cryptogamen* (1946-61; "Cryptogamia"), which is translated into many languages, includes *Eiland der ziel* and *Sneeuwwitje* (1949; "Snow White"). Some of Achterberg's other works are *Reiziger "doet" Golgotha: een gedicht* (1940; *A Tourist Does Golgotha, and Other Poems*), *Stof* (1946; "Stuff"), *Hoonte* (1949; "Insulted"), *Voorbij de laatste stad* (1955; "Past the Last City"), and *Verzamelde gedichten* (1963; "Collected Verses"). Collections of Achterberg's poetry in translation include *Hidden Weddings: Selected Poems* (1987) and *Selected Poems of Gerrit Achterberg: But This Land Has No End* (1989).

Abbot, Charles Greeley

born May 31, 1872, Wilton, N.H., U.S. died Dec. 17, 1973, Riverdale, Md. American astrophysicist who, as director of the [][Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory] in Washington, D.C., for almost four decades, engaged in a career-long campaign to demonstrate that the [][Sun]'s energy output varies and has a measurable effect on the Earth's weather. The youngest of four children of a New Hampshire farming family, Abbot received an M.Sc. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1895 and was immediately hired as assistant to [][Samuel Pierpont Langley], the first director of the Smithsonian observatory. Abbot helped Langley map the infrared spectrum of the Sun and measure the total solar radiation energy received by the Earth over a given area and time—a value called the [][solar constant]. Assuming acting directorship of the observatory after Langley's death in 1906 and directorship the next year, Abbot created a synoptic monitoring program to search for possible variations in the solar constant. Abbot soon persuaded himself that sizeable variations had been detected by his staff and that they correlated with variations in the Earth's weather. In the belief that he had found an important key to [][weather prediction], he spent much of the next half century trying to convince the world of its reality. The cyclic variations that Abbot observed in the solar constant, amounting to as much as 3-5 percent, actually were due to changing weather conditions and incomplete analysis of his data, as subsequently shown by satellite observations above the atmosphere and computer analysis of the data.

ʿAbd Allāh ibn az-Zubayr

born May 624, Medina, Arabia died November 692, Mecca leader of a rebellion against the [][Umayyad] ruling dynasty of the Islāmic empire, and the most prominent representative of the second generation of Muslim families in Mecca, who resented the Umayyad assumption of caliphal authority. As a youth Ibn az-Zubayr went on many of the military campaigns that marked the initial expansion of Islām, and in 651 he was nominated by the caliph (the titular leader of the Islāmic empire) ʿUthmān to aid in compiling an official recension of the Qurʾān. Subsequently remaining politically inactive, he took little part in the civil wars that followed the death of ʿUthmān in 656. Resenting the Umayyad victory that was the eventual outcome of the civil wars, he refused to take an oath of allegiance to [][Yazīd], the son and heir presumptive of Muʿāwiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. When Yazīd became caliph in 680, Ibn az-Zubayr still refused the oath of allegiance and fled to Mecca. There he secretly gathered an army. Yazīd learned of this and dispatched forces of his own, which besieged Ibn az-Zubayr in Mecca. In 683 Yazīd died, and the besieging army withdrew. Ibn az-Zubayr was left in peace until 692, when the caliph [][ʿAbd al-Malik] sent an army to Mecca to force him to submit. Mecca was again besieged, and Ibn az-Zubayr was killed in the fighting.

Abauzit, Firmin

born Nov. 11, 1679, Uzès, Fr. died March 20, 1767, Geneva, Switz. [![Photograph:Abauzit, detail of an oil painting by Robert Gardelle, 1741; in the Bibliothèque Publique et ...]] - Abauzit, detail of an oil painting by Robert Gardelle, 1741; in the Bibliothèque Publique et ... scholar who contributed to a French translation of the New Testament. Abauzit was born of Huguenot parents and was sent at age 10 to live in Geneva so that he would escape the strictures (enforced Roman Catholicism) brought about by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1698 he undertook an extensive journey through Germany, the Netherlands, and England. While on this journey he met such prominent people as Pierre Bayle and Isaac Newton. He was offered residence in England, which he declined, and in 1723 he also turned down the offer of a professorship of philosophy at the University of Geneva. Widely known for his erudition and modest nature, Abauzit was appreciated by many of the leading thinkers of his time. He collaborated on the French-language New Testament in 1726. In 1727 he was granted citizenship in Geneva, and that same year he accepted a post as an honorary librarian there. This position enabled him to write a number of theological and scholarly works, including the article "Apocalypse," which Denis Diderot commissioned for his *Encyclopédie*.

Abbott, Grace

born Nov. 17, 1878, Grand Island, Neb., U.S. died June 19, 1939, Chicago, Ill. American social worker, public administrator, educator, and reformer who was important in the field of [][child-labour] legislation. Abbott graduated from Grand Island College in 1898 and for eight years thereafter taught high school in her hometown. During that period she undertook graduate studies at the University of Nebraska in 1902 and at the University of Chicago in 1904. She moved to Chicago in 1907, and the next year she became a resident of [Hull House], the pioneer settlement house founded by [Jane Addams], with whom Abbott was closely associated. Abbott was awarded a doctorate in political science by the University of Chicago in 1909. By that time Abbott had become director of the newly formed Immigrants' Protective League, which she had organized with [Sophonisba Breckinridge] and others. Her work with the league led to her involvement in securing protective legislation, her studies of conditions at Ellis Island (the main point of entry for immigrants, in New York Harbor), and her testimony before Congress against immigration restrictions. In a series of weekly articles ("Within the City's Gates," 1909-10) in the Chicago *Evening Post*, she attacked the exploitation of immigrants. Her book *The Immigrant and the Community* was published in 1917. During 1910-17 she was also on the faculty of the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy (later the University of Chicago's Graduate School of Social Service Administration).

Abasıyanık, Sait Faik

born Nov. 23, 1906, Adapazarı, Ottoman Empire [now in Turkey] died May 11, 1954, Istanbul, Turkey short-story writer, a major figure in modern Turkish literature. Educated in Constantinople (now Istanbul) and Bursa, Abasıyanık was in France from 1931 to 1935, primarily in Grenoble. On his return to Turkey, he began to publish his short stories in *Varlık* ("Existence"), the nation's leading avant-garde periodical. Abasıyanık's stories were written in a style new to Turkish literature; despite their formlessness and lack of a conventional story line, they convey in a single, compelling episode a wide range of human emotion. In 1936 he published his first volume of short stories, *Semaver* ("The Samovar"). A dozen others followed, including *Lüzumsuz adam* (1948; "The Useless Man"), *Kumpanya* (1951; "The Company"), and *Alemdağda var bir yilan* (1953; "There's a Snake at Alem Mountain"). He also wrote an experimental novel, *[]Bir takım insanlar* (1952; "A Group of People"), which was censored because it dealt strongly with class differences.

Abrahams, Israel

born Nov. 26, 1858, London, Eng. died Oct. 6, 1925, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire one of the most distinguished Jewish scholars of his time, who wrote a number of enduring works on Judaism, particularly *[]Jewish Life in the Middle Ages* (1896). In 1902, after teaching for several years at Jews' College, London, Abrahams was appointed reader in Talmudics (rabbinic literature) at the University of Cambridge, a post he retained until his death. From 1888 to 1908 he was editor, jointly with the Anglo-Jewish scholar Claude G. Montefiore, of the *[Jewish Quarterly Review]*. Although of strict Orthodox upbringing, Abrahams was among the founders of the []Liberal movement, an Anglo-Jewish group that stressed the universality of Jewish ethics, minimized ritual and custom, and originally eschewed Zionism. In *Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,* Abrahams concluded that there was no medieval period in Jewish history but that Christian medievalism had a lasting effect on the Jews, particularly in the sense of having deepened the process of Jewish isolation from the rest of society. Abrahams' book covers every facet of Jewish life of the times, including the functions of the synagogue, social customs and community organization, occupations and amusements, and Jewish-Christian relationships. *[]Studies in Pharisaism and the Gospels,* 2 vol. (1917-24), includes a series of essays based on an examination of the New Testament treatment of Judaism. Among his works on Jewish writings is *[]Chapters on Jewish Literature* (1899), a survey of the period from the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 to the death of the Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn in 1786.

İbrahim

born Nov. 4, 1615, Constantinople died Aug. 18, 1648, Constantinople Ottoman sultan whose unstable character made him prey to the ambitions of his ministers and relatives and to his own self-indulgence; as a consequence, the Ottoman state was weakened by war, misrule, and rebellion during his reign (1640-48). Early in his reign under the guidance of the able but ambitious grand vizier Kemankeş []Kara Mustafa Paşa, İbrahim established peaceful relations with Persia and Austria (1642) and recovered the Sea of Azov hinterland from the Cossacks. After the execution of Kara Mustafa (1644), İbrahim, acting on the advice of his new ministers, sent an expedition to Crete; thus began the long war with Venice (1645-69). Having spent his early life in confinement, İbrahim was mentally unstable and came increasingly under the influence of the women of the harem and his court ministers. His eccentricities and extravagance necessitated the imposition of new taxes, arousing discontent in Constantinople and the outlying provinces. He was deposed on Aug. 8, 1648, by a Janissary uprising supported by the ulama (religious notables) and was executed 10 days later.

Abedi Ayew Pelé

born November 5, 1964, Ghana Ghanaian football (soccer) player who was the only man to have won the African Player of the Year award three consecutive times (1991-93). As an attacking midfielder with Olympique de Marseille in France, Abedi Pelé was one of the first African players to have an impact on club football in Europe. Having been given the nickname "Pelé" in recognition of his superior ability that evoked comparisons to Brazilian great [Pelé], Abedi Pelé's nomadic career began with Real Tamale in Ghana in 1978. He became a member of Ghana's national team, the Black Stars, who won the African Cup of Nations in Libya in 1982. Abedi Pelé led Saad Club to the Qatar national championship in 1983. He later moved to France, where between 1986 and 1993 he played for Chamois Niortais, Mulhouse, Olympique de Marseilles, and Lille. At Marseilles (1989-90, 1991-93) he combined attacking flair with tactical acumen and an uncanny ability to make game-winning plays and became a mainstay of the prodigious team that won French League titles in 1991 and 1992 as well as the Champions League title in 1993. After a corruption scandal disintegrated the Marseilles club, Abedi Pelé moved to Olympique Lyonnais in 1993. He then played in Italy, Germany, and the United Arab Emirates before retiring in 1998. That same year an appreciative Ghanaian government bestowed upon him their highest honour, the Order of Volta (civil division).

Ackroyd, Peter

born Oct. 5, 1949, London, Eng. British novelist, critic, biographer, and scholar whose technically innovative novels present an unconventional view of history. Ackroyd graduated from the University of Cambridge (M.A., 1971) and then attended Yale University for two years. In 1973 he returned to England and worked as an editor for *The Spectator.* In 1986 he became the principal book reviewer for the [*Times*] of London. Ackroyd published several books, including two collections of absurdist poetry, a study of transvestism, and a biography, *Ezra Pound and His World* (1980; revised as *Ezra Pound,* 1987), before turning to fiction. His first novel, *The Great Fire of London* (1982), was followed by *The Last Testament of Oscar Wilde* (1983), *Hawksmoor* (1985; winner of the Prix Goncourt and the Whitbread Book of the Year Award), *Chatterton* (1987), *First Light* (1989), *English Music* (1992), *The House of Doctor Dee* (1993), and *The Trial of Elizabeth Cree: A Novel of the Limehouse Murders* (1995). Ackroyd's later biographies include *T.S. Eliot: A Life* (1984), *Dickens* (1990), *Blake* (1995), and *The Life of Thomas More* (1998). In his book *Notes for a New Culture: An Essay on Modernism* (1976), Ackroyd attacked contemporary English literature and the literary establishment and dismissed conventional realistic fiction as no longer useful. His own novels reflect this position, integrating historical and modern settings to deliberately disrupt the conventions of historical fiction.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph

born Oct. 7, 1734, Tullibody, Clackmannan, Scot. died March 28, 1801, at sea in the Mediterranean soldier whose command restored discipline and prestige to the British army after the disastrous campaigns in the Low Countries between 1793 and 1799. He prepared the way for the successful campaign against Napoleon Bonaparte in Egypt. Entering the army in 1756, Abercromby served in the Seven Years' War. When war with Revolutionary France broke out in 1793, he commanded a brigade under the Duke of York in Flanders. He commanded the army's rear column in its retreat from the Netherlands during the winter of 1794-95. Returning home, he was made a Knight of the Bath and appointed to the command of the British forces in the West Indies, where he seized the French sugar islands. He served under the Duke of York in the second expedition to the Netherlands in 1799. In 1800, after the failure of a descent on Cádiz, Spain, he was ordered to Egypt to expel or destroy the army left there by Bonaparte. Landing at Abū Qīr Bay on March 8, 1801, he advanced toward Alexandria. A French attack before daybreak on March 21 was beaten back with heavy loss, but Abercromby was mortally wounded. He died on board the flagship *Foudroyant* and was buried at Malta.

Aakjær, Jeppe

born Sept. 10, 1866, Aakjær, Den. died April 22, 1930, Jenle poet and novelist, leading exponent of Danish regional literature and of the literature of social consciousness. Aakjær grew up in the Jutland farming area and so was well aware of the harsh conditions endured by farm labourers in his country. His early novels deal primarily with this theme. As a young man he went to study in Copenhagen, earning his living as a proofreader and later as a journalist. *[]Vredens børn, et tyendes saga* (1904; "Children of Wrath: A Hired Man's Saga"), which is considered to be his most powerful novel, was a strong plea for the betterment of the farm labourer's lot. The book initiated much public discussion and helped lead the way to some minimal reforms. He was best-known, however, for his poems, especially those collected in *Fri felt* (1905; "Free Fields") and *Rugens sange* (1906; "Songs of the Rye"). A number of modern Danish composers have set Aakjær's poems to music; his "Jens Vejmand" (music by Carl Nielsen) is virtually a modern folk song. Only a few of his poems have been translated into English.

Abdülhamid II

born Sept. 21, 1842, Constantinople [now Istanbul, Turkey] died Feb. 10, 1918, Constantinople Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909, under whose autocratic rule the reform movement of [][Tanzimat] (Reorganization) reached its climax and who adopted a policy of pan-Islāmism in opposition to Western intervention in Ottoman affairs. A son of Sultan Abdülmecid I, he came to the throne at the deposition of his mentally deranged brother, [][Murad V], on Aug. 31, 1876. He promulgated the first Ottoman constitution on Dec. 23, 1876, primarily to ward off foreign intervention at a time when the Turks' savage suppression of the Bulgarian uprising (May 1876) and Ottoman successes in Serbia and Montenegro had aroused the indignation of Western powers and Russia. After a disastrous war with Russia (1877), Abdülhamid was convinced that little help could be expected from the Western powers without their intrusion into Ottoman affairs. He dismissed the Parliament, which had met in March 1877, and suspended the constitution in February 1878. Thenceforth for 40 years he ruled from his seclusion at Yıldız Palace (in Constantinople), assisted by a system of secret police, an expanded telegraph network, and severe censorship. After the French occupation of Tunisia (1881) and assumption of power by the British in Egypt (1882), Abdülhamid turned for support to the Germans. In return, concessions were made to Germany, culminating in permission (1899) to build the [][Baghdad Railway]. Eventually, the suppression of the Armenian revolt (1894) and the turmoil in Crete, which led to the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, once more resulted in European intervention.

Abe Shinzo

born Sept. 21, 1954, Tokyo, Japan [![Photograph:Abe Shinzo, 2006.]] - Abe Shinzo, 2006. Japanese politician, who was prime minister of Japan from 2006 to 2007. Abe was a member of a prominent political family. His grandfather [][Kishi Nobusuke] served as Japan's prime minister from 1957 to 1960, and his great-uncle [][Sato Eisaku] held the same post from 1964 to 1972. After graduating from Seikei University in 1977, Abe moved to the United States, where he studied political science at the University of Southern California. In 1979 he returned to Japan and joined Kobe Steel, Ltd. He subsequently became active in the [][Liberal-Democratic Party] (LDP), and in 1982 he began working as secretary to his father, Abe Shintaro, who was Japan's foreign minister. In 1993 Abe won a seat in the lower house of the Diet (parliament) and later held a series of government posts. He garnered much support for his tough stance toward North Korea, especially after that country revealed in 2002 that it had kidnapped 13 Japanese citizens in the 1970s and '80s. Abe, who was then deputy chief cabinet secretary, oversaw the subsequent negotiations. In 2003 he was named secretary general of the LDP. Due to LDP term limits, prime minister and LDP leader [Koizumi Junichiro] was forced to leave office in 2006, and he was succeeded in both posts by Abe. Abe became the country's first prime minister to have been born after World War II and its youngest since the war.

Abbott, Edith

born Sept. 26, 1876, Grand Island, Neb., U.S. died July 28, 1957, Grand Island American social worker, educator, and author who was instrumental in promoting the professional practice and academic discipline of social work in the United States. Edith Abbott was the older sister of [Grace Abbott], who would serve as chief of the [United States Children's Bureau] from 1921 to 1934. Both sisters were influenced by their mother's concern for the downtrodden, her pacifism, and her belief in equal rights for women. Edith graduated in 1893 from Brownell Hall, a girls' boarding school in Omaha, but when the family could not afford to send her to college, she began teaching high school in Grand Island. Determined to get a college education nonetheless, she took correspondence courses and attended summer sessions until she was able to afford full-time matriculation at the University of Nebraska, which awarded her a degree in 1901. After an additional two years as a teacher, Abbott attended the University of Chicago in economics (Ph.D., 1905). In 1906, the recipient of a Carnegie fellowship, Abbott continued her studies in England, at University College, London, and the London School of Economics and Political Science. There her ideas were much affected by those of social reformers Sidney and Beatrice Webb, who advocated new approaches to the problem of poverty. The following year Abbott returned to the United States and taught economics for a year at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. Academia, however, seemed too remote from the problems of the poor, and Edith soon moved to Chicago to join her sister at Jane Addams's [Hull House]. Among other social reforms the sisters promoted while at Hull House were woman suffrage, the improvement of housing for the poor, and progressive legislation to protect immigrants, working women, and children. As assistant to [Sophonisba Breckinridge], then director of social research at the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, Abbott also collaborated on studies of juvenile delinquents and truants. On her own, she also produced studies on women in industry and problems in the penal system. Abbott's work, which eventually would amount to more than 100 books and articles on a variety of topics, later earned her the sobriquet "passionate statistician."

Abel, Theodora Mead

born Sept. 9, 1899, Newport, R.I., U.S. died Dec. 2, 1998, Forestburgh, N.Y. American clinical psychologist and educator who combined sociology and psychology in her work. Abel was educated at Vassar College (B.A., 1921), Columbia University (M.A., 1924), and the University of Paris, where she received a diploma in psychology (1923). After earning a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1925, she taught at numerous institutions, including the University of Illinois (1925-26), Sarah Lawrence College (1929-33), and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. From 1940 to 1946 she was chief psychologist for the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene and from 1947 to 1971 was director of psychoanalysis at the New York City Post-graduate Center for Mental Health. In 1971 Abel moved to New Mexico, where she worked extensively with Native Americans. She became chief of family therapy at the Child Guidance Center in Albuquerque and also established a private practice. Abel's writings include coauthorship of *The Subnormal Adolescent Girl* (1940), *Facial Disfigurement* (1952), *Psychological Testing in Cultural Contexts* (1973), and *Culture and Psychotherapy* (1974).

ʿAbbās Mīrzā

born September 1789, Navā, Qājār Iran died Oct. 25, 1833, Meshed crown prince of the [][Qājār dynasty] of Iran who introduced European military techniques into his country. Although he was not the eldest son of Fatḥ ʿAlī Shāh (1797-1834), ʿAbbās Mīrzā was named crown prince and appointed governor of the province of Azerbaijan in 1798 or 1799. When war broke out between []Russia and Iran in 1804, he was made commander of the Iranian expeditionary force of 30,000 men. The war (1804-13) resulted in the loss of most of Iran's Georgian territory and showed ʿAbbās Mīrzā the necessity of reforming the Qājār military forces. He began sending Iranian students to Europe to learn Western techniques; a first group was sent to England in 1811 and a second group followed in 1815. In 1812 a printing press was established in []Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan, and the translation of European military handbooks was encouraged. A gunpowder factory and an artillery foundry were also started in Tabriz. The new army was drilled by British military advisers, who taught such tactics as the use of infantry formations and close cooperation between infantry and artillery. This army distinguished itself in campaigns against the Ottoman Turks in 1821-23. During the second Russo-Iranian war (1826-28) ʿAbbās Mīrzā again led the Iranian forces. In the first year of the war he was able to recapture all of Iran's lost territory; his new army, especially the artillery arm, was more than a match for the Russian troops. In the end, however, Russian numerical superiority and discipline, coupled with Fatḥ ʿAlī Shāh's refusal to reinforce and replace ʿAbbās Mīrzā's losses, led to a disastrous defeat. At the cessation of hostilities (1828), Iran had lost all its Georgian and Caucasian territories.

Abacha, Sani

born September 20, 1943, Kano, Nigeria died June 8, 1998, Abuja Nigerian military leader, who served as head of state (1993-98). Abacha received his formal military training at Nigerian and British military training colleges. He rose through the ranks in the [Nigerian] military and by 1983 had achieved the rank of brigadier when he assisted [][Ibrahim Babangida] in overthrowing [Shehu Shagari], who had been elected to his second presidential term in 1983. [Muhammad Buhari] became Nigeria's leader, but just two years later Babangida overthrew Buhari and installed himself as leader with Abacha second in command. Elections were held in 1993 and were won by Moshood Abiola, a candidate supposedly supported by Babangida, who, however, annulled the elections and set up a civilian interim government, which Abacha quickly overthrew. Although Abacha promised a return to democracy, his actions were anything but democratic. He banned political activity of any kind, fired a large portion of the military, controlled the press, and assembled a personal security force of some 3,000 men. While he supported the [Economic Community of West African States] (ECOWAS) and its military arm, ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), in sending troops to restore democracy in Liberia and Sierra Leone, he brutally suppressed dissent at home. Abiola and [][Olusegun Obasanjo], a former military leader of Nigeria (1976-79), were jailed for treason. [Wole Soyinka], Nigeria's Nobel laureate, was also charged with treason, although he had voluntarily left the country. Perhaps Abacha's most brutal act was the imprisonment, trial, and subsequent execution for treason of writer []Ken Saro-Wiwa and other Ogoni activists who were concerned with the environmental exploitation of their region by multinational petroleum companies.

A Call to Compassion

by Dalai Lama When we are concerned mainly with our own interests, inevitably we tend to neglect others' interests. Because of this, preoccupation with our own interests—our own narrow desires, ambitions, and goals—undermines our ability to be compassionate. And since compassion is the source of happiness, self-centeredness prevents us from attaining that spiritual peace—peace of heart and mind—which is the principal characteristic of lasting happiness. Conversely, the more we concern ourselves with providing for others' well-being, the more meaningful our lives become and the happier we ourselves will be. This is not to suggest that we all become full-time charity workers. What is more helpful—and practical—is that we become full-time workers of "charity" in the sense of kindness and compassion towards all others. As we do so, we will discover that ultimately there is no sharp distinction between our own interests and others' interests. We all desire and appreciate affection, forbearance, truth, justice, and peace. And these are all both contained within and the fruits of compassion. In helping others, we provide for our own happiness because happiness is not, we find, an end in itself. Rather it is a by-product of those actions we take for the benefit of others. Thus in serving others we serve ourselves. This is why I sometimes call compassion "wise selfishness." Compassion entails exercising restraint and disciplining our negative thoughts and emotions out of a sense of responsibility towards all others. Yet alongside kindness, generosity, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, humility, and so on, these are the very things that happiness consists in. Compassion makes us happy! Winner of the 1989 Nobel Prize for Peace, the [][Dalai Lama] is the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhists and, until 1959, was the political leader of Tibet. He wrote on compassion for Britannica.com's *Books of Hope* project in 2000.

Aarau

capital of [Aargau]canton, northern Switzerland, at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains, on the right bank of the Aare River, west of Zürich. Founded about 1240 by the counts of Kyburg, it passed to the [][Habsburgs] in 1264 and was taken by the Bernese in 1415. In 1798 it became the capital of the Helvetian Republic. Notable landmarks include several 13th-century towers, the town church (1471), the town hall (1762), and a cantonal library, containing a Bible with marginal notes made by the religious reformer Huldrych Zwingli. To the northeast is the ruined Habsburg, or Habichtsburg (Hawk's Castle), the original home of the Habsburg family. The medieval Lenzburg castle, located east of Aarau, houses a historical museum and a conference centre. There is considerable industry in the newer parts; manufactures include beverages and food products, electrical goods, precision instruments, and machines. The population is largely German speaking. The majority of the residents are Protestants. Pop. (2007 est.) 15,478.

Aberdeen

city, Harford county, northeastern [Maryland], U.S., near [Chesapeake Bay], 26 miles (42 km) northeast of [Baltimore]. Settled about 1800, it was named for the city in Scotland. Aberdeen is the principal trading centre for the nearby 113-square-mile (293-square-km) []Aberdeen Proving Ground (established 1917), a U.S. Army test site for guns, ammunition, and military vehicles; one of the world's largest collections of weapons is displayed there in the U.S. Army Ordnance Museum. There is also some light manufacturing. Inc. town, 1892; city, 1992. Pop. (1990) 13,087; (2000) 13,842.

Aba

city, [Abia] state, southern Nigeria. It lies along the west bank of the Aba River, at the intersection of roads from Port Harcourt, Owerri, Umuahia, Ikot Ekpene, and Ikot Abasi (Opobo). Aba was a traditional market town for the Igbo (Ibo) people of the tropical rainforest before the establishment of a British military post there in 1901. With the construction of the railway in 1915 from Port Harcourt (36 miles [58 km] southwest), the city became a major collecting point for agricultural produce (especially palm oil and palm kernels). By the 1930s Aba was a settled urban community, and it is now a large industrial and commercial centre. An 18.5-mile- (30-kilometre-) long pipeline from the Imo River natural-gas field provides power for Aba's industrial estate. Textiles, pharmaceuticals, soap, plastics, cement, footware, and cosmetics are manufactured in the city, and there are also a brewery and a distillery. Aba has a school of arts and science, secondary schools, a teacher-training college, and several technical and trade institutes. The city is noted for its handicrafts. Pop. (2004 est.) 820,900.

Aalen

city, [Baden-Württemberg] *Land* (state), southern Germany, on the Kocher River, at the northern foot of the Schwäbische Alb (Swabian Alps), 30 miles (48 km) north of Ulm. It originated around a large Roman fort, much of which remains; nearby are the remains of the Roman *limes* (frontier wall). It became a free imperial city in 1360 and was severely damaged by fire in 1634. It passed to Württemberg in 1802. The old city hall dates from 1636 and the church of Sankt Nikolaus from 1765. The Limesmuseum of Roman relics was opened in 1964. In 1975 the adjoining city of []Wasseralfingen was annexed to Aalen, enlarging it by nearly a third. A communications centre, Aalen also has machinery, optics, textile, and paper industries. Pop. (2005) 67,066.

Abbottābād

city, east-central [North-West Frontier Province], northern Pakistan. It is situated 38 miles (61 km) northeast of [Rāwalpindi]. A hill station (4,120 feet [1,256 metres]), it lies on a plateau at the southern corner of the Rāsh (Orāsh) Plain and is the gateway to the picturesque Kāgān Valley. It is connected by road with the Indus Plain and Kashmir and by railhead (at Haveliān, 10 miles [16 km] south) with Peshāwar. Abbottābād is a district market centre. It was founded in 1853 and named after Major James Abbott, the first British deputy commissioner of the region. There are parks, a preparatory school, several colleges affiliated with the University of Peshāwar, and a forest research centre. The Pakistan Military Academy is at Kākul, 5 miles (8 km) northeast. Major iron-ore deposits are nearby. With its lush scenery and proximity to the [Himalayas] and the [Karakoram Range], the city is a popular summer resort. Pop. (1998) 105,999.

Acarigua

city, northern [Portuguesa] *estado* (state), northwestern Venezuela. Formerly the state capital, Acarigua is a principal commercial centre of the northern portion of the Llanos (plains), in which cattle, sugarcane, cotton, corn (maize), and rice are the principal products. Industries in the city include sawmilling and dairying. Acarigua is accessible by air and by highway from Guanare, the state capital, 50 miles (80 km) to the southwest, and from Barquisimeto, capital of Lara *estado,* 50 miles (80 km) north-northwest. The city has been designated a rail centre under Venezuela's railway-expansion plan. Pop. (2001) 137,000.

Abbeville

city, seat (1854) of Vermilion parish, southern [Louisiana], U.S., on the Vermilion River, 20 miles (32 km) south-southwest of [Lafayette]. It was founded in 1843 by a Capuchin missionary, Père Antoine Desire Mégret, who patterned it on a French Provençal village. First called La Chapelle and settled by Acadians from Nova Scotia and Mediterranean immigrants, it was later named Abbeville ("Priest's Town"). St. Marie Madeleine Church (1910) now occupies the site of Mégret's chapel, which was destroyed by fire in 1854. A trade centre for agricultural produce (rice, cotton, and sugar) and seafood, Abbeville provides services for nearby oil and natural gas fields. The city is linked with the [Gulf of Mexico] via the Freshwater Bayou Deepwater Channel. Avery Island, with a bird sanctuary and salt dome, is 15 miles (24 km) southeast. Inc. town, 1850; city, 1956. Pop. (1990) 11,187; (2000) 11,887.

Abilene

city, seat (1861) of Dickinson county, east-central [Kansas], U.S. The city lies along the [Smoky Hill River]. Settled in 1858 and known as Mud Creek, it was named about 1860 for the biblical Abilene (which means "grassy plain"). Development was slow until []Joseph McCoy, a cattle entrepreneur and later mayor of Abilene, selected it as the northern terminus of the Texas [][cattle] drives in 1867, the year the Kansas Pacific Railroad reached this point. At their peak in 1871, cattle drives over the [Chisholm Trail] brought some 700,000 cattle and more than 5,000 cowboys into Abilene. With the prosperity of the cattlemen came an era of lawlessness. The famed gunman [][Wild Bill Hickok] served as the town's marshal in 1871 and is reputed to have killed more than 50 alleged lawbreakers during his brief tenure. The appearance of homesteaders and fenced ranges discouraged the Texas cattle trade, much of which was diverted to Wichita. Winter-wheat cultivation was introduced in Abilene in the mid-1870s and remains economically important. Abilene is still a shipping point for livestock, as well as for grain and other agricultural products, and it has some light industry. President [][Dwight D. Eisenhower] spent his boyhood in Abilene, and he is buried in the Place of Meditation at the Eisenhower Center, which also encompasses his family home and library. Other popular attractions include the Kansas Sports Hall of Fame and the Greyhound Hall of Fame, dedicated to the history of the dog since ancient times. Inc. 1869. Pop. (1990) 6,242; (2000) 6,543.

Aberdeen

city, seat (1880) of Brown county, northeastern [South Dakota], U.S. It lies in the [James River] valley about 160 miles (260 km) northeast of [Pierre]. Established in 1881 as a junction of several railroads, it was named for [Aberdeen] in Scotland by Alexander Mitchell, president of the [Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad]. Aberdeen is in the state's most productive agricultural region, producing cattle, hogs, sheep, soybeans, corn (maize), wheat, barley, rye, hay, and sunflowers. The city's economy has now diversified to include manufacturing (medical supplies, power transmission equipment, machine tools, and missile components) and services (travel services, agricultural marketing, and financial collection). Aberdeen is a health care, trade, and commercial centre for a large region. Tourism, based on fishing and hunting (particularly during the autumn pheasant-hunting season), augments the economy. Aberdeen is home to Northern State University (1901) and Presentation College (1951). The Dacotah Prairie Museum preserves regional history. Authors [Hamlin Garland], known for his autobiographical Middle Border series, and [L. Frank Baum], who wrote *The Wonderful Wizard of Oz* (1900), lived in Aberdeen. The annual Oz Festival (June) commemorates Baum, his work, and his time in Aberdeen. Sand Lake National Wildlife Refuge (northeast) and Richmond Lake (northwest) and Mina Lake (west) recreation areas are nearby. Inc. town, 1882; city, 1883. Pop. (1990) 24,927; (2000) 24,658.

Abilene

city, seat (1883) of Taylor county (and partly in Jones county), west-central [Texas], U.S. It lies on low, rolling plains 153 miles (246 km) west of [Fort Worth]. Founded in 1881 as the new railhead (built by the [Texas and Pacific Railway]) for the overland Texas cattle drives, it took not only the business of the previous railhead, [Abilene], Kansas, but also its biblical name, which in Hebrew means "grassy plain." The city's economy, originally based solely on livestock and agriculture, has expanded to include industry. Petroleum and natural gas are produced in a multicounty area, of which Abilene is the centre. The city's manufactures include light machinery, aerospace structures, and band instruments. Abilene is the site of Hardin-Simmons University (1891; Baptist), Abilene Christian University (1906; Churches of Christ), and McMurry University (1923; United Methodist). Dyess Air Force Base lies just southwest. The West Texas Fair, rodeos, and livestock shows are annual events. The Grace Museum, comprising an art museum, a historical museum, and a children's museum, is a local landmark, now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Old Abilene Town (northeast) is a reconstructed Texas frontier town. Inc. 1883. Pop. (1990) city, 106,654; Abilene MSA, 119,655; (2000) city, 115,930; Abilene MSA, 126,555.

Ada

city, seat (1907) of Pontotoc county, south-central [Oklahoma], U.S. It lies along Clear Boggy Creek, south of the Canadian River, and was named for the daughter of the first postmaster, []William J. Reed, who built a log store there in 1889. The railroad arrived in 1900, and the city developed as a marketing and trading centre for a large cattle and grain area. The discovery of oil in the vicinity contributed to Ada's economic growth. Fine silica sand and limestone quarries nearby provide the raw materials for glass and cement industries, and clay from Ada was the first clay used to create Frankoma pottery. Plastics, auto parts, farm implements, and clothing are also manufactured. The large Fitts Oil Field and the Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center are south of the city. Ada is the seat of East Central University (1909) and the administrative headquarters of the [Chickasaw] Indians. Inc. 1901. Pop. (1990) 15,820; (2000) 15,691.

Abbeville

city, seat of Abbeville county, northwestern [South Carolina], U.S. French [][Huguenots] in 1764 settled the site, which was named for [Abbeville], France, by John de la Howe. The city is regarded by some as the "Cradle and the Grave of the Confederacy"; it was there that a secessionist meeting was held (November 22, 1860, on what is now Secession Hill) and there that the Confederate president, [][Jefferson Davis], held a meeting (May 2, 1865, at Burt-Stark House) with some of his remaining officers and agreed to give up the fight. The statesman [John C. Calhoun] was born on an outlying farm. A services-based economy prevails with some light manufacturing. The Long Cane Ranger District of Sumter National Forest is nearby. Inc. 1895. Pop. (1990) 5,778; (2000) 5,840.

Abancay

city, southern [Peru]. It is situated on the eastern bank of the Marino River at 7,798 feet (2,377 metres) above sea level, in a cool, dry intermontane basin. The exact date of the founding of Abancay (from the Quechua *amankay*, the name of a wildflower resembling a white lily) is unknown, but it was a leading commercial centre during the Spanish colonial era. Proclaimed a town in 1873, it was given city status in 1874. Abancay is the agricultural and industrial centre of much of Apurímac. The growing and milling of sugar, liquor and rum distilling, copper mining, and sericulture are important. Abancay lies about 300 miles (480 km) east-southeast of [Lima] and is fairly isolated. Roads link it to the Andean cities of [Ayacucho] and [Cuzco] and to the coastal Pan-American Highway at [Nazca]. Pop. (2005) 48,249.

Abhā

city, southwestern Saudi Arabia. It is situated on a plain at the western edge of Mount al-Hijāz and is surrounded by hills. The valley of the Wadi Abhā near the city is filled with gardens, fields, and streams. The city consists of four quarters, the largest of which contains an old fortress. Abhā was freed from Ottoman rule following World War I and brought under the control of the Wahhabīs, a Muslim puritanical group, in 1920 by ʿAbd al-ʿAziz ibn Saʿud. It is characterized by forts built on top of the neighbouring hills. Abhā lies 50 miles (80 km) east of the Red Sea and 528 miles (850 km) southwest of Riyadh, the national capital. A coastal road, completed in 1979, connects Jidda with Abhā. Pop. (1992) 112,316.

Acrasieae

class name for cellular slime molds (division Myxomycophyta). The class contains a single order, []Acrasiales, and about a dozen species. The vegetative phase of these slime molds consists of amoeba-like cells (myxamoebas) that group together ultimately to form a fruiting (reproductive) structure.

Aberystwyth

coastal town, [Ceredigion] county (historic county of Cardiganshire), Wales, where the River Rheidol flows into Cardigan Bay. Traces of extensive Iron Age earthworks have been found on the hill Pen Dinas, which overlooks the old port and town. The medieval walled town grew around the castle erected by the Normans (1277) on a rocky headland immediately north of the mouth of the River Rheidol, into which the mouth of the River Ystwyth has also been diverted. The town spread northward along the coast, especially after the coming of railways. The port, now virtually unused, once handled coastal, Irish, and even transatlantic shipping (Welsh emigrants, for example, would sail direct for the United States) and served as the outlet for the once-flourishing Cardiganshire lead mines. The town has grown since the late 19th century as a holiday resort and rural service centre and is the headquarters of many regional services of western Wales. Though established by English conquerors in the Welsh heartland, Aberystwyth has become a principal stronghold of Welsh culture. The founder college of the University of Wales was established there in 1872. Modern university buildings and the National Library of Wales, one of Britain's copyright libraries, overlook the town from Penglais Hill to the northeast. In the Rheidol valley the inland hamlet of Llanbadarnfawr has become a suburb; its church was once a great centre of Dark Ages learning and Celtic Christianity. Pop. (2001) 11,607.

Accesi, Compagnia degli

company that performed commedia dell'arte (improvised popular Italian comedy) in the early 1600s. The name means "the stimulated." Leadership was provided by Tristano Martinelli (famous for his portrayal of Arlecchino, the mischievous servant) and []Pier Maria Cecchini (known as the leading interpreter of the character Fritellino, as well as the author of valuable texts on the proper performance of commedia dell'arte). The Accesi joined for a time with the Fedeli, another great Italian company under the direction of Giovambattista Andreini, but the wives of Cecchini and Andreini quarrelled, and the companies separated. The Accesi was one of the commedia troupes that became popular with European royalty and was known as the troupe of the duke of Mantua. The company was well received in the Habsburg empire at both Linz and Vienna and appeared several times in France, playing in Fontainebleau and such locations as the Hôtel de Bourgogne.

acoustic interferometer

device for measuring the velocity and absorption of sound waves in a gas or liquid. A vibrating crystal creates the waves that are radiated continuously into the fluid medium, striking a movable reflector placed accurately parallel to the crystal source. The waves are then reflected back to the source. The strength of the standing wave pattern set up between the source and the reflector as the distance between source and reflector is varied, or as the frequency is varied, indicates the absorption by the medium. The velocity at which the waves travel may be determined from the distance between the peaks in the pattern of standing waves. This method has been brought to a high degree of accuracy and has been used for determining the characteristics of seawater for sonar applications.

Abū Muslim

died , February 755 leader of a revolutionary movement in Khorāsān who, while acting as an agent for the [][ʿAbbāsid] family, was instrumental in the downfall of the Umayyad caliphate and in placing the ʿAbbāsids on the throne. There are numerous versions of Abū Muslim's background, but it seems most likely that he was descended from a slave of Persian origin and was therefore a *mawālī* (non-Arab Muslim, accorded lowly status under the Umayyads). The emissary of the ʿAbbāsid imam, who was briefly incarcerated, met Abū Muslim while in prison (741) and later arranged for his release. Abū Muslim was instructed by the imam and then sent to [][Khorāsān] (745-46) to instigate a revolt. Abū Muslim proved to be an energetic and capable leader. Overcoming the initial resentment caused by his obscure origin, he took advantage of the deep social divisions rife in Khorāsān, where the ʿAbbāsids had carefully intrigued and disseminated propaganda against the Umayyads for 20 years. Recruiting from various discontented or dispossessed social groups, Abū Muslim created a coalition of rebellious Arabs and Iranians; the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab were blurred as he managed to syncretize local tradition and Iranian culture with Islāmic religion.

ʿAbd Allāh ibn Saʿd ibn Abī Sarḥ

died AD 656 governor of Upper (southern) Egypt for the Muslim caliphate during the reign of ʿUthmān (644-656) and the cofounder, with the future caliph Muʿāwiyah I, of the first Muslim navy, which seized Cyprus (647-649), Rhodes, and Cos (Dodecanese Islands) and defeated a Byzantine fleet off Alexandria in 652. He shared in the direction of the Muslim fleet that defeated the Byzantine navy in the battle of Dhāt aṣ-Ṣawārī, off the Lycian coast, in 655. As governor in Egypt, Ibn Abī Sarḥ attacked the Christian Nubian Kingdom in 651-652 and forced the Nubians to sue for peace. He was an enemy of ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ, who had conquered Egypt for the Umayyads and was governor of Lower Egypt.

Action painting

direct, instinctual, and highly dynamic kind of art that involves the spontaneous application of vigorous, sweeping brushstrokes and the chance effects of dripping and spilling paint onto the canvas. The term was coined by the American art critic Harold Rosenberg to characterize the work of a group of American Abstract Expressionists (*see* [Abstract Expressionism]) who utilized the method from about 1950. Action painting is distinguished from the carefully preconceived work of the "abstract imagists" and "colour-field" painters, which constitutes the other major direction implicit in Abstract Expressionism and resembles Action painting only in its absolute devotion to unfettered personal expression free of all traditional aesthetic and social values. The works of the Action painters [][Jackson Pollock], [][Willem de Kooning], Franz Kline, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Jack Tworkov reflect the influence of the "automatic" techniques developed in Europe in the 1920s and '30s by the Surrealists[]. While Surrealist [][automatism] (*q.v.*), which consisted of scribblings recorded without the artist's conscious control, was primarily designed to awaken unconscious associations in the viewer, the automatic approach of the Action painters was primarily conceived as a means of giving the artist's instinctive creative forces free play and of revealing these forces directly to the viewer. In Action painting the act of painting itself, being the moment of the artist's creative interaction with his materials, was as significant as the finished work. It is generally recognized that Jackson Pollock's abstract drip paintings, executed from 1947, opened the way to the bolder, gestural techniques that characterize Action painting. The vigorous brushstrokes of de Kooning's []"Woman" series, begun in the early 1950s, successfully evolved a richly emotive, expressive style. Action painting was of major importance throughout the 1950s in Abstract Expressionism, the most influential art movement at the time in the United States. By the end of the decade, however, leadership of the movement had shifted to the colour-field and abstract imagist painters, whose followers in the 1960s rebelled against the irrationality of the Action painters. *See also* [Tachism].

Acarnania

district of ancient Greece bounded by the Ionian Sea, the Ambracian Gulf, Mount Thyamus, and the Achelous River. Corinth founded several colonies on the coast of Acarnania in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Originally a tribal unit, Acarnania developed into a federal state with generals and other magistrates, a council, and an assembly by the late 5th century; its capital was at the city of Stratus. With Athenian help, in the early years of the Peloponnesian War it repulsed Corinthian and Spartan attacks and enlarged its territory. In 388 it was compelled by Sparta to give up the Athenian alliance. It later came under Athenian, Theban, and Macedonian rule. In 314 the Acarnanians established a confederation of newly founded cities; but frontier disputes with Aetolia culminated in the partition of their country between Aetolia and Epirus (*c.* 243). The Epirote part of Acarnania recovered its independence in 231 and set up a new confederacy. By allying with Philip V of Macedon, it succeeded in recovering some of its former territory. When Rome overthrew the Macedonian dynasty (167 BC), it deprived Acarnania of Leucas, the capital of the revived confederacy, and compelled it to send hostages to Rome; but the confederacy, with its capital at Thyrrheum, survived until the Roman emperor Augustus incorporated many Acarnanians into his new city, Nicopolis Actia; the rest were included in the province of Achaea. In modern Greece, Acarnania is linked with Aetolia in the *nomós* (department) Aitolía kai Akarnanía.

absentee voting

electoral process that enables persons who cannot appear at their designated polling places to vote from another location. The usual method of absentee voting is by mail, although provision is sometimes made for voting at prescribed places in advance of the polling date. Absentee voting requires special administrative arrangements to ensure the secrecy and legitimacy of the ballots cast. Within these basic provisions are variations in detail from country to country. In all of the western European countries, the United States, Canada, and Australia (where voting is compulsory), provisions are made for the casting of absentee votes. Because the proper use of absentee voting facilities is related to literacy, in countries where illiteracy is fairly widespread, absentee voting is either not allowed, as in Congo (Kinshsa) and Burkina Faso, or allowed only with restrictions, as in India, Malaysia, and Jamaica. Where qualifications for electors are not primarily geographical, the postal vote may be the normal form of voting. Such is the case in the voting for university seats in the Senate of the Republic of Ireland. In European countries in which elections are held on Sundays, persons traveling for pleasure are permitted to cast their votes at polling places other than those where they are registered, provided that they have first obtained a permit from the election officials. They must, however, cast their ballots for candidates from their own constituencies.

21-centimetre radiation

electromagnetic radiation of radio wavelength emitted by cold, neutral, interstellar [][hydrogen] atoms. The hydrogen atom is composed of a positively charged particle, the proton, and a negatively charged particle, the electron. These particles can be considered as spinning around their own axes of rotation. When the spins of the two particles are antiparallel, then the atom is in its lowest energy state. When the spins are parallel, the atom has a tiny amount of extra energy. In the very cold space between the stars, the interstellar hydrogen atoms are at a state of lowest possible energy. Collisions between particles, however, can at times excite some atoms (which makes the spin of the particles parallel), giving them a tiny amount of energy. According to the rules of quantum mechanics, such atoms radiate their acquired energy in the form of low-energy photons that correspond to a wavelength of 21 centimetres, or a frequency of 1,420 megacycles. This radio radiation was theoretically predicted by the Dutch astronomer [][H.C. van de Hulst] soon after the end of World War II and was experimentally detected by [Harold Ewen] at Harvard University in 1951. Since that time, 21-centimetre hydrogen emission has come to play a vital role in the study of the [][Milky Way Galaxy], because it readily penetrates the clouds of interstellar dust particles that obstruct optical observations deep into the galactic centre.

ʿAbd Allāh, Khawr

estuary (*khawr*) separating Kuwait and Iraq, probably a drowned river mouth of the Shatt (stream) al-Arab, whose mouth is now farther north and forms the southeastern part of the border between Iraq and Iran. It extends into Iraqi territory in the form of the Khawr az-Zubayr, on which the Iraqi port of Umm Qaṣr is located and which is linked by canal northwestward to the Tigris-Euphrates River System. The Khawr ʿAbd Allāh borders the northeastern coast of the Jazīrat (island) Būbiyān and the northern coast of Jazīrat Warbah. Both islands are generally considered to be part of Kuwait but are also claimed by Iraq.

Absalom

flourished *c.* 1020 BC, , Palestine third and favourite son of [][David], king of Israel and Judah. The picture of Absalom that is presented in 2 Samuel 13-19 suggests that he was the Alcibiades of the Old Testament, alike in his personal attractiveness, his lawless insolence, and his tragic fate. He is first mentioned as murdering his half brother [Amnon], David's eldest son, in revenge for the rape of his full sister Tamar. For this he was driven into banishment, but he was eventually restored to favour through the good offices of his cousin [][Joab]. Later, when some uncertainty seems to have arisen as to the succession, Absalom organized a revolt. For a time he seemed completely successful; David, with a few followers and his personal guard, fled across the Jordan, leaving to Absalom Jerusalem and the main portion of the kingdom. The usurper pursued the fugitives with his forces but was completely defeated in "the forest of Ephraim" (apparently west of Jordan) and killed by Joab, who found him caught by the hair in an oak tree. To the affectionate, chivalrous heart of David, the loss of his son, worthless and treacherous as he was, brought grief that more than outweighed his own safety and restoration.

Achilles Painter

flourished 5th century BC Athenian vase painter known by and named for an amphora attributed to him with a painting of []"Achilles and Briseis." The amphora is now in the Vatican Museums. His period of activity coincides with the Parthenon sculptures and with the administration of Pericles. The "Achilles and Briseis" amphora is a red-figure vase (that is, the figures are painted in red against a glazed black background). The vase dates from about 450 BC and is among the finest surviving examples of vase painting from the Classical period. The Achilles Painter also is praised for his white-ground [][lekythoi] (funerary vases with the figures painted in colour against a white background). The white-ground lekythoi are believed to be the most reliable source information about monumental Greek paintings of the Classical period. The original monumental paintings do not survive and are known only through the writings of the ancients. More than 200 vase paintings have been attributed to the Achilles Painter on the basis of the style of the "Achilles and Briseis." Among them are: lekythoi of "Girl Bringing a Casket to Her Mistress" (Boston Museum of Fine Arts); "Youth Bidding Farewell to Wife" (Athens); and "Warrior Arming" (British Museum). The Achilles Painter is cited for his delicately drawn, gentle, pensive, almost melancholy figures.

Abbotsford

former home of the 19th-century novelist [][Sir Walter Scott], situated on the right bank of the River Tweed, [Scottish Borders] council area, historic county of [Roxburghshire], Scotland. Scott purchased the original farm, then known as Carley Hole, in 1811 and transformed it (1817-25) into a Gothic-style baronial mansion now known as Abbotsford House. Still the home of Scott's direct descendants, Abbotsford House remains virtually unchanged. It contains Scott's valuable library, family portraits, and an interesting collection of historical relics, and it is open to the public during the summer. The surrounding area was a major source of inspiration for Scott's historical novels.

Abercrombie & Fitch Co.

former retail sporting goods concern originally based in New York City, famed for its wide range of expensive and often exotic sporting equipment and attire from tennis shoes to elephant guns. For half a century and more the store's apparel, guns, tackle, and other merchandise were the image of correctness and opulence, inspiring the humorist Ed Zern to lampoon a perfectly accoutred angler as an "Abercrombie and Fitcherman." When it expanded, the firm confined its new branch stores to downtown areas of large cities and to resort areas. In the early 1970s Abercrombie & Fitch attempted to widen its customer base by adding less expensive items to its usual stock and finally by moving into the suburbs, where other stores had been building for some time. Although these steps did attract new customers, they came too late; Abercrombie & Fitch was in financial trouble and filed for bankruptcy in 1976 after 85 years in business. Oshman's Sporting Goods, Inc., bought the firm. In 1988 Abercrombie & Fitch was bought by The Limited, Inc.

ʿAbdali sultanate

former semi-independent state in the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now Yemen. Located just north of Aden city, it was one of the most important tribal areas of the Aden Protectorate, which was the forerunner of independent Yemen (Aden); its capital was Laḥij. The sultanate was earlier tributary to western Yemen (*i.e.,* Yemen [Sanaa]) but gained its independence in 1728. The []ʿAbdali tribal people then seized Aden and remained independent until 1839, when they signed the first of several treaties with the British that led to the formation of the Aden Protectorate. The sultanate was held by the Turks during World War I. The Ṣubayḥī (Subeihi) tribal area to the west came under ʿAbdali jurisdiction in 1948, and the sultanate became part of Yemen (Aden) in 1967 and of the unified Yemen in 1990. The lands comprise a fertile area that has a settled population and produces fruit, grain, and other crops.

ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān II

fourth Umayyad ruler of Muslim Spain who enjoyed a reign (822-852) of brilliance and prosperity, the importance of which has been underestimated by some historians. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān II was the grandson of his namesake, founder of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. His reign was an administrative watershed. As the influence of the ʿAbbā sid Caliphate, then at the peak of its splendour, grew, [][Córdoba's] administrative system increasingly came into accord with that of Baghdad, the ʿAbbāsid capital. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān carried out a vigorous policy of public works, made additions to the Great Mosque in Córdoba, and patronized poets, musicians, and men of religion. Although palace intrigues surrounded his death in 852, they did not diminish his accomplishments.

Abutilon

genus of about 100 species of herbaceous plants and partly woody shrubs, of the mallow family (Malvaceae), native to tropical and warm temperate areas. It includes several species used as houseplants and in gardens for their white to deep-orange, usually nodding, five-petaled blossoms. [![Photograph:Abutilon megapotamicum]] - *Abutilon megapotamicum* *A. hybridum*, sometimes called []Chinese lantern, is planted outdoors in warm regions and grown in greenhouses elsewhere. The []trailing abutilon (*A. megapotamicum;* *see* [photograph]), often grown as a hanging plant, is noted for its nodding, yellowish-orange, closed flowers; it has a handsome variegated-leaved variety. *A. pictum*, a shrub reaching a height of 4.5 m (15 feet), often called parlor, or [flowering], maple, is grown as a houseplant. An important fibre plant in China is *A. theophrastii*, called China jute; it is a field weed in the United States, where it is called [velvetleaf] (*q.v.*), or Indian mallow.

Acontius

in Greek legend, a beautiful youth of the island of Ceos. During the festival of Artemis at Delos, Acontius saw and loved []Cydippe, a girl of a rich and noble family. He wrote on an apple the words "I swear to wed Acontius" and threw it at her feet. She picked it up and mechanically read the words aloud, thus binding herself by an oath. Thereafter, although she was betrothed three times, she always fell ill before the wedding took place. The Delphic oracle at last explained the matter, and she married Acontius. The story is found in Ovid, *Heroides* (*Heroines*) 20 and 21.

Actaeon

in Greek mythology, son of the minor god Aristaeus and Autonoë (daughter of Cadmus, the founder of Thebes in Boeotia); he was a Boeotian hero and hunter. According to Ovid's *[Metamorphoses],* Actaeon accidentally saw [][Artemis] (goddess of wild animals, vegetation, and childbirth) while she was bathing on Mount Cithaeron; for this reason he was changed by her into a stag and was pursued and killed by his own 50 hounds. In another version, he offended Artemis by boasting that his skill as a hunter surpassed hers. The story was well-known in antiquity, and several of the tragic poets presented it on the stage (e.g., Aeschylus in his lost *Toxotides,* "The Female Archers"). Actaeon was worshiped in Plataea and Orchomenus.

Abdera

in ancient Greece, town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the Néstos River. The people of Teos, evacuating Ionia when it was overrun by the Persians under Cyrus (*c.* 540 BC), succeeded in establishing a colony there that developed a brisk trade with the Thracian interior. Abdera was a prosperous member of the Delian League in the 5th century but was crippled early in the 4th century BC by Thracian incursions and declined sharply in importance. The philosophers Protagoras and Democritus were citizens of Abdera. The site is occupied by the modern town of Ávdhira, Greece.

aberration, constant of

in astronomy, the maximum amount of the apparent yearly aberrational displacement of a star or other celestial body, resulting from the Earth's orbital motion around the Sun. The value of the constant, about 20.49″ of arc, depends on the ratio of Earth's orbital velocity to the velocity of light. [][James Bradley], the British astronomer who in 1728 discovered the aberration of starlight, estimated the value of the constant at about 20″ and from this calculated the velocity of light at 295,000 kilometres (183,300 miles) per second, within a few thousand kilometres per second of the presently accepted value. The aberrational ellipse described by the image of a star in the course of a year has a major axis equal in angular distance to twice the constant of aberration.

actinometer

in chemistry, a substance or a mixture of substances that reacts through the action of [][light] and that, because of the easily determined quantitative relationship between the extent of the reaction and the energy of the absorbed light, is used as a standard for measurement of light energies involved in photochemical work. A typical actinometer is a liquid solution of [][oxalic acid] containing uranyl sulfate. Light in the wavelength range of about 2,080 to 4,350 angstroms (ultraviolet to violet light) decomposes the oxalic acid (through a complex process involving initial absorption of the light energy by the uranyl ion) into a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water. A standard solution is generally irradiated with light of the proper wavelength and of known intensity, and the quantity of oxalic acid decomposed is accurately measured by titration with potassium permanganate. The experimentally determined relationship between the quantity of oxalic acid transformed and the quantity of light energy absorbed can then be used as a scale from which to predict either quantity when the other is known or measured. In addition to the oxalic acid-uranyl sulfate solution, other substances commonly used as chemical actinometers include acetone, hydrogen bromide, carbon dioxide, and a solution of ferrioxalate in sulfuric acid.

activation energy

in chemistry, the minimum amount of energy that is required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can undergo chemical transformation or physical transport. In terms of the [][transition-state theory] (*q.v.*), the activation energy is the difference in energy content between atoms or molecules in an activated or transition-state configuration and the corresponding atoms and molecules in their initial configuration. The activation energy is usually represented by the symbol *E*~a~ in mathematical expressions for such quantities as the reaction-rate constant, *k* = *A*exp(-*E*~a~/*RT*), and the diffusion coefficient, *D* = *D*~*o*~exp(-*E*~a~/*RT*). Activation energies are determined from experimental rate constants or diffusion coefficients that are measured at different temperatures.

abbreviation

in communications (especially written), the process or result of representing a word or group of words by a shorter form of the word or phrase. Abbreviations take many forms and can be found in ancient Greek inscriptions, in medieval manuscripts (*e.g.,* "DN" for "Dominus Noster"), and in the Qurʾān. Cicero's secretary, [Marcus Tullius Tiro], devised many abbreviations that have survived to modern times, such as the character ampersand, &, for *et* (Latin: "and"). But it was the so-called information explosion of the 20th century that made abbreviation a common practice in communication. A major factor in the trend toward abbreviation is that of economy. In [][telegraphy], for example, as well as in computerized communications, the extra time, space, and materials required for rendering long words and phrases is an important concern. Fortunately, redundancy of information exists in all speech, and this redundancy increases dramatically if the context is not known or if the message is long. Scientific studies indicate that up to 75 percent of all information in relatively long communications is redundant, and this knowledge makes abbreviation not only possible but convenient. Another factor in the development of abbreviations is the proliferation of new products and organizations that need to be named. Long descriptive terms can be shortened into mnemonic units. This is especially noticeable in Internet communication, particularly with e-mails, where a huge number of abbreviated forms came into use during the 1990s. The need for speed in shorthand and the desire to avoid redundancy in codes makes abbreviation an important element in stenography and cryptography as well.

accomplice

in law, a person who becomes equally guilty in the crime of another by knowingly and voluntarily aiding the other to commit the offense. An accomplice is either an [][accessory] or an [][abettor]. The accessory aids a criminal prior to his crime, whereas the abettor aids him during the act itself. An abettor is one who is present actually or constructively at the commission of a crime and incites, encourages, or assists the offender in his act. One may assist the offender by failing to try to prevent the offense, when a duty to act is imposed by law. An accessory is one who is not present during the commission of the offense but who assists, procures, encourages, or counsels the offender prior to the crime. In most jurisdictions the accessory must perform an act of assistance, and there must be evidence that he intended to facilitate the crime. Thus, the owner of a sporting-goods store will not be guilty of murder if he sells a rifle to one who subsequently commits murder with it. The terms accessory and abettor derive from the English common law, which distinguished between accomplices and principals in assessing guilt for crime. Modern statutes abolish these differences and consider all accomplices as principals. It is no longer necessary to prove which kind of an accomplice a person is or to find the principal guilty before the accomplice can be convicted. Once a crime has been committed and a party is shown to have contributed to its commission, he may be punished as a principal.

abduction

in law, the carrying away of any female for purposes of concubinage or prostitution. The taking of a girl under a designated age for purposes of marriage is in most jurisdictions also included in the crime of abduction. Abduction is generally regarded as a form of [kidnapping] (*q.v.*).

accused, rights of

in law, the rights and privileges of a person accused of a crime, guaranteeing him a fair trial. These rights were initially (generally from the 18th century on) confined primarily to the actual trial itself, but in the second half of the 20th century many countries began to extend them to the periods before and after the trial. All legal systems provide, at least on paper, guarantees that insure certain basic rights of the accused. These include right to trial by jury (unless jury trial is waived), to representation by counsel (at least when he is accused of a serious crime), to present witnesses and evidence that will enable him to prove his innocence, and to confront (*i.e.,* cross-examine) his accusers, as well as freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures and freedom from double jeopardy. Certain very general rights are attached to the process. An accused person must not be allowed to languish indefinitely in jail but must be given a speedy trial. Involved with this issue are the rights to a reasonable bail and prohibitions against being detained for more than a specified time without bail. The most important right has been the right to be represented by counsel. During the second half of the 20th century this right was extended to cover the time when a person is arrested until final appeal. Different countries set different times at which an accused must be provided with counsel as well as different types of crimes for which counsel must be provided if the accused is indigent. The United States has made the most far-reaching changes in this area and has set a pattern that other nations have begun to emulate. Essentially, the U.S. system stipulates that the accused has the right to counsel from the time that he is taken into custody until all appeal is exhausted. The Supreme Court has ruled, moreover, that where the accused is indigent, the right to counsel must be implemented by the provision of a court-appointed lawyer in the case of all crimes for which punishment may be imprisonment. The Court established an indigent defendant's right to counsel in the cases *[Powell]* v. *Alabama* (1932) and *[Gideon]* v. *Wainwright* (1963). The Supreme Court also decided that at the []time of his arrest the accused must be notified of both this right to counsel and the right not to answer any questions that might produce evidence against him (*see* [Miranda v. Arizona]). Both rights were introduced to prevent the police from extracting involuntary [][confessions] to be used as evidence in court.

Achilles paradox

in logic, an argument attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek philosopher [][Zeno], and one of his four paradoxes described by [][Aristotle] in the treatise *Physics.* The paradox concerns a race between the fleet-footed [][Achilles] and a slow-moving tortoise. The two start moving at the same moment, but if the tortoise is initially given a head start and continues to move ahead, Achilles can run at any speed and will never catch up with it. Zeno's argument rests on the presumption that Achilles must first reach the point where the tortoise started, by which time the tortoise will have moved ahead, even if but a small distance, to another point; by the time Achilles traverses the distance to this latter point, the tortoise will have moved ahead to another, and so on. The Achilles paradox cuts to the root of the problem of the [continuum]. Aristotle's solution to it involved treating the segments of Achilles' motion as only potential and not actual, since he never actualizes them by stopping. In an anticipation of modern measure theory, Aristotle argued that an infinity of subdivisions of a distance that is finite does not preclude the possibility of traversing that distance, since the subdivisions do not have actual existence unless something is done to them, in this case stopping at them. *See also* [paradoxes of Zeno].

accidental

in music, sign placed immediately to the left of (or above) a note to show that the note must be changed in [][pitch]. A []sharp () raises a note by a semitone; a []flat () lowers it by a semitone; a []natural (♮) restores it to the original pitch. Double sharps (×) and double flats () indicate that the note is raised or lowered by two semitones. Sharps or flats that are placed at the beginning of a musical staff, called a [][key signature], indicate the tonality, or key, of the music and are not considered accidentals. Accidentals were first applied to the note B, by about the 10th century. To fulfill certain theoretical and aesthetic rules, B was sometimes flatted and, later, F was sometimes sharped. At first there was no sign for a natural; a sharp cancelled a flat, a flat cancelled a sharp. By the late Renaissance, E, A, and C were fairly common. Accidentals applied to all notes became increasingly common in music of subsequent periods. In common modern practice, an accidental carries through the measure in which it occurs.

acosmism

in philosophy, the view that God is the sole and ultimate reality and that finite objects and events have no independent existence. Acosmism has been equated with pantheism, the belief that everything is God. []G.W.F. Hegel coined the word to defend [][Benedict de Spinoza], who was accused of atheism for rejecting the traditional view of a created world existing outside God. Hegel argued that Spinoza could not be an atheist because pantheists hold that everything is God, whereas atheists exclude God altogether and make a godless world the sole reality. Furthermore, because Spinoza's cosmos is part of God, it is not what it seems to be. He is acosmistic insofar as "noncosmic" seems to deny the cosmos—a position, however, very alien to Spinoza's thought. Acosmism has also been used to describe the philosophies of Hindu Vedānta, Buddhism, and Arthur Schopenhauer; and Johann Gottlieb Fichte used the term to defend himself against accusations similar to those leveled against Spinoza.

accent

in phonetics, that property of a syllable which makes it stand out in an utterance relative to its neighbouring syllables. The emphasis on the accented syllable relative to the unaccented syllables may be realized through greater length, higher or lower pitch, a changing pitch contour, greater loudness, or a combination of these characteristics. Accent has various domains: the word, the phrase, and the sentence. []Word accent (also called word stress, or lexical stress) is part of the characteristic way in which a language is pronounced. Given a particular language system, word accent may be fixed, or predictable (*e.g.*, in French, where it occurs regularly at the end of words, or in Czech, where it occurs initially), or it may be movable, as in English, which then leaves accent free to function to distinguish one word from another that is identical segmentally (*e.g.*, the noun permit versus the verb permit). Similarly, accent can be used at the phrasal level to distinguish sequences identical at the segmental level (*e.g.*, "light housekeeping" versus "lighthouse keeping," or "blackboard" versus "black board"). Finally, accent may be used at the sentence level to draw attention to one part of the sentence rather than another (*e.g.*, "What did you sign?" "I signed a *contract* to do some light housekeeping." versus "Who signed a contract?" "*I* signed a contract to do some light housekeeping.").

accentual verse

in prosody, a metrical system based only on the number of stresses or accented syllables in a line of verse. In accentual verse the total number of syllables in a line can vary as long as there are the prescribed number of accents. This system is used in Germanic poetry, including Old English and Old Norse, as well as in some English verse. The poem []"what if a much of a which of a wind'' by [][E.E. Cummings] is an example of accentual verse. In the following lines from the poem the number of accents is constant at four while the number of syllables per line varies from seven to ten: > what if a much of a which of a wind\ > gives the truth to summer's lie;\ > bloodies with dizzying leaves the sun\ > and yanks immortal stars awry?\ > Blow king to beggar and queen to seem\ > (blow friend to fiend: blow space to time)\ > —when skies are hanged and oceans drowned,\ > the single secret will still be man...\

accent

in prosody, a rhythmically significant stress on the syllables of a verse, usually at regular intervals. The word *accent* is often used interchangeably with *stress*, though some prosodists use *accent* to mean the emphasis that is determined by the normal meaning of the words while *stress* is used to mean [metrical] emphasis. In classical prosody, which was based on a quantitative approach to verse rather than the modern stress-based system, accent was used to determine the relative quantity and prominence of a syllable based on sound. For the Greeks, accent was explained as a difference in musical pitch, usually higher, used in the pronunciation of a word. When prosody ceased to be based on quantity, the accent changed from variation of pitch to variation of force or emphasis.

accentual-syllabic verse

in prosody, the metrical system that is most commonly used in English poetry. It is based on both the number of stresses, or accents, and the number of syllables in each line of verse. A line of iambic [pentameter] verse, for example, consists of five [feet], each of which is an [iamb] (an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable). Although accentual-syllabic verse is very strictly measured, variations in both accent placement and the number of syllables often occur.

activity

in radioactive-decay processes, the number of disintegrations per second, or the number of unstable atomic nuclei that decay per second in a given sample. Activity is determined by counting, with the aid of radiation detectors and electronic circuits, the number of particles and photons (pulses of electromagnetic energy) ejected from a radioactive material during a convenient time interval. This experimental count, however, must be interpreted in the light of a thorough knowledge of the particular manner of radioactive decay in the sample material, because some sources emit more than one particle or photon per disintegration. Activity is expressed in the International System of Units by the [becquerel] (abbreviated Bq), which is exactly equal to one disintegration per second. The old standard unit was the curie (abbreviated Ci), which is equal to 3.7 × 10^10^ Bq.

ablution

in religion, a prescribed washing of part or all of the body or of possessions, such as clothing or ceremonial objects, with the intent of purification or dedication. Water, or water with salt or some other traditional ingredient, is most commonly used, but washing with blood is not uncommon in the history of religions, and urine of the sacred cow has been used in India. The devout follower of [][Shintō], for example, rinses hands and mouth with water before approaching a shrine. Monks of the [][Theravāda] Buddhist tradition wash themselves in the monastery pool before meditation. The upper-caste Hindu bathes ceremonially in water before performing daily morning worship (*pūjā*) in the home. []Jewish law requires ritual immersion of their whole bodies by women prior to marriage and after menstruation, as well as by new converts to Judaism. Washing of the hands after rising in the morning and before meals that include bread are also examples of ablution in Judaism. The Roman Catholic priest (and priests of some [][Orthodox churches]) celebrating the eucharistic liturgy prepares himself by ritual washing of his hands in the lavabo. Seven days after Baptism those newly baptized in Eastern Orthodox churches often go through a ceremony in which holy oil is washed from the forehead. Among some of the Brethren sects in the rural United States, ceremonial foot washing is performed on certain occasions. []Muslim piety requires that the devout wash their hands, feet, and face before each of the five daily prayers; the use of sand is permitted where water is unavailable. Like most ritual acts, ablution may carry a wide range of meanings to those who perform it. The stain of ritual uncleanness may be felt to be as real as contamination with unseen germs is for the medically minded; the act of cleansing may be only a gesture, symbolic of desired purity of soul. Or, as Carl Jung and others have suggested in studies of unconscious elements in religious symbolism, both objective and subjective aspects may be fused in the ritual act.

absolution

in the Christian religion, a pronouncement of remission (forgiveness) of [][sins] to the penitent. In [][Roman Catholicism], [penance] is a sacrament and the power to absolve lies with the [][priest], who can grant release from the guilt of sin to the sinner who is truly contrite, []confesses his sin, and promises to perform satisfaction to God. In the New Testament the grace of forgiveness is seen as originating in Jesus Christ and being subsequently extended to sinners by members of the Christian priesthood. In the early Christian church, the priest publicly absolved repentant sinners after they had confessed and performed their penance in public. During the Middle Ages, however, private (auricular) confession became the usual procedure, and thus absolution followed in private. The priest absolved the penitent sinner using the formula, "I absolve thee from thy sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." In place of this Western formula, the Eastern [][Orthodox churches] generally employ a formula such as "May God, through me, a sinner, forgive thee . . ." In Protestant churches, absolution is usually a public rather than a private declaration. The [][Anglican] and []Lutheran churches use formulas ranging from the declaratory "I forgive you all your sins . . ." to "Almighty God have mercy upon you, and forgive you all your sins." In general, []Protestant churches have tended to confine absolution to prayers for forgiveness and the announcement of God's willingness to forgive all those who truly repent of their sins. In these denominations, absolution is neither a judicial act nor a means by which the forgiveness of sins is conferred but is, instead, a statement of divine judgment and divine forgiveness. Nevertheless, a formula for the public confession of sins and the public pronouncement of forgiveness is included in most Christian liturgies.

Acis

in the Greek mythology of Ovid, the son of Faunus (Pan) and the nymph Symaethis. He was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, the lover of the Nereid []Galatea. His rival, [][Polyphemus] the Cyclops, surprised them together and crushed him to pieces with a rock. His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by Galatea into a river bearing his name, Acis or Acinius, at the base of Mount Etna (the modern river Jaci). The story is known in no other extant source but Book XIV of Ovid's *Metamorphoses*. A number of Sicilian towns, including Acireale and Aci Catena, are named after him.

Abel

in the Old Testament, second son of Adam and Eve, who was slain by his older brother, [][Cain] (Genesis 4:1-16). According to Genesis, Abel, a shepherd, offered the Lord the firstborn of his flock. The Lord respected Abel's sacrifice but did not respect that offered by Cain. In a jealous rage, Cain murdered Abel. Cain then became a fugitive because his brother's innocent blood put a curse on him. The storyteller in Genesis assumes a world of conflicting values, and he makes the point that divine authority backs self-control and brotherhood but punishes jealousy and violence. Cain had not mastered sin (v. 7); he had let it master him. The narrator takes a somber look at the human condition, seeing a dangerous world of Cains and Abels. Nevertheless, God is on the side of the martyrs; he avenges their deaths in the ruin of the Cains. In the New Testament the blood of Abel is cited as an example of the vengeance of violated innocence (Matthew 23:35; Luke 11:51).

401(k)

in the United States, a retirement savings program organized by employers but funded primarily by workers through paycheck deductions. Because employees generally do not make withdrawals from the fund until after they have retired, the 401(k) is considered a deferred compensation plan. As a result, the worker is not taxed on any earnings or gains made in the account until withdrawals begin. Moreover, a certain proportion of the 401(k) contribution can be made before taxes have been deducted from the employee's paycheck. Once a company has established a 401(k) plan, employees are offered the option of contributing a portion of their earnings toward the retirement plan. Many employers match a certain percentage of each employee's contribution. Most plans offer the option of investing among a number of stock, bond, and money market funds. Some companies encourage employees to invest their 401(k) funds in the company's own stock, but this practice has been criticized as risky, especially when too much retirement money is invested in a single stock. After the enactment of the []Employee Retirement Income Security Act in 1974, traditional [pension] plans were limited to investing no more than 10 percent of pension fund assets in a single company's stock, but no such limits were placed on 401(k) investments. The plan developed from the 1978 reforms of the Internal Revenue Code meant to encourage savings rates in the United States. Its name is derived from a part of the code—section 401(k)—that permitted employees to set aside tax-deferred retirement funds. The first program was implemented in 1981, and by the year 2000 more than three-fourths of American workers were participating in 401(k) plans. Many companies came to offer 401(k) plans in addition to, or in place of, traditional company-sponsored pension plans. The Internal Revenue Service limits the amount that a person may contribute to his or her 401(k) plan in a given year.

accelerator

in the [][rubber] industry, any of numerous chemical substances that cause [][vulcanization] (*q.v.*) of rubber to occur more rapidly or at lower temperatures. Many classes of compounds act as accelerators, the most important being organic materials containing sulfur and nitrogen, especially derivatives of benzothiazole. The use of alkaline compounds of metals as vulcanization accelerators was cited in the original patent of the vulcanization process, granted to Charles Goodyear in 1844; magnesium oxide, zinc oxide, and basic lead carbonate were used until early in the 20th century, when the superiority of [][aniline], an organic compound, was discovered. Despite its toxicity, aniline was used as an accelerator for several years. []Thiocarbanilide, less poisonous than aniline, succeeded it as the most important accelerator until it was displaced by [mercaptobenzothiazole] (MBT) about 1925. Compounds related to MBT have proved especially useful in vulcanizing synthetic rubbers. During vulcanization the accelerator apparently converts the sulfur into a compound that reacts more rapidly with rubber than does sulfur itself. An alternative possibility is that the accelerator reacts first with the rubber, changing it into a form that combines rapidly with sulfur.

action

in theoretical physics, an abstract quantity that describes the overall [][motion] of a physical system. Motion, in physics, may be described from at least two points of view: the close-up view and the panoramic view. The close-up view involves an instant-by-instant charting of the behaviour of an object. The panoramic view, on the other hand, reveals not only a complete picture of the actual behaviour of an object but also all the possible routes of development connecting an initial situation with a final situation. From the panoramic view, each route between the two situations is characterized by a specific numerical quantity called its action. Action may be thought of as twice the average kinetic energy of the system multiplied by the time interval between the initial and final position under study or, again, as the average momentum of the system multiplied by the length of the path between the initial and final positions. The value of the action for any actual motion of a system between two configurations is always a minimum or a maximum. In most instances, the behaviour of the system follows the path of minimum, or least, action. In an optical system, such as a microscope, [][light] travels along the path of least action as it undergoes bending in the lenses. For light, action is proportional to the time of travel, so that the light travels the path that takes the least time. With the beginning of [][quantum] theory (1900), the concept of action took on a new importance. In describing the behaviour of molecular or atomic particles, one had to invoke a previously unsuspected restriction. Only those states of motion are possible in which actions are whole-number multiples of a certain very small number, known as [][Planck's constant], named for the German scientist Max Planck, who first proposed a discrete, or quantized, behaviour for objects of subatomic dimensions. Thus Planck's constant is the natural unit, or quantum, of action.

absorption

in wave motion, the transfer of the energy of a wave to matter as the wave passes through it. The energy of an []acoustic, [][electromagnetic], or other wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude—*i.e.,* the maximum displacement or movement of a point on the wave; and, as the wave passes through a substance, its amplitude steadily decreases. If there is only a small fractional absorption of energy, the medium is said to be transparent to that particular radiation, but, if all the energy is lost, the medium is said to be opaque. All known transparent substances show absorption to some extent. For instance, the ocean appears to be transparent to sunlight near the surface, but it becomes opaque with depth. Substances are selectively absorbing—that is, they absorb radiation of specific wavelengths. Green glass is transparent to green light but opaque to blue and red; hard rubber is transparent to infrared and X rays but opaque to visible light. Thus, radiation of an unwanted wavelength may be removed from a mixture of waves by letting them pass through an appropriate medium. Those substances that are designed to absorb a particular wavelength or band of wavelengths are called []filters. [![Art]] As radiation passes through matter, it is absorbed to an extent depending on the nature of the substance and its thickness. A homogeneous substance of a given thickness may be thought of as consisting of a number of equally thin layers. Each layer will absorb the same fraction of the energy that reaches it. The [diagram] shows a beam of waves passing from right to left through a series of layers (*d*~1~, *d*~2~, *d*~3~) of a medium. If the fractional absorption is taken as 33 percent, or ^^1^^/~~3~~, after the beam passes through the first layer *d*~1~, its initial energy (*E*~0~) will be reduced to *E*~0~/3. One-third the energy *E*~0~/3 will be absorbed passing through layer *d*~2~, and the beam will enter layer *d*~3~ with energy ^^1^^/~~3~~ (*E*~0~/3), or (*E*~0~/9). Similarly, each successive layer absorbs one-third of the energy it receives. Thus for radiation of a given wavelength, an infinitesimally thin layer will reduce the energy of a wave by a fractional amount that is proportional to the thickness of the layer. The change in energy as the wave passes through a layer is a constant of the material for a given wavelength and is called its [absorption coefficient].

accelerometer

instrument that measures the rate at which the velocity of an object is changing (i.e., its [][acceleration]). Acceleration cannot be measured directly. An accelerometer, therefore, measures the force exerted by restraints that are placed on a reference mass to hold its position fixed in an accelerating body. Acceleration is computed using the relationship between restraint force and acceleration given by Newton's second law: force = mass × acceleration. The output of an accelerometer is usually in the form of either a varying electrical voltage or a displacement of a moving pointer over a fixed scale. The former type, called a []spring-mass accelerometer, incorporates a mass suspended by four precisely designed and matched springs; movement of the mass is restrained by a damper. The accelerometer housing is solidly attached to the moving object. As the object accelerates, inertia causes the suspended mass to lag behind as its housing moves ahead (accelerates with the object). The displacement of the suspended mass within its housing is proportional to the acceleration of the object. This displacement is converted to an electrical output by a pointer fixed to the mass moving over the surface of a potentiometer attached to the housing. Since the current supplied to the potentiometer remains constant, the movement of the pointer causes the output voltage to vary directly with the acceleration. Specially designed accelerometers are used in applications as varied as control of industrial vibration test equipment, detection of earthquakes (seismographs), and input to navigational and inertial guidance systems. The design differences are primarily concerned with the method used to convert acceleration to a proportional electrical voltage. These methods include the direct pressure of a mass on a piezoelectric crystal and the electrically sensed displacement of a damped pendulum.

12-tone music

large body of music, written roughly since World War I, that uses the so-called 12-tone method or technique of composition. The Austrian-born composer [][Arnold Schoenberg] is credited with the invention of this technique, although other composers (*e.g.,* the American composer [][Charles Ives] and the Austrian []Josef Hauer) anticipated Schoenberg's invention by writing music that in a few respects was similar technically to his 12-tone music. Between 1912 and 1922 Schoenberg came to realize that he was searching for a new method of composition that would provide a new basis for musical structure to replace the old basis of tonality, which he felt was being stretched and distorted too much to remain a unifying structural principle. Instead of using 1 or 2 tones as main points of focus for an entire composition (as key centres in tonal music), Schoenberg suggested using all 12 tones "related only to one another." In such a system, unlike tonality, no notes would predominate as focal points, nor would any hierarchy of importance be assigned to the individual tones. The new unifying principle in composition would then arise from the particular order given to a collection of the 12 tones, an order that would be different for each composition. The basic order for any one composition came to be known as its []basic set, its 12-tone row, or its 12-tone series, all of which terms are synonymous. The basic set for Schoenberg's *[]Wind Quintet* (1924) is E-G-A-B-C-C-B-D-E-F-A-F; for his *[]String Quartet No. 4* (1936) it is D-C-A-B-F-E-E-C-A-G-F-B. The basic set is not a theme, for it has no specific shape, rhythm, or loudness. It is a backbone, a musical idea that permeates the composition in which it is used. Because of the various principles of composing and manipulating the basic set recognized by Schoenberg and others, it is not often possible nor even desirable to hear the basic set when the composition is performed. This situation has led many people to attack Schoenberg's method as unmusical and as mathematical madness. Such views seem unjustifiable, because, as Schoenberg pointed out, his method specifies only a tiny fraction of the total nature of a composition—certainly no more than composing with tonality specifies.

*Chinese (Pinyin) **Ruo'ergai Zhaoze** or (Wade-Giles romanization) **Jo-erh-kai Chao-tse** , also called **Songpan Grasslands** *

large marsh lying mostly in northern [Sichuan] province, west-central [China]. It occupies about 1,000 square miles (2,600 square km) of the eastern part of the [Plateau of Tibet] at an elevation of 11,800 feet (3,600 metres) above sea level and extends westward across the border of Sichuan into southern [Gansu] and southeastern [Qinghai] provinces. The marsh, formed by abundant rain and snow, lies in a region of restricted drainage with a long frost period (fewer than 20 frost-free days annually). It is bordered on the east by the [Min Mountains] and on the west by the A'nyêmaqên (Amne Machin) Mountains; the [Huang He] (Yellow River) runs through the western part of the region from south to north. Beneath its uneven surface lies a layer of peat generally 7-10 feet (2-3 metres) thick but increasing to as much as 20-23 feet (6-7 metres) deep in some places. Crossed by the Chinese communists during the [Long March] (1934-35), the region was then a marshy wilderness area. In the 1970s ditches were dug, parts of the marsh were drained, and cattle, sheep, and horses pastured on the reclaimed grasslands. A nature preserve was established in the area in 1994; it is home to the [chital], or spotted deer, and the black-necked crane.

Aalenian Stage

lowest of the four divisions of the Middle Jurassic Series, representing all rocks formed worldwide during the Aalenian Age, which occurred between 175.6 million and 171.6 million years ago during the [Jurassic Period]. The Aalenian Stage underlies the [Bajocian Stage] and overlies the [Toarcian Stage] of the Lower Jurassic Series. The name for this stage is derived from the town of Aalen, located 80 km (50 miles) east of [Stuttgart] in the [Swabian Alps] of Germany. The Aalenian Stage is divided into the Lower Aalenian and the Upper Aalenian, each of which in Europe is subdivided into two standard [ammonite] [biozones]: the Opalinum and Scissum zones for the Lower Aalenian and the Murchisonae and Concavum zones for the Upper Aalenian. In other parts of the world there is an almost complete absence of the ammonite group upon which the standard European zonation is based, so that several different zonation sequences have been recognized in different parts of Asia and North America. Some of these zones are approximately coeval and equivalent to the standard European zonations. [Carol Marie Tang]

ABO blood group system

method of classifying human [blood] on the basis of the inherited properties of [][red blood cells] ([erythrocytes]) as determined by their possession or lack of the [][antigens] A and B, which are carried on the surface of the red cells. Persons may thus have [type A], [type B], [type O], or [type AB] blood. The A, B, and O blood groups were first identified by Austrian immunologist [][Karl Landsteiner] in 1901. *See* [blood group]. [![table]]Blood containing red cells with type A antigen on their surface has in its [serum] (fluid) [][antibodies] against type B red cells. If, in [transfusion], type B blood is injected into persons with type A blood, the red cells in the injected blood will be destroyed by the antibodies in the recipient's blood. In the same way, type A red cells will be destroyed by anti-A antibodies in type B blood. Type O blood can be injected into persons with type A, B, or O blood unless there is incompatibility with respect to some other blood group system also present. Persons with type AB blood can receive type A, B, or O blood, as shown in the [table]. Blood group O is the most common blood type throughout the world, particularly among peoples of South and Central America. Type B is prevalent in Asia, especially in northern India. Type A also is common all over the world; the highest frequency is among the Blackfoot Indians of Montana and in the Sami people of northern Scandinavia. The ABO antigens are developed well before birth and remain throughout life. Children acquire ABO antibodies passively from their mother before birth, but by three months infants are making their own—it is believed the stimulus for such antibody formation is from contact with ABO-like antigenic substances in nature. [][Erythroblastosis fetalis] (hemolytic disease of the newborn) is a type of anemia in which the red blood cells of the fetus are destroyed by the maternal immune system because of a blood group incompatibility between the fetus and its mother, particularly in matings where the mother is type O and the father type A.

actor-manager system

method of theatrical production dominant in England and the U.S. in the 19th century, consisting of a permanent company formed by a leading []actor who chose his own plays, took a leading role in them, and handled business and financial arrangements. The advantages of this system became apparent in the 18th century when successful actor-managers such as Colley Cibber and David Garrick achieved performance standards superior to those achieved by theatre owners who hired occasional casts for individual plays. In the 19th century great actor-managers such as William Charles Macready, Sir Henry Irving, Madame Vestris, and Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree maintained high standards. [][Shakespeare] was an ever-popular staple in their repertoires because it afforded the actor-manager an opportunity for his interpretation of a famous role such as Shylock, Iago, or Richard III. The era of the actor-manager, however, was geared to star performances, and often the actor's most famous performance was in an inferior literary work, such as Sir Henry Irving's role in the horror play *The Bells.* The trend toward realism, partly the result of controlled lighting that allowed for the darkening of the auditorium, thus creating an aesthetic distance between actor and audience, led to the decline of personality-dominated plays. The actor-manager was replaced first by the [stage manager], who unified the various effects of the performance from the point of view of an onlooker, and later by the more creative []director, who imposed his own interpretation on the play.

Absaroka Range

mountain segment of the northern Rocky Mountains, in northwestern Wyoming and southern Montana, U.S. Extending in a northwest-southeast direction, the range is 170 miles (270 km) long and 50 miles wide. A large plateau, the result of volcanic action, was uplifted in the area, and stream and glacial erosion have produced spectacular features. Eight summits exceed 12,000 feet (3,700 m), including []Francs Peak (13,140 feet), the highest point. The range is a source for headstreams of the Bighorn River and embraces portions of the Gallatin, Shoshone, and Custer national forests and the extreme northeastern part of Yellowstone National Park. [][Granite Peak] (12,799 feet), the highest point in Montana, is in the Beartooth Range, a northeastern spur of the Absarokas.

acid halide

neutral compound that reacts with water to produce an acid and a hydrogen halide. Acid halides are ordinarily derived from acids or their salts by replacement of hydroxyl groups by halogen atoms. The most important organic acid halides are the chlorides derived from carboxylic acids and from sulfonic acids. The carboxylic acid chlorides, called [acyl halides], are generally more reactive than the sulfonic acid chlorides, called [sulfonyl chlorides]. The acyl halides are highly reactive substances used primarily in organic syntheses to introduce the acyl group. They react with water, ammonia, and alcohols to give carboxylic acids, amides, and esters, respectively. Most acyl halides are liquids insoluble in water. They have sharp odours and irritate the mucous membranes. Sulfonyl chlorides (RSO~2~Cl) react with ammonia to form sulfonamides, including the sulfa drugs. Common halides of inorganic acids include chlorosulfuric acid (ClSO~3~H; formerly called chlorosulfonic acid) and sulfuryl chloride (SO~2~Cl~2~), corresponding to the replacement of one or both hydroxyl groups of sulfuric acid, H~2~SO~4~ or SO~2~(OH)~2~; thionyl chloride (SOCl~2~), the chloride of sulfurous acid; phosphorus trichloride (PCl~3~), the chloride of phosphorous acid; and phosphorus oxychloride (POCl~3~, also called phosphoryl chloride), the chloride of phosphoric acid.

4-H Club

one of an organization of clubs for youth aged 10 to 21 who engage in programs of "learning by doing." The clubs are found principally in the United States and Canada, though some 80 other nations have adopted the idea. The 4-H Club emblem is the four-leaf clover with the letter H on each leaf; the club colours are green and white. The name 4-H is suggested in the pledge: > I pledge\ > My Head to clearer thinking,\ > My Heart to greater loyalty,\ > My Hands to larger service, and\ > My Health to better living, for\ > My Club, my Community, and my Country.\ The clubs originated among rural youth in the United States in the early years of the 20th century, the name 4-H Club being generally accepted by 1924. Adult supervisors in the United States are recruited and trained by the extension services of the land-grant colleges and universities, as well as the U.S. Department of Agriculture and county governments, which cooperate under provisions of the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 and subsequent acts of Congress and the state legislatures. Four-H clubs are no longer limited to rural youth; enrollment is approximately 50 percent farm, 30 percent rural nonfarm, and 20 percent urban. Each local club—they vary in size but average 24 members—elects its own officers and plans and carries on its program with the guidance and instruction of one or more adult leaders, assisted by junior leaders. More than 50 different projects may be undertaken by 4-H members. For example, among agricultural activities that may be carried on in accordance with recognized approved practices are growing a field crop; raising a garden or a flock of poultry; purchasing, breeding, and caring for a sow and her litter of pigs; raising a dairy calf to maturity and building a dairy herd; feeding and fattening for market one or more beef steers; or running and maintaining tractors and other farm machinery. Typical projects developed for urban as well as rural youngsters are automotive care and safety; dog care and training; electrical and electronic work; indoor gardening; operation of power lawn equipment; and safety work. Projects in home economics include such basic activities as food preparation, sewing, and home furnishing.

actuary

one who calculates insurance risks and premiums. Actuaries compute the probability of the occurrence of various contingencies of human life, such as birth, marriage, sickness, unemployment, accidents, retirement, and death. They also evaluate the hazards of property damage or loss and the legal liability for the safety and well-being of others. Most actuaries are employed by insurance companies. They make statistical studies to establish basic mortality and morbidity tables, develop corresponding premium rates, establish underwriting practices and procedures, determine the amounts of money required to assure payment of benefits, analyze company earnings, and counsel with the company accounting staff in organizing records and statements. In many insurance companies the actuary is a senior officer. Some actuaries serve as consultants, and some are employed by large industrial corporations and governments to advise on insurance and pension matters.

9to5, National Association of Working Women

organization established in 1973 and dedicated to improving the working conditions and ensuring the rights of women office workers in the United States. The group had its origins in *[]9to5 News,* a newsletter that was first published in December 1972. About a year later, the newsletter's publishers announced the formation of []Boston 9to5, a grassroots collective for women office workers that addressed issues such as low pay and lack of opportunities for advancement. One of the organization's earliest victories included a class-action suit filed against several Boston publishing companies that awarded the female plaintiffs \$1.5 million in back pay. In 1977 Boston 9to5 joined forces with several like-minded associations to create the Working Women Organizing Project, a national organization headed by Karen Nussbaum, one of Boston 9to5's founders. Nussbaum enlisted the cooperation of the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) and formed Local 925 of the SEIU in Boston to gain for office workers the advantages of collective bargaining After several name changes, the organization adopted its current name in 1983, and 9to5, National Association of Working Women, evolved into the largest membership organization of working women in the United States. During the 1980s and '90s, 9to5 focused on issues such as the effects of automation, pay inequities, medical leave, and racial and sexual harassment and discrimination. The organization effectively used the media and lobbied legislators as part of a campaign to warn the public of the health dangers of video display terminals (also known as VDTs) and has also used the media to draw attention to several sexual harassment cases in the 1990s. As part of its educational efforts, 9to5 established the []Job Retention Project in 1987 to assist office workers in developing time-management, goal-setting, and problem-solving skills. In addition, the organization publishes fact sheets, newsletters, and books, such as *The Job/Family Challenge: A 9to5 Guide* (1995), by Ellen Bravo, that keep workers abreast of current issues. The organization is headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

absentee ownership

originally, ownership of []land by proprietors who did not reside on the land or cultivate it themselves but enjoyed income from it. The term absentee ownership has assumed a derogatory social connotation not inherent in its literal meaning, based on the assumption that absentee owners lack personal interest in and knowledge of their lands and tenants. Absentee ownership has been a social and political issue for centuries in many parts of the world. It was, for example, a basis for the criticism directed at a portion of the court nobility in pre-Revolutionary France and was also prominent in the debates concerning the exploitation of Irish tenants by English absentee owners in the 19th century. It continues to be a crucial economic issue in the land reform programs of many developing countries.

acrylic painting

painting executed in the medium of synthetic []acrylic resins. Acrylics dry rapidly, serve as a vehicle for any kind of pigment, and are capable of giving both the transparent brilliance of watercolour and the density of oil paint. They are considered to be less affected by heat and other destructive forces than is oil paint. Because of all these desirable characteristics, acrylic paints became immediately popular with artists when they were first commercially promoted in the 1960s.

38th parallel

parallel of latitude that in East Asia roughly []demarcates []North and [South Korea]. The line was chosen by [U.S. military planners] at the Potsdam Conference, in July 1945, as an army boundary, north of which the [][U.S.S.R]. was to accept the surrender of the Japanese forces in Korea and south of which the Americans were to accept the Japanese surrender. The line was intended as a temporary division of the country, but the onset of the [][Cold War] led to the establishment of a separate U.S.-oriented regime in South Korea under Syngman Rhee and a communist regime in North Korea under Kim Il-sung. After the onset of the [][Korean War] between North and South Korea in June 1950, United Nations forces, which, under U.S. general Douglas MacArthur, had come to the aid of the south, moved north of the 38th parallel in an attempt to occupy North Korea. With the intervention of Chinese troops, the war came to a stalemate roughly along that parallel. The cease-fire line, fixed at the time of the armistice agreement, gave South Korea possession of an eastern mountainous area north of the parallel, which was the major battlefront when the demarcation line was fixed.

acoustic trauma

physiological changes in the body caused by sound waves. Sound waves cause variations in pressure, the intensity of which depends upon the range of oscillation, the force exerting the sound, and the distribution of waves. Excessive noise exposures can cause hearing loss and produce physical damage to the components of the ear. The ability to interpret sounds can decrease as a result of continuous exposures to sound waves of sufficient intensity and duration. Hearing loss can be caused by damage to the middle [][ear], tympanic membrane (eardrum), and inner ear. The [hair cells] that line the inner ear and take part in the process of hearing can be irreversibly damaged by excessive [][noise] levels. Intense sound blasts can rupture the tympanic membrane and dislocate or fracture the small bones of the middle ear. Hearing loss that comes from middle-ear damage can sometimes be corrected. A ruptured membrane usually heals in time, restoring most of the hearing loss. The small bones of the ear may be repaired or replaced by surgery. Pain felt in the ears from sound waves serves as a warning that the threshold for damage has been reached. Nonauditory effects of acoustic energy can also occur; most of these can be prevented by use of ear protection devices. The body's equilibrium is partially controlled by the vestibular system in the ears; high-level noise may cause disorientation, motion sickness, and dizziness. Noise does not usually affect the speed at which work is performed; it may increase the number of errors, however. More constant noises of moderate to high levels cause stress, fatigue, and irritability.

abyssal zone

portion of the ocean deeper than about 2,000 m (6,600 feet) and shallower than about 6,000 m (20,000 feet). The zone is defined mainly by its extremely uniform environmental conditions, as reflected in the distinct life forms inhabiting it. The upper boundary between the abyssal zone and the overlying [][bathyal zone] is conveniently defined as the depth at which the water temperature is 4° C (39° F); this depth varies between 1,000 and 3,000 m. Waters deeper than 6,000 m are treated separately as the hadal realm by ecologists. The abyssal realm is the largest environment for Earth life, covering 300,000,000 square km (115,000,000 square miles), about 60 percent of the global surface and 83 percent of the area of oceans and seas. Abyssal waters originate at the air-sea interface in polar regions, principally the Antarctic. There, the cold climate produces sea ice and residual cold brine. Because of its high density, the brine sinks and slowly flows along the bottom toward the Equator. Abyssal salinities range narrowly between 34.6 and 35.0 parts per thousand, and temperatures are mostly between 0° and 4° C (32° and 39° F). Pressure increases by about one atmosphere (approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level) with each 10-metre increment in depth; thus, abyssal pressures range between 200 and 600 atmospheres. Pressure presents few problems for abyssal animals, however, because the pressures within their bodies are the same as those outside them. The concentrations of nutrient salts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica are very uniform in abyssal waters and are much higher than in overlying waters. This is because abyssal and hadal waters are the reservoir for the salts from decomposed biological materials that settle downward from upper zones, and the lack of sunlight prevents their uptake by photosynthesis.

Actors Studio, The

prestigious professional actors' workshop in New York City whose members have been among the most influential performers in American theatre and film since World War II. It is one of the leading centres for the Stanislavsky method of dramatic training. Founded in New York City in 1947 by directors Cheryl Crawford, Elia Kazan, and Robert Lewis, it provides a place where actors can work together without the pressures of commercial production. Actors Studio membership, which is for life, is by invitation; from 1,000 auditions, six or seven new members are chosen each year. [][Lee Strasberg] was director from 1948 to 1982. Strasberg extended the teachings of Stanislavsky and developed method acting, in which actors used their own emotional memory for the purpose of dramatic motivation. In 1962 a production company was added to its activities, and later a western workshop was opened in Los Angeles.

1763, Proclamation of

proclamation declared by the British crown at the end of the French and Indian War in North America, mainly intended to conciliate the Indians by checking the encroachment of white settlers on their lands. After Indian grievances had resulted in the start of Pontiac's War (1763-64), British authorities determined to subdue intercolonial rivalries and abuses by dealing with Indian problems as a whole. To this end, the proclamation organized new British territories in America—the provinces of Quebec, East and West Florida, and Grenada (in the Windward Islands)—and a vast British-administered Indian reservation west of the Appalachians, from south of Hudson Bay to north of the Floridas. It forbade all white settlement on Indian territory, ordered those settlers already there to withdraw, and strictly limited future settlement. For the first time in the history of European colonization in the New World, the proclamation formalized the concept of Indian land titles, prohibiting issuance of patents to any lands claimed by a tribe unless the Indian title had first been extinguished by purchase or treaty. Although not intended to alter western boundaries, the proclamation was nevertheless offensive to the colonies as undue interference in their affairs. Treaties following Pontiac's War drew a more acceptable line of settlement (*see* [Fort Stanwix, Treaties of]), and the balance of territory north of the Ohio River was added to Quebec in 1774. The proclamation, however, failed to stem the westward movement of pioneers, whose disregard of its provisions evoked decades of continued Indian warfare throughout the area.

acceleration

rate at which velocity changes with time, in terms of both speed and direction. A point or an object moving in a straight line is accelerated if it speeds up or slows down. Motion on a circle is accelerated even if the speed is constant, because the direction is continually changing. For all other kinds of motion, both effects contribute to the acceleration. Because acceleration has both a magnitude and a direction, it is a [vector] quantity. [][Velocity] is also a vector quantity. Acceleration is defined as the change in the velocity vector in a time interval, divided by the time interval. Instantaneous acceleration (at a precise moment and location) is given by the limit of the ratio of the change in velocity during a given time interval to the time interval as the time interval goes to zero (*see* [analysis: Instantaneous rates of change]). For example, if velocity is expressed in metres per second, acceleration will be expressed in metres per second per second.

1830, Revolutions of

rebellions against conservative kings and governments by liberals and revolutionaries in different parts of Europe in 1830-32. The movement started in [France], prompted by [][Charles X's] publication on July 26 of four ordinances dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press, modifying the electoral laws so that three-fourths of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new elections to the Chamber in September. Strikes and protests were followed by armed confrontations. The royal forces were unable to contain the insurrection; and, after three days of fighting (July 27-29), Charles abdicated the throne and soon afterward fled to England. The radicals wanted to establish a republic, and the aristocracy were loyal to Charles, but the upper-middle class were victorious in their decision to offer the crown to the Duke of Orléans, [][Louis-Philippe], who had fought for the French Republic in 1792. Louis-Philippe agreed to be "King of the French." When the "July Revolution" was over, the Chamber of Peers had been transformed from a hereditary body into a nominated house, special tribunals were abolished, the alliance of the monarchy and the Roman Catholic church was ended, and the white flag of the Bourbons was replaced by the tricolour. (*See* *also* [July Revolution].) Liberals throughout Europe were encouraged to hope for a general social revolution, but most were disappointed. Louis-Philippe did not want a war and, contrary to expectations, did not support the [Poles], who had [][revolted] against the [Russian] [][tsar]. Their revolt was ruthlessly suppressed, and Poland was incorporated into the Russian Empire. Revolts in [][Italy] and the [German] kingdoms were equally unsuccessful. [Belgium] declared its independence from [The Netherlands], and it was recognized in 1831 as a separate nation. For several years the [][Greeks] had been fighting for their independence from the [][Ottoman Empire], and in 1832 the European powers recognized Greece as an independent sovereign state.

Abitibi River

river, northeastern Ontario, Canada. From its source in the shallow 359-square-mile (931-square-km) Abitibi Lake, lying across the Ontario-Quebec border, the river descends 868 feet (265 m) as it flows generally northward for 340 miles (547 km) to join the Moose River and empty into the southern end of James Bay. The heavily forested Abitibi River valley supports an extensive pulp and paper industry, centred at Iroquois Falls. Gold mining has long been important in the lake region, and tourism has become increasingly significant in the economy. Abitibi is an Algonquian Indian term (*abitah*, "middle," and *nipi*, "water") describing the lake's midway location on an old canoe route between the Ottawa Valley and James Bay.

1850, Compromise of

series of compromise measures passed by the U.S. Congress in an effort to settle several outstanding slavery issues and to avert the threat of dissolution of the Union. The crisis arose from the request of the territory of [][California] (Dec. 3, 1849) to be admitted to the Union with a constitution prohibiting [slavery]. The problem was complicated by the unresolved question of slavery's extension into other areas ceded by Mexico the preceding year. To maintain an even balance between free and slave states, a series of measures was offered by the "great compromiser," Senator [][Henry Clay] of Kentucky. In an attempt to give satisfaction to both proslavery and antislavery forces, the important sections of the omnibus bill called for the admission of California as a free state, the organization of the territories of New Mexico and Utah with the slavery question left open (*see* [][popular sovereignty]), settlement of the Texas-New Mexico boundary dispute, a more rigorous provision for the return of runaway slaves, and the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. With the influential support of Senator [][Daniel Webster] and the concerted unifying efforts of Senator Stephen A. [][Douglas], the five compromise measures were enacted in September. These measures were accepted by moderates in all sections of the country, and the secession of the South was postponed for a decade. The Compromise, however, contained the seeds of future discord. The precedent of popular sovereignty led to a demand for a similar provision for the Kansas Territory in 1854, causing bitterness and violence there (*see* [Bleeding Kansas]). Furthermore, the application of the new [][Fugitive Slave Act] triggered such a strong reaction throughout the North that many moderate antislavery elements became determined opponents of any further extension of slavery into the territories. While the Compromise of 1850 succeeded as a temporary expedient, it also proved the failure of compromise as a permanent political solution when vital sectional interests were at stake.

1848, Revolutions of

series of republican revolts against European monarchies, beginning in Sicily, and spreading to France, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. They all ended in failure and repression, and were followed by widespread disillusionment among liberals. The revolutionary movement began in Italy with a local revolution in Sicily in January 1848; and, after the revolution of February 24 in France, the movement extended throughout the whole of Europe with the exception of Russia, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries. In Great [Britain] it amounted to little more than a Chartist demonstration and a republican agitation in Ireland. In [Belgium], [The Netherlands], and [Denmark] it manifested itself in peaceful reforms of existing institutions; but democratic insurrections broke out in the capitals of the three great monarchies, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin, where the governments, rendered powerless by their fear of "the revolution," did little to defend themselves. The revolution was successful in [France] alone; the Second Republic and universal manhood suffrage were established, but the quarrel between the supporters of the *république démocratique* and the partisans of *république démocratique et sociale* culminated in a workers' insurrection in June 1848. In [Austria], where the new ministers promised to grant constitutions, the monarchy withstood the storm; and in [][Prussia] King [][Frederick William IV], who led the movement for the unification of [Germany], hoisted the black, red, and gold flag that had become the symbol of German unity. The German governments agreed to the convocation of three constituent assemblies at Berlin, Vienna, and Frankfurt by which democratic constitutions were to be drafted for Prussia, Austria, and Germany. In [Italy], at first, the revolution only took the form of a nationalist rising against Austria led by the king of Sardinia under the Italian tricolour, the "white, red and green." The republic was proclaimed in 1849, and then only in Rome and Tuscany. Within the Austrian empire the nationalities subjected to the German Government of Vienna agitated for a national government, and Hungary succeeded in organizing itself on an autonomous basis.

acrostic

short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The term is derived from the Greek words *akros,* "at the end," and *stichos,*"line," or "verse." The word was first applied to the prophecies of the Erythraean [][Sibyl], which were written on leaves and arranged so that the initial letters of the leaves always formed a word. Acrostics were common among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with the Latin writers Ennius and Plautus, many of the arguments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respective titles. Medieval monks were also fond of acrostics, as were the poets of the Middle High German and Italian Renaissance periods. The term acrostic is also applied to [][alphabetical], or abecedarian, verses, in which each line after the first, which begins with *a,* uses a succeeding letter of the alphabet. Examples of these are some of the Psalms (in Hebrew), such as Psalms 25 and 34, where successive verses begin with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in order. []Double acrostics are puzzles constructed so that not only the initial letters of the lines but in some cases also the middle or last letters form words. In the United States, the []Double Crostic puzzle, devised by Elizabeth Kingsley for the *Saturday Review* in 1934, had an acrostic in the answers to the clues giving the author and title of a literary work; the letters, keyed by number to blanks like those of a crossword puzzle, spelled out a quotation.

acceptance

short-term credit instrument consisting of a written order requiring a buyer to pay a specified sum at a given date to the seller, signed by the buyer as an indication of his intention to honour his obligation. Acceptances are used in financing [export] and import operations and in some domestic transactions involving staple commodities. An exporter of goods, for example, may send such an order to pay to the buyer, who signs it to indicate his acceptance of the obligation and returns it to the exporter. The exporter can then obtain his payment promptly by selling the bill (or acceptance) to his bank at a discount. The buyer has obtained time (until the bill's maturity date) to dispose of the goods and obtain the funds to meet his obligation. This is known as a []self-liquidating transaction, and this characteristic has given trade acceptances excellent credit standing (with consequent widespread use) in many countries. The acceptance market therefore provides investors with a means of employing temporarily excess funds for short periods of time with a minimum of risk. If a bill of exchange is accepted by the buyer of the goods, it is known as a trade acceptance. If the bill is drawn against and accepted by a bank (commonly done when the buyer is not a widely known firm), it is called a banker's acceptance.

abyssal hill

small, topographically well-defined submarine hill that may rise from several metres to several hundred metres above the abyssal seafloor, in water 3,000 to 6,000 m (10,000 to 20,000 feet) deep. Typical hills have diameters of several to several hundred metres. Abyssal-hill provinces, areas of abyssal seafloor occupied exclusively by such hills, characteristically occur seaward of the smooth abyssal plains at the bases of continental rises. Isolated hills and groups of hills also protrude from abyssal-plain surfaces, and the base of an abyssal-plain accumulation of sediment, as revealed by sub-bottom seismic profiling, generally matches the undulating topography and relief of abyssal-hill provinces. Abyssal hills, although generally covered with marine sediments, probably are identical in composition and origin to the extrusive basaltic prominences on the upper flanks of mid-oceanic ridges and rises. Thus, it is believed that abyssal hills underlie most of the ocean floor, locally buried by accumulations of abyssal sediment. In the [][Atlantic Ocean], long abyssal-hill provinces parallel both flanks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge along most of its length. The [][Pacific Ocean] has a smaller supply of continental sediment than the Atlantic Ocean, and numerous trenches and local rises separate the main ocean floor from the continents, preventing the seaward transport of sediment; consequently, between 80 and 85 percent of the Pacific abyssal floor is occupied by abyssal hills.

Abia

state, east-central Nigeria. Abia was administratively created in 1991 from the eastern half of former Imo state. It is bordered by the states of Enugu to the north, Cross River and Akwa Ibom to the east, Rivers to the south, and Imo and Anambra to the west. Abia includes areas of oil-palm bush and tropical rain forest in its southern part and woodland savanna in its hilly north. Most of the population is engaged in agriculture; yams, taro, corn (maize), rice, and cassava are the staple crops, and oil palm is the main cash crop. Mineral resources include lead and zinc. The state's chief industrial centre is Aba, which lies on the railway north from Port Harcourt and manufactures textiles, pharmaceuticals, soap, plastics, cement, footware, and cosmetics. Umuahia, the state capital, has a palm-oil-processing plant and several breweries. Abia state is mainly inhabited by the Igbo (Ibo) people and is one of the most densely populated areas in Nigeria. The main highway network serves Umuahia and Aba. Pop. (1991) 2,297,978.

Adamawa

state, northeastern Nigeria. It was administratively created in 1991 from the northeastern half of former Gongola state. Adamawa is bordered on the north and northwest by Borno and Bauchi states, on the west and southwest by Taraba state, and on the southeast and east by Cameroon. The Mandara Mountains lie in the northeastern part of the state along the Cameroon border, and the Shebshi Mountains rise to Mount Dimlang (6,699 feet [2,042 m]) in the state's southeastern portion. Adamawa state is largely covered by short-grass savanna and is drained westward by the Benue River and its tributaries, including the Gongola, Taraba, and Pai rivers. Besides the dominant Fulani, Adamawa is also inhabited by the Mumuye, Higi, Kapsiki, Chamba, Margi (Marghi), Hausa, Kilba, Gude, Wurkum, Jukun, and Bata peoples. All these groups except the trader Hausa population are primarily engaged in farming and herding (cattle, goats, sheep), but fishing is also important along the riverbanks. Peanuts (groundnuts), cotton, sorghum, millet, rice, and corn (maize) are the main crops. Peanuts and cotton are exported, as are cattle, dyed skins, and gum arabic. Cottage industries include leatherwork, calabash decoration, mat weaving, pottery making, metalwork, canoe carving, and cloth dyeing. Industries are all agriculturally based and include a sugar-processing plant near Numan, a timber industry at Yola (the state capital), and a cotton ginnery at Lamurde. The state's road system is limited. Yola, the site of a federal university of technology, is served by an airport, and the Benue River allows for river transport. Pop. (1991) 2,124,049.

Acarí, Río de

stream in southwestern Peru, rising in the Cordillera Occidental and flowing to the Pacific Ocean; its valley is the site of remains of the [][Nazca] culture.

ABC

tabloid daily newspaper published in Madrid and long regarded as one of [][Spain]'s leading papers. It was founded as a weekly in 1903 by journalist []Torcuato Luca de Tena y Alvarez-Ossorio, who later (1929) was made the marqués de Luca de Tena by King [Alfonso XIII] in recognition of his accomplishments with *ABC*. The paper became a daily in 1905 and after 1929 published a Seville edition. *ABC* was monarchist in orientation from its founding, and during the [Spanish Civil War] it was taken over by the Republican government—nominally in 1931 and then, after several months' suspension in 1932 and continued resistance to censorship, completely in 1936. It returned to private control, and, although it supported the dictatorial regime of [Francisco Franco], it remained critical of government excesses. *ABC* has always been noted for its graphics; it was a heavy user of photography from its inception, and the front page is typically an action photograph that covers nearly the entire page. In more recent times, the paper has won wide acclaim for its coverage of Spanish culture and the arts. By the end of the 20th century, its daily circulation had reached about 335,000.

abortion

the expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation). An abortion may occur spontaneously, in which case it is also called a [miscarriage], or it may be brought on purposefully, in which case it is often called an induced abortion. Spontaneous abortions, or miscarriages, occur for many reasons, including disease, trauma, genetic defect, or biochemical incompatibility of mother and fetus. Occasionally a fetus dies in the uterus but fails to be expelled, a condition termed a missed abortion. Induced abortions may be performed for reasons that fall into four general categories: to preserve the life or physical or mental well-being of the mother; to prevent the completion of a pregnancy that has resulted from rape or incest; to prevent the birth of a child with serious deformity, mental deficiency, or genetic abnormality; or to prevent a birth for social or economic reasons (such as the extreme youth of the pregnant female or the sorely strained resources of the family unit). By some definitions, abortions that are performed to preserve the well-being of the female or in cases of rape or incest are therapeutic, or justifiable, abortions. Numerous medical techniques exist for performing abortions. During the first trimester (up to about 12 weeks after conception), endometrial aspiration, suction, or [][curettage] may be used to remove the contents of the uterus. In endometrial aspiration, a thin, flexible tube is inserted up the cervical canal (the neck of the womb) and then sucks out the lining of the uterus (the endometrium) by means of an electric pump.

academic freedom

the freedom of teachers and students to teach, study, and pursue knowledge and research without unreasonable interference or restriction from law, institutional regulations, or public pressure. Its basic elements include the freedom of teachers to inquire into any subject that evokes their intellectual concern; to present their findings to their students, colleagues, and others; to publish their data and conclusions without control or censorship; and to teach in the manner they consider professionally appropriate. For students, the basic elements include the freedom to study subjects that concern them and to form conclusions for themselves and express their opinions. According to its proponents, the justification for academic freedom thus defined lies not in the comfort or convenience of teachers and students but in the benefits to society; i.e., the long-term interests of a society are best served when the educational process leads to the advancement of knowledge, and knowledge is best advanced when inquiry is free from restraints by the state, by the church or other institutions, or by special-interest groups. The foundation for academic freedom was laid by the medieval European universities, even though their faculties met periodically to condemn on religious grounds colleagues' writings. Protected by papal bulls and royal charters, the universities became legally self-governing corporations with the freedom to organize their own faculties, control admissions, and establish standards for graduation. Until the 18th century the Roman Catholic church and, in some areas, its Protestant successors exerted censorship over universities or certain members of their faculties. Similarly, in the 18th and 19th centuries the newly emerged nation-states of Europe constituted the chief threat to universities' autonomy. Professors were subject to governmental authority and were liable to be allowed to teach only what was acceptable to the government in power. Thus began a tension that has continued to the present. Some states permitted or encouraged academic freedom and set an example for subsequent emulation. For example, the University of Leiden in The Netherlands (founded in 1575) provided great freedom from religious and political restraints for its teachers and students. The University of Göttingen in Germany became a beacon of academic freedom in the 18th century, and, with the founding of the [][University of Berlin] in 1811, the basic principles of *Lehrfreiheit* ("freedom to teach") and *Lernfreiheit* ("freedom to learn") were firmly established and became the model that inspired universities elsewhere throughout Europe and the Americas.

absolutism

the political doctrine and practice of unlimited, centralized authority and absolute [sovereignty], as vested especially in a [][monarch] or [][dictator]. The essence of an absolutist system is that the ruling power is not subject to regularized challenge or check by any other agency, be it judicial, legislative, religious, economic, or electoral. King [][Louis XIV] (1643-1715) of France furnished the most familiar assertion of absolutism when he said, "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state"). Absolutism has existed in various forms in all parts of the world, including in Nazi Germany under [Adolf Hitler] and in the Soviet Union under [Joseph Stalin]. A brief treatment of absolutism follows. For full treatment, *see* [European History and Culture: *Absolutism*]. The most commonly studied form of absolutism is absolute monarchy, which originated in early modern [][Europe] and was based on the strong individual leaders of the new nation-states that were created at the breakup of the medieval order. The power of these states was closely associated with the power of their rulers; to strengthen both, it was necessary to curtail the restraints on centralized government that had been exercised by the church, feudal lords, and medieval customary law. By claiming the absolute authority of the state against such former restraints, the monarch as head of state claimed his own absolute authority. By the 16th century monarchical absolutism prevailed in much of western Europe, and it was widespread in the 17th and 18th centuries. Besides France, whose absolutism was epitomized by Louis XIV, absolutism existed in a variety of other European countries, including Spain, Prussia, and Austria.

acculturation

the processes of change in artifacts, customs, and beliefs that result from the contact of societies with different cultural traditions. The term is also used to refer to the results of such changes. Two major types of acculturation may be distinguished based on two classes of conditions under which changes take place. A free "borrowing" and modification of cultural elements may occur when people of different cultures maintain an interchange without the exercise of military or political domination of one group by another. These new elements may be integrated into the existing culture in a process called []incorporation. The unconquered [][Navajo] Indians, in frequent and varied contact with Spanish colonists in the 18th century, selected elements of Spanish culture such as clothing and metalworking techniques that were integrated into their own culture in their own way. []Directed change, the second type of acculturation, takes place when one people establishes dominance over another through military conquest or political control. Directed change characterized the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean region and western Europe, the American conquest of the North American Indians, the European domination of Africa, and many other political expansions. Directed culture change, like incorporation, involves selection and modification, but the processes are more varied and the results more complex because they result from the interference in one cultural system by members of another. The processes that operate under conditions of directed change include assimilation, the almost complete replacement of one culture by another; cultural fusion, a new synthesis of cultural elements differing from both precontact cultures; and reaction against aspects of the dominant culture.

*also spelled **Odor,** *

the property of certain substances, in very small concentrations, to stimulate chemical sense [][receptors] that sample the air or water surrounding an animal. In insects and other invertebrates and in aquatic animals, the perception of small chemical concentrations often merges with perception via contact of heavy concentrations (taste), and with other chemoreceptive specializations. *See also* [smell].

abbess

the title of a superior of certain communities of nuns following the Benedictine Rule, of convents of the Second Order of St. Francis (Poor Clares), and of certain communities of canonesses. The first historical record of the name is on a Roman inscription dated *c.* 514. To be elected, an abbess must be at least 40 years old and a professed nun for at least 10 years. She is solemnly blessed by the diocesan bishop in a rite similar to that of the blessing of abbots. Her blessing gives her the right to certain pontifical insignia: the ring and sometimes the crosier. In medieval times abbesses occasionally ruled double monasteries of monks and nuns and enjoyed various privileges and honours. *See also* [abbot].

Abbeville

town, Somme *département*, [Picardy] *région*, northern France, near the mouth of the canalized Somme, northwest of [Amiens]. Stone Age artifacts unearthed by Boucher de Crèvecoeur de Perthes in 1844 attesting to early occupation of the site are displayed at the Musée Boucher-de-Perthes. The town originated as Abbatis Villa, a 9th-century dependency of the abbots of Saint-Riquier, and was chartered in 1184. Under the English (1272-1435), it was capital of Ponthieu. Louis XII's marriage (1514) to Mary, sister of Henry VIII of England, took place there. The Gothic church of Saint-Vulfran (15th-17th centuries) and the town hall with its 13th-century tower survived air bombardment during World War II, which destroyed the greater part of the town. Abbeville is an important local administrative and service centre and is serviced by major motorways. Industry is limited but includes food-processing and metal goods manufacture. Pop. (1990) 23,787; (1999) 24,567.

Abakaliki

town, capital of Ebonyi state, southeastern Nigeria. It lies at the intersection of roads from [Enugu], Afikpo, and [Ogoja]. An agricultural trade centre (yams, cassava, rice, and palm oil and kernels) for the [Igbo] (Ibo) people, the town is located in an area known for its lead, zinc, and limestone deposits. Lead has been mined since precolonial times, and limestone is quarried for a cement plant at Nkalagu, 22 miles (35 km) west-northwest. Abakaliki's government farm promotes egg and poultry production. A university is located in the town. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 83,651.

Abéché

town, eastern Chad, between the wadis Chao and Sao. Historically it was the site of the capital of the Muslim sultanate of [Ouaddaï] (*q.v.*), which dominated much of the area of Chad before French conquest was accomplished in 1912. The remains of the ancient capital include a palace, tombs of former sultans, and the ruins of a mosque, all surrounded by a thick wall. The town has many mosques. Abéché is surrounded by savanna-type terrain that is an important cattle-raising area, but the distance from suitable markets hinders development of the cattle industry. Abéché is linked by main road to the capital, N'Djamena (formerly Fort-Lamy), Sarh (formerly Fort-Archambault), and The Sudan. The Lycée Franco-Arabe (a secondary school) is in the town, which has an airport and a hospital and supports some light industry, including the manufacture of camel-hair blankets. Pop. (1988 est.) 40,000.

Abengourou

town, eastern [Côte d'Ivoire] (Ivory Coast), on the road from Abidjan (the national capital) to Ghana. The major trading centre for a productive forest region, it is also the residence of the Anyi (Agni) paramount chief, who is the present king of Indénié (an Anyi kingdom founded in the mid-18th century). The king's official residence (built 1882) is decorated with Indénié relics and tapestries. Abengourou has an agricultural-vocational-training institute and research station for coffee and cocoa, the region's major crops, which are sent to Abidjan (100 miles [161 km] south-southwest) for export. The town is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, several schools, and one of the largest hospitals in the interior. Pop. (latest est.) 58,974.

Abomey

town, southern [Benin], located about 60 miles (100 km) north of [Cotonou]. Probably founded in the early 17th century, it soon became the capital of the kingdom of Abomey (later [Dahomey]; the country's previous name), which dominated production and trade with the European enterprises on the [Slave Coast] until the late 19th century. The town is located in an area where palm nuts and peanuts (groundnuts) are grown; it is connected by road and rail to Cotonou, the country's main commercial centre, and to [Porto-Novo], the capital. The royal palaces, the tombs of the kings, and a historical museum are maintained in Abomey; the royal palaces were designated a UNESCO [][World Heritage site] in 1985. Tourism is a significant factor in the town's economy. Pop. (2002) 59,672.

Adamawa

traditional emirate centred in what is now Adamawa state, eastern Nigeria. The emirate was founded by [Modibbo Adama], who was one of Sheikh Usman dan Fodio's commanders and who began a Fulani jihad (holy war) in 1809 against the non-Muslim peoples of the region. Adama moved the capital of his kingdom, which was then known as []Fumbina, several times before settling it finally in 1841 in Yola, which has since remained the seat of the emirate. At his death, in 1848, Fumbina extended over parts of present-day eastern Nigeria and most of northern Cameroon; even as the easternmost emirate of the Fulani empire, however, it was required to pay annual tribute (mostly in slaves) to the sultans at Sokoto, the Fulani capital, 555 miles (890 km) west-northwest. Adama was succeeded by four of his sons. Lamido (Lord) Hamman (usually known as Lawal [Lauwal, or Lowal]) consolidated Fulani control during his reign (1848-72). During the weak rule of Sanda (Saanda; 1872-90), the Royal Niger Company established trading posts along the Benue River in Adamawa; when Emir Zubeiru (1890-1901) tried to force the [][British] to leave Yola in 1901, British troops captured the town and compelled him to flee. After Adamawa was partitioned in 1901 between British Northern Nigeria and [German] Kamerun (Cameroon), Bobbo Ahmadu (Bobo Amadu; 1901-09), Adama's fourth son, became emir of Yola in the British section of the state. After World War I, part of the Cameroon portion of the emirate came under French administration and part remained under British rule. The emirate's territories eventually came to form almost all of northern Cameroon and part of eastern Nigeria.

[Peter I (the Great)]#9108537.toc)

[![Photograph:Peter the Great of Russia, painting by Louis Caravaque.]] - Peter the Great of Russia, painting by Louis Caravaque. Born this day in 1672 was Russian Tsar [Peter the Great]—for whom the city of [St. Petersburg] is named—who reigned jointly or alone from 1682 to 1725 and was one of his country's greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers. [Peter I (the Great)]#9276381%20.toc) [![Photograph:Peter the Great of Russia, painting by Louis Caravaque.]] - Peter the Great of Russia, painting by Louis Caravaque. Born this day in 1672 was Russian Tsar [Peter the Great]—for whom the city of St. Petersburg is named—who reigned jointly or alone from 1682 to 1725 and was one of his country's greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers.

[Ṣaddām Ḥussein]

[![Photograph:Ṣaddām Ḥussein appearing in a courtroom after his capture, Baghdad, Iraq.]] - Ṣaddām Ḥussein appearing in a courtroom after his capture, Baghdad, Iraq. [Ṣaddām Ḥussein], who as president of [Iraq] (1979-2003) angered and outraged the international community with invasions of neighbouring Iran and Kuwait and who was [unseated by the United States], was born this day in 1937. [Ṣaddām Ḥussein] [![Photograph:Ṣaddām Ḥussein appearing in a courtroom after his capture, Baghdad, Iraq.]] - Ṣaddām Ḥussein appearing in a courtroom after his capture, Baghdad, Iraq. [Ṣaddām Ḥussein], who as president of Iraq (1979-2003) angered and outraged the international community with invasions of neighbouring Iran and Kuwait and who was unseated by the United States, was born this day in 1937.

[Vivekananda]

[Hindu] spiritual leader and reformer [Vivekananda]—who attempted to combine Indian spirituality with Western material progress, maintaining that they supplemented and complemented one another—died this day in Calcutta in 1902. Vivekananda Hindu spiritual leader and reformer Vivekananda—who attempted to combine Indian spirituality with Western material progress, maintaining that they supplemented and complemented one another—died this day in Calcutta in 1902.

[Honoré de Balzac]

> Solitude is fine but you need someone to tell you solitude is fine.\ > Honoré de Balzac French author [Honoré de Balzac]—considered one of the greatest fiction writers and best known for a collection of novels and short stories collectively called *La Comédie humaine* (*The Human Comedy*)—was born this day in 1799. [Honoré de Balzac] > Solitude is fine but you need someone to tell you solitude is fine.\ > Honoré de Balzac French author [Honoré de Balzac]—considered one of the greatest fiction writers and best known for a collection of novels and short stories collectively called *La Comédie humaine* (*The Human Comedy*)—was born this day in 1799.

[Hubert Humphrey]

> And here we, just as we ought to be, here we are, the people, here we > are in a spirit of dedication, here we are the way politics ought to > be in America, the politics of happiness, the politics of purpose, and > the politics of joy.\ > Hubert Humphrey Born this day in 1911, [Hubert Humphrey] was the 38th U.S. vice president (1965-69), a presidential candidate (1968), and a liberal Senate leader (1949-65; 1971-78) whose political base was a Democrat-Farmer-Labor coalition. [Hubert Humphrey] > And here we, just as we ought to be, here we are, the people, here we > are in a spirit of dedication, here we are the way politics ought to > be in America, the politics of happiness, the politics of purpose, and > the politics of joy.\ > Hubert Humphrey Born this day in 1911, [Hubert Humphrey] was the 38th U.S. vice president (1965-69), a presidential candidate (1968), and a liberal Senate leader (1949-65; 1971-78) whose political base was a Democrat-Farmer-Labor coalition.

[Diana, princess of Wales]

> At a dinner following the opera, she walked, alone, down a huge > winding staircase without ever looking at her feet, so we knew she was > a princess. But at dinner she ate like your sister, tearing into her > meal with a kind of wanton delight, turning aside her > lady-in-waiting's insistence that it was time to be leaving with the > flat observation that dessert hadn't come yet.\ > James R. Gaines, former managing editor of *People* magazine Born this day in 1961, [Princess Diana]—consort (1981-96) of [Prince Charles] and mother of Princes [William] and Harry—was widely admired for her charity work and style, and her 1997 death caused a massive outpouring of grief. [Diana, princess of Wales] > At a dinner following the opera, she walked, alone, down a huge > winding staircase without ever looking at her feet, so we knew she was > a princess. But at dinner she ate like your sister, tearing into her > meal with a kind of wanton delight, turning aside her > lady-in-waiting's insistence that it was time to be leaving with the > flat observation that dessert hadn't come yet.\ > James R. Gaines, former managing editor of *People* magazine Born this day in 1961, [Princess Diana]—consort (1981-96) of [Prince Charles] and mother of Princes William and Harry—was widely admired for her charity work and style, and her 1997 death caused a massive outpouring of grief.

[Howard Carter]

> At last have made wonderful discovery in Valley; a magnificent tomb > with seals intact; re-covered same for your arrival; congratulations.\ > Howard Carter, telegram to Lord Carnarvon following the discovery of > the entrance to Tutankhamen's tomb, November 5, 1922 British archaeologist [Howard Carter], who made one of the richest and most celebrated contributions to [Egyptology]—the discovery (1922) of the largely intact tomb of King [Tutankhamen]—was born this day in 1873. Howard Carter > At last have made wonderful discovery in Valley; a magnificent tomb > with seals intact; re-covered same for your arrival; congratulations.\ > Howard Carter, telegram to Lord Carnarvon following the discovery of > the entrance to Tutankhamen's tomb, November 5, 1922 British archaeologist Howard Carter, who made one of the richest and most celebrated contributions to Egyptology—the discovery (1922) of the largely intact tomb of King [Tutankhamen]—was born this day in 1873.

[Malcolm X]

> Be peaceful, be courteous, obey the law, respect everyone; but if > someone puts his hand on you, send him to the cemetery.\ > Malcolm X Black militant [Malcolm X], born this day in 1925, promoted black pride and, later, racial unity, ideas articulated in his celebrated *The Autobiography of Malcolm X*, which was published shortly after his assassination in 1965. [Malcolm X] > Be peaceful, be courteous, obey the law, respect everyone; but if > someone puts his hand on you, send him to the cemetery.\ > Malcolm X Black militant [Malcolm X], born this day in 1925, promoted black pride and, later, racial unity, ideas articulated in his celebrated *The Autobiography of Malcolm X*, which was published shortly after his assassination in 1965.

[Leoš Janáček]

> From an early age, Janáek believed that music should follow the > natural rhythms of human speech, animals, and birds. He went on to > produce works...that are romantic, delight in the natural, and have an > 'angular' and even ascetic quality and a rhythmic vitality, all at the > same time.\ > L.D. Lampson, *Classical Net* Czech composer [Leoš Janáček], born this day in 1854, was a leading exponent of musical nationalism during the 20th century, and he developed a style that was intimately connected with the inflections of the [Czech language]. [Leoš Janáček] > From an early age, Janáek believed that music should follow the > natural rhythms of human speech, animals, and birds. He went on to > produce works...that are romantic, delight in the natural, and have an > 'angular' and even ascetic quality and a rhythmic vitality, all at the > same time.\ > L.D. Lampson, *Classical Net* Czech composer [Leoš Janáček], born this day in 1854, was a leading exponent of musical nationalism during the 20th century, and he developed a style that was intimately connected with the inflections of the Czech language.

[Clint Eastwood]

> Go ahead, make my day.\ > Clint Eastwood as Harry Callahan in *Sudden Impact* (1983) American film actor [Clint Eastwood], born this day in 1930, emerged as one of the most popular Hollywood stars in the 1970s, playing such laconic and dangerous heroes as Dirty Harry, and later became an Oscar-winning director. [Clint Eastwood] > Go ahead, make my day.\ > Clint Eastwood as Harry Callahan in *Sudden Impact* (1983) American film actor [Clint Eastwood], born this day in 1930, emerged as one of the most popular Hollywood stars in the 1970s, playing such laconic and dangerous heroes as Dirty Harry, and later became an Oscar-winning director.

[John Hancock]

> Happy it is for those who dared insult us, that their naked bones are > not now piled up in an everlasting monument of Massachusetts'> bravery.\ > John Hancock, speech at a memorial for the Boston Massacre [John Hancock], born this day in 1737, was a leader of the [American Revolution], the first signer of the U.S. [Declaration of Independence], and president of the [Continental Congress] from May 1775 to October 1777. [John Hancock] > Happy it is for those who dared insult us, that their naked bones are > not now piled up in an everlasting monument of Massachusetts' > bravery.\ > John Hancock, speech at a memorial for the Boston Massacre [John Hancock], born this day in 1737, was a leader of the American Revolution, the first signer of the U.S. [Declaration of Independence], and president of the [Continental Congress] from May 1775 to October 1777.

[Judy Garland]

> I had to fight for the name. But mother finally agreed to let me > change.\ > Judy Garland, on changing her name from Frances Ethel Gumm Born this day in 1922 was American motion-picture singer and actress [Judy Garland], who is best known for her role as Dorothy Gale in *The Wizard of Oz* (1939), for which she was honoured with a special [Academy Award]. [Judy Garland] > I had to fight for the name. But mother finally agreed to let me > change.\ > Judy Garland, on changing her name from Frances Ethel Gumm Born this day in 1922 was American motion-picture singer and actress [Judy Garland], who is best known for her role as Dorothy Gale in *The Wizard of Oz* (1939), for which she was honoured with a special Academy Award.

[Frank Lloyd Wright]

> I know we can't have a great architecture while it is only for the > landlord.\ > Frank Lloyd Wright, 1932 Born this day in 1867 was architect [Frank Lloyd Wright], whose [Prairie style] became the basis of 20th-century residential design in the U.S. and who was known as the most abundantly creative genius of American architecture. [Frank Lloyd Wright] > I know we can't have a great architecture while it is only for the > landlord.\ > Frank Lloyd Wright, 1932 Born this day in 1867 was architect [Frank Lloyd Wright], whose [Prairie style] became the basis of 20th-century residential design in the U.S. and who was known as the most abundantly creative genius of American architecture.

[Thomas Jefferson]

> I would rather be exposed to the inconveniences attending too much > liberty than to those attending too small a degree of it.\ > Thomas Jefferson to Archibald Stuart, 1791. Born this day in 1743, [Thomas Jefferson] was the third [U.S. president], the principal author of the [Declaration of Independence], an influential political philosopher, and the founder and architect of the [University of Virginia]. [Thomas Jefferson] > I would rather be exposed to the inconveniences attending too much > liberty than to those attending too small a degree of it.\ > Thomas Jefferson to Archibald Stuart, 1791. Born this day in 1743, [Thomas Jefferson] was the third U.S. president, the principal author of the [Declaration of Independence], an influential political philosopher, and the founder and architect of the University of Virginia.

[Diego Velázquez]

> I would rather be the first painter of common things than second in > higher art.\ > Diego Velázquez [Diego Velázquez], baptized this day in 1599 and trained in a naturalistic style, had remarkable power of observation in portraying both the living model and still life and was the leading Spanish painter of the 17th century. [Diego Velázquez] > I would rather be the first painter of common things than second in > higher art.\ > Diego Velázquez [Diego Velázquez], baptized this day in 1599 and trained in a naturalistic style, had remarkable power of observation in portraying both the living model and still life and was the leading Spanish painter of the 17th century.

[Howlin' Wolf]

> I'm the wolf that howls, trying to be satisfied.\ > Howlin' Wolf American [blues] singer and composer [Howlin'Wolf], one of the principal exponents of the urban blues style of Chicago and noted for his brooding lyrics and his earthy, aggressive stage presence, was born this day in 1910. Howlin' Wolf > I'm the wolf that howls, trying to be satisfied.\ > Howlin' Wolf American [blues] singer and composer Howlin' Wolf, one of the principal exponents of the urban blues style of Chicago and noted for his brooding lyrics and his earthy, aggressive stage presence, was born this day in 1910.

[Albert Schweitzer]

> If I am a thinking being, I must regard life other than my own with > equal reverence, for I shall know that it longs for fullness and > development as deeply as I do myself. Therefore, I see that evil is > what annihilates, hampers, or hinders life....Goodness, by the same > token, is the saving or helping of life, the enabling of whatever life > I can to attain its highest development.\ > Albert Schweitzer, "Philosophy of Civilization," 1923 [Albert Schweitzer]—the Alsatian German theologian, philosopher, organist, and mission doctor in Africa—was born this day in 1875 and received the 1952 [Nobel Peace Prize] for his works in behalf of "the Brotherhood of Nations." [Albert Schweitzer] > If I am a thinking being, I must regard life other than my own with > equal reverence, for I shall know that it longs for fullness and > development as deeply as I do myself. Therefore, I see that evil is > what annihilates, hampers, or hinders life....Goodness, by the same > token, is the saving or helping of life, the enabling of whatever life > I can to attain its highest development.\ > Albert Schweitzer, "Philosophy of Civilization," 1923 [Albert Schweitzer]—the Alsatian German theologian, philosopher, organist, and mission doctor in Africa—was born this day in 1875 and received the 1952 [Nobel Peace Prize] for his works in behalf of "the Brotherhood of Nations."

Sir Paul McCartney

> In the end, the love you take is equal to the love you make.\ > Sir Paul McCartney, "The End" British rock star Sir Paul McCartney, born this day in Liverpool, England, in 1942, was a principal member of the [Beatles], the leading rock band of the 1960s, and was knighted by Queen [Elizabeth II] in 1997. Sir Paul McCartney > In the end, the love you take is equal to the love you make.\ > Sir Paul McCartney, "The End" British rock star Sir Paul McCartney, born this day in Liverpool, England, in 1942, was a principal member of the [Beatles], the leading rock band of the 1960s, and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1997.

[Pete Seeger]

> Some may find them merely diverting melodies. Others may find them > incitements to Red revolution. And who will say if either or both is > wrong? Not I.\ > Pete Seeger, 1972 American singer, songwriter, and activist [Pete Seeger], born this day in 1919, played a pivotal role in sustaining the [folk music] tradition and was an inspiration for younger performers in the folk revival of the 1960s. [Pete Seeger] > Some may find them merely diverting melodies. Others may find them > incitements to Red revolution. And who will say if either or both is > wrong? Not I.\ > Pete Seeger, 1972 American singer, songwriter, and activist [Pete Seeger], born this day in 1919, played a pivotal role in sustaining the folk music tradition and was an inspiration for younger performers in the folk revival of the 1960s.

[Édouard Manet]

> It will endure as the characteristic expression of his talent, as the > highest mark of his power....When other artists correct nature by > painting Venus they lie. Manet asked himself why he should lie. Why > not tell the truth?\ > [Émile > Zola], > on the painting *Olympia* (1863) by Édouard Manet French painter [Édouard Manet], who died this day in 1883, broke with the historical tradition of illusionism and paved the way for [Impressionism] with such works as *Déjeuner sur l'herbe* (1863; "Luncheon on the Grass"). [Édouard Manet] > It will endure as the characteristic expression of his talent, as the > highest mark of his power....When other artists correct nature by > painting Venus they lie. Manet asked himself why he should lie. Why > not tell the truth?\ > [Émile > Zola], > on the painting *Olympia* (1863) by Édouard Manet French painter [Édouard Manet], who died this day in 1883, broke with the historical tradition of illusionism and paved the way for Impressionism with such works as *Déjeuner sur l'herbe* (1863; "Luncheon on the Grass").

[Paul Keating]

> It's useful to put an ear to the ground, but there's nothing more > debilitating than trying to put both of them there.\ > Paul Keating, "For the New Australia," 1996 [Paul Keating], born this day in 1944, became Australia's youngest prime minister in December 1991, succeeding [Robert Hawke] as the leader of the [Australian Labor Party] and holding office until March 1996. [Paul Keating] > It's useful to put an ear to the ground, but there's nothing more > debilitating than trying to put both of them there.\ > Paul Keating, "For the New Australia," 1996 [Paul Keating], born this day in 1944, became Australia's youngest prime minister in December 1991, succeeding [Robert Hawke] as the leader of the Australian Labor Party and holding office until March 1996.

[Elizabeth II]

> My Government will seek to restore confidence in the integrity of the > nation's political system by upholding the highest standards of > honesty and propriety in public life.\ > Elizabeth II, on the opening of Parliament, May 14, 1997 Born this day in 1926 was Queen [Elizabeth II] of the [United Kingdom], who ascended the throne in 1952 at age 25 and is known to favour simplicity in court life and to take a serious, informed interest in government business. [Elizabeth II] > My Government will seek to restore confidence in the integrity of the > nation's political system by upholding the highest standards of > honesty and propriety in public life.\ > Elizabeth II, on the opening of Parliament, May 14, 1997 Born this day in 1926 was Queen [Elizabeth II] of the United Kingdom, who ascended the throne in 1952 at age 25 and is known to favour simplicity in court life and to take a serious, informed interest in government business.

[Lena Horne]

> My identity is very clear to me now, I am a black woman, I'm not > alone, I'm free...I don't have to be an imitation of a white woman that > Hollywood sort of hoped I'd become. I'm me, and I'm like nobody else.\ > Lena Horne [Lena Horne], an American actress and civil rights activist who first came to fame in the 1940s and starred in such films as *Cabin in the Sky* (1942) and *Stormy Weather* (1943), was born in Brooklyn, New York, this day in 1917. [Lena Horne] > My identity is very clear to me now, I am a black woman, I'm not > alone, I'm free...I don't have to be an imitation of a white woman that > Hollywood sort of hoped I'd become. I'm me, and I'm like nobody else.\ > Lena Horne [Lena Horne], an American actress and civil rights activist who first came to fame in the 1940s and starred in such films as *Cabin in the Sky* (1942) and *Stormy Weather* (1943), was born in Brooklyn, New York, this day in 1917.

[Jacques Cousteau]

> My philosophy is not that of stones that say you must leave behind > your estates and monuments, but of the wind—which says you blow > wherever you want and do whatever you want when you want to do it.\ > Jacques Cousteau Born this day in 1910 was French naval officer and ocean explorer [Jacques Cousteau], who conducted extensive [undersea investigations], invented the Aqua-Lung, and wrote, produced, and appeared in films about the [ocean]. [Jacques Cousteau] > My philosophy is not that of stones that say you must leave behind > your estates and monuments, but of the wind—which says you blow > wherever you want and do whatever you want when you want to do it.\ > Jacques Cousteau Born this day in 1910 was French naval officer and ocean explorer [Jacques Cousteau], who conducted extensive [undersea investigations], invented the Aqua-Lung, and wrote, produced, and appeared in films about the [ocean].

[Jean Chrétien]

> Our most important values as a nation are tolerance and sharing. We > know that government cannot and should not do everything. But we also > know it can and must be a force for good in society. And during times > of great change, government has an obligation to help people adapt.\ > Jean Chrétien, address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, > 1995 Born this day in 1934, lawyer and [Liberal Party] politician [Jean Chrétien] served as prime minister of [Canada] from 1993 to 2003—the first Canadian prime minister since 1945 to win three consecutive majorities. [Jean Chrétien] > Our most important values as a nation are tolerance and sharing. We > know that government cannot and should not do everything. But we also > know it can and must be a force for good in society. And during times > of great change, government has an obligation to help people adapt.\ > Jean Chrétien, address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, > 1995 Born this day in 1934, lawyer and Liberal Party politician [Jean Chrétien] served as prime minister of [Canada] from 1993 to 2003—the first Canadian prime minister since 1945 to win three consecutive majorities.

[Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington]

> Pray keep the English quiet if you can. Let them all prepare to move, > but neither be in a flurry or a fright, as all will yet turn out > well.\ > Duke of Wellington, letter to Sir Charles Stuart from the Battle of > Waterloo, June 18, 1815 Born in Dublin this day in 1769 was British army commander [Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington], who with his allies defeated [Napoleon] at the [Battle of Waterloo] (1815), conquering the world's conqueror. [Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington] > Pray keep the English quiet if you can. Let them all prepare to move, > but neither be in a flurry or a fright, as all will yet turn out > well.\ > Duke of Wellington, letter to Sir Charles Stuart from the Battle of > Waterloo, June 18, 1815 Born in Dublin this day in 1769 was British army commander [Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington], who with his allies defeated [Napoleon] at the [Battle of Waterloo] (1815), conquering the world's conqueror.

[Coretta Scott King]

> There isn't a day that goes by that I don't think about Martin. He was > my source of inspiration....Martin and I were soulmates. When he died, a > part of me died....The nation may have lost a great leader but I lost a > husband. My children lost their father. We paid the ultimate price.\ > Coretta Scott King Born this day in 1927 was [Coretta Scott King]—civil rights activist, wife of [civil rights movement] leader [Martin Luther King, Jr.], and, after her husband's assassination, the founder of a centre for nonviolent social change. [Coretta Scott King] > There isn't a day that goes by that I don't think about Martin. He was > my source of inspiration....Martin and I were soulmates. When he died, a > part of me died....The nation may have lost a great leader but I lost a > husband. My children lost their father. We paid the ultimate price.\ > Coretta Scott King Born this day in 1927 was [Coretta Scott King]—civil rights activist, wife of civil rights movement leader [Martin Luther King, Jr.], and, after her husband's assassination, the founder of a centre for nonviolent social change.

[Nikita Khrushchev]

> There were those who loved him, there were those who hated him, but > there were few who would pass him by without looking in his > direction.\ > Sergey Khrushchev, eulogizing his father, Nikita, at his funeral, 1971 Soviet Premier [Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev], born this day in 1894, guided the [U.S.S.R.] (and the communist movement) out from under the shadow of former premier [Joseph Stalin] and into closer orbit with the capitalist West. [Nikita Khrushchev] > There were those who loved him, there were those who hated him, but > there were few who would pass him by without looking in his > direction.\ > Sergey Khrushchev, eulogizing his father, Nikita, at his funeral, 1971 Soviet Premier [Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev], born this day in 1894, guided the U.S.S.R. (and the communist movement) out from under the shadow of former premier Joseph Stalin and into closer orbit with the capitalist West.

[David Lloyd George]

> This war, like the next war, is a war to end war.\ > David Lloyd George Born this day in 1863, [David Lloyd George], [Liberal] prime minister of [Britain] from 1916 to 1922, led his country to victory in World War I after laying the foundation of the modern welfare state as chancellor of the Exchequer. [David Lloyd George] > This war, like the next war, is a war to end war.\ > David Lloyd George Born this day in 1863, [David Lloyd George], Liberal prime minister of Britain from 1916 to 1922, led his country to victory in World War I after laying the foundation of the modern welfare state as chancellor of the Exchequer.

[Fred Astaire]

> To be in a picture with Fred Astaire was every dancing girl's dream.\ > Ann Miller [Fred Astaire], born this day in 1899, is considered one of the greatest American popular-music dancers and is especially remembered for his partnership with [Ginger Rogers] in a series of highly successful musical comedy films. [Fred Astaire] > To be in a picture with Fred Astaire was every dancing girl's dream.\ > Ann Miller [Fred Astaire], born this day in 1899, is considered one of the greatest American popular-music dancers and is especially remembered for his partnership with [Ginger Rogers] in a series of highly successful musical comedy films.

[William Shakespeare]

> To begin then with Shakespeare; he was the man who of all Modern, and > perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul. > All the Images of Nature were still present to him, and he drew them > not laboriously, but luckily: when he describes any thing, you more > than see it, you feel it too.\ > [John > Dryden], > *Of Dramatick Poesie, an Essay* (1668) [William Shakespeare], the poet, [dramatist], and actor who is regarded as the national poet of [England] and is perhaps the most famous dramatist of all time, died this day in 1616 in his native town of [Stratford-upon-Avon]. [William Shakespeare] > To begin then with Shakespeare; he was the man who of all Modern, and > perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul. > All the Images of Nature were still present to him, and he drew them > not laboriously, but luckily: when he describes any thing, you more > than see it, you feel it too.\ > [John > Dryden], > *Of Dramatick Poesie, an Essay* (1668) [William Shakespeare], the poet, dramatist, and actor who is regarded as the national poet of England and is perhaps the most famous dramatist of all time, died this day in 1616 in his native town of Stratford-upon-Avon.

[Queen Victoria]

> We are not interested in the possibilities of defeat; they do not > exist.\ > Queen Victoria, on the Boer War (1899) Born this day in 1819, [Victoria], queen of the [United Kingdom] of Great Britain and Ireland (1837-1901) and empress of [India] (1876-1901), gave her name to an era that was marked by British expansion and economic prosperity. [Queen Victoria] > We are not interested in the possibilities of defeat; they do not > exist.\ > Queen Victoria, on the Boer War (1899) Born this day in 1819, [Victoria], queen of the [United Kingdom] of Great Britain and Ireland (1837-1901) and empress of [India] (1876-1901), gave her name to an era that was marked by British expansion and economic prosperity.

[Tony Blair]

> We live in a world where isolationism has ceased to have a reason to > exist....We are all internationalists now, whether we like it or not. We > cannot refuse to participate in global markets if we want to prosper. > We cannot ignore new political ideas in other countries if we want to > innovate. We cannot turn our backs on conflicts and the violation of > human rights within other countries if we want still to be secure.\ > British Prime Minister Tony Blair, addressing the Economic Club of > Chicago, April 22, 1999 British [Labour Party] leader [Tony Blair], born this day in 1953, became in 1997 the youngest British prime minister since 1812, and in 2005 he led his party to its third successive general election victory. [Tony Blair] > We live in a world where isolationism has ceased to have a reason to > exist....We are all internationalists now, whether we like it or not. We > cannot refuse to participate in global markets if we want to prosper. > We cannot ignore new political ideas in other countries if we want to > innovate. We cannot turn our backs on conflicts and the violation of > human rights within other countries if we want still to be secure.\ > British Prime Minister Tony Blair, addressing the Economic Club of > Chicago, April 22, 1999 British Labour Party leader [Tony Blair], born this day in 1953, became in 1997 the youngest British prime minister since 1812, and in 2005 he led his party to its third successive general election victory.

[Ma Rainey]

> Well I couldn't say she was a good looking woman, and she was stout, > but she was one of the loveliest people I ever worked for or with.\ > Pianist [Thomas A. > Dorsey] > about Ma Rainey The first great African American professional [blues] vocalist, [Ma Rainey], was born this day in 1886 in Georgia and contributed greatly to the evolution and popularity of the blues form in the early 20th century. Ma Rainey > Well I couldn't say she was a good looking woman, and she was stout, > but she was one of the loveliest people I ever worked for or with.\ > Pianist [Thomas A. > Dorsey] > about Ma Rainey The first great African American professional [blues] vocalist, Ma Rainey, was born this day in 1886 in Georgia and contributed greatly to the evolution and popularity of the blues form in the early 20th century.

[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]

> Where there is no imagination there is no horror.\ > Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, *A Study in Scarlet* (1887) Scottish writer [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle], born this day in 1859, created [Sherlock Holmes], one of the most vivid and enduring characters in English fiction and a prototype for the modern mastermind detective. [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] > Where there is no imagination there is no horror.\ > Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, *A Study in Scarlet* (1887) Scottish writer [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle], born this day in 1859, created [Sherlock Holmes], one of the most vivid and enduring characters in English fiction and a prototype for the modern mastermind detective.

[Margaret of Valois]

Born this day in 1553, [Margaret of Valois], whose 1572 marriage to the [king of Navarre] failed to end fighting between Catholics and Protestants, earned fame for her licentiousness and her *Mémoires*, an exposé of life in France. Margaret of Valois Born this day in 1553, Margaret of Valois, whose 1572 marriage to the king of Navarre failed to end fighting between Catholics and Protestants, earned fame for her licentiousness and her *Mémoires*, an exposé of life in France.

[Georges Braque]

Born this day in 1882, French painter [Georges Braque] revolutionized the art world by creating, with [Pablo Picasso], [Cubism] and became in 1961 the first living painter to have his work exhibited in the [Louvre Museum]. Georges Braque Born this day in 1882, French painter Georges Braque revolutionized the art world by creating, with Pablo Picasso, Cubism and became in 1961 the first living painter to have his work exhibited in the Louvre Museum.

[Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga]

Born this day in 1945 was [Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga], a member of a prominent [Sri Lankan] political family who became prime minister and then president in 1994—the first woman to serve as the country's president. Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga Born this day in 1945 was Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, a member of a prominent Sri Lankan political family who became prime minister and then president in 1994—the first woman to serve as the country's president.

[Paul Gauguin]

French painter [Paul Gauguin], who sought to achieve a "primitive" expression of spiritual and emotional states in his work and who was noted for his artistic experimentation, died in the Marquesas Islands this day in 1903. [Paul Gauguin] French painter [Paul Gauguin], who sought to achieve a "primitive" expression of spiritual and emotional states in his work and who was noted for his artistic experimentation, died in the Marquesas Islands this day in 1903.

[Federico García Lorca]

[![Photograph:Federico García Lorca.]] - Federico García Lorca. Born this day in 1898 was [Spanish] writer [Federico García Lorca], who in a brief career resurrected and revitalized the most basic strains of Spanish poetry and helped inaugurate a second Golden Age of the Spanish theatre. Federico García Lorca [![Photograph:Federico García Lorca.]] - Federico García Lorca. Born this day in 1898 was Spanish writer Federico García Lorca, who in a brief career resurrected and revitalized the most basic strains of Spanish poetry and helped inaugurate a second Golden Age of the Spanish theatre.

[Jack Dempsey]

[![Photograph:Jack Dempsey.]] - Jack Dempsey. Born this day in 1895 was American heavyweight boxing champion [Jack Dempsey], who held the world title from 1919, when he knocked out [Jess Willard], until 1926, when he lost a 10-round decision to [Gene Tunney]. Jack Dempsey [![Photograph:Jack Dempsey.]] - Jack Dempsey. Born this day in 1895 was American heavyweight boxing champion Jack Dempsey, who held the world title from 1919, when he knocked out Jess Willard, until 1926, when he lost a 10-round decision to Gene Tunney.

[John Napier Turner]

[![Photograph:John N. Turner, 1983]] - John N. Turner, 1983 [John Napier Turner], born this day in 1929, succeeded [Pierre Trudeau] in June 1984 as head of the [Liberal Party] and prime minister of [Canada], though he was swept from office by the [Progressive Conservatives] in September 1984. John Napier Turner [![Photograph:John N. Turner, 1983]] - John N. Turner, 1983 John Napier Turner, born this day in 1929, succeeded Pierre Trudeau in June 1984 as head of the Liberal Party and prime minister of Canada, though he was swept from office by the Progressive Conservatives in September 1984.

[Johnny Weissmuller]

[![Photograph:Johnny Weissmuller as Tarzan, 1930s.]] - Johnny Weissmuller as Tarzan, 1930s. American swimmer [Johnny Weissmuller], who won five [Olympic] gold medals and set 67 world records and who was even more famous as a motion-picture actor, most notably in the role of [Tarzan], was born in Romania this day in 1904. Johnny Weissmuller [![Photograph:Johnny Weissmuller as Tarzan, 1930s.]] - Johnny Weissmuller as Tarzan, 1930s. American swimmer Johnny Weissmuller, who won five Olympic gold medals and set 67 world records and who was even more famous as a motion-picture actor, most notably in the role of Tarzan, was born in Romania this day in 1904.

[Joyce Carol Oates]

[![Photograph:Joyce Carol Oates, 1992.]] - Joyce Carol Oates, 1992. American writer [Joyce Carol Oates], noted for her vast literary output in a variety of styles and genres and for her particularly effective depictions of violence and evil in modern society, was born this day in 1938. [Joyce Carol Oates] [![Photograph:Joyce Carol Oates, 1992.]] - Joyce Carol Oates, 1992. American writer [Joyce Carol Oates], noted for her vast literary output in a variety of styles and genres and for her particularly effective depictions of violence and evil in modern society, was born this day in 1938.

[Karl Marx]

[![Photograph:Karl Marx.]] - Karl Marx. Revolutionary, historian, and economist [Karl Marx], born in Prussia this day in 1818, wrote (with [Friedrich Engels]) [*The Communist Manifesto*] (1848), the most celebrated pamphlet in the history of the socialist movement. Karl Marx [![Photograph:Karl Marx.]] - Karl Marx. Revolutionary, historian, and economist Karl Marx, born in Prussia this day in 1818, wrote (with Friedrich Engels) *The Communist Manifesto* (1848), the most celebrated pamphlet in the history of the socialist movement.

[George III]

[![Photograph:King George III, 1800.]] - King George III, *c.* 1800. Born this day in 1738 was [George III], during whose 60-year reign [Britain] won an empire in the [Seven Years'War], lost its American colonies, and then, after a struggle against France, emerged as a leading power in Europe. George III [![Photograph:King George III, 1800.]] - King George III, *c.* 1800. Born this day in 1738 was George III, during whose 60-year reign Britain won an empire in the Seven Years' War, lost its American colonies, and then, after a struggle against France, emerged as a leading power in Europe.

[Meryl Streep]

[![Photograph:Meryl Streep in Sophie's Choice (1982).]] - Meryl Streep in *Sophie's Choice* (1982). American film actress [Meryl Streep], known for her masterly technique, expertise with dialects, subtly expressive face, and record-setting 13th [Academy Award] nomination in 2003, was born this day in 1949. Meryl Streep [![Photograph:Meryl Streep in Sophie's Choice (1982).]] - Meryl Streep in *Sophie's Choice* (1982). American film actress Meryl Streep, known for her masterly technique, expertise with dialects, subtly expressive face, and record-setting 13th Academy Award nomination in 2003, was born this day in 1949.

[Miguel de Cervantes]

[![Photograph:Miguel de Cervantes; engraving by Mackenzie, 1600.]] - Miguel de Cervantes; engraving by Mackenzie, *c.* 1600. Spanish author [Miguel de Cervantes], who died this day in Madrid in 1616, has long been regarded as the most important figure in [Spanish letters], largely for his novel *Don Quixote*, a classic of Western literature. Miguel de Cervantes [![Photograph:Miguel de Cervantes; engraving by Mackenzie, 1600.]] - Miguel de Cervantes; engraving by Mackenzie, *c.* 1600. Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who died this day in Madrid in 1616, has long been regarded as the most important figure in Spanish letters, largely for his novel *Don Quixote*, a classic of Western literature.

[Morgan Freeman]

[![Photograph:Morgan Freeman, 1990.]] - Morgan Freeman, 1990. [Morgan Freeman], whose emotional depth and versatility made him one of the most respected performers of his generation and the winner of an [Academy Award] for his role in *Million Dollar Baby* (2004), was born this day in 1937. Morgan Freeman [![Photograph:Morgan Freeman, 1990.]] - Morgan Freeman, 1990. Morgan Freeman, whose emotional depth and versatility made him one of the most respected performers of his generation and the winner of an Academy Award for his role in *Million Dollar Baby* (2004), was born this day in 1937.

[Kim Il-sung]

[Kim Il-sung], the communist leader of North Korea (1948-94) whose invasion of South Korea in 1950 launched the [Korean War], died on this day in 1994 in P'yŏngyang and was succeeded by his son [Kim Jong Il]. [Kim Il-sung] [Kim Il-sung], the communist leader of North Korea (1948-94) whose invasion of South Korea in 1950 launched the [Korean War], died on this day in 1994 in P'yŏngyang and was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Il.

[Malcolm Fraser]

[Malcolm Fraser] of the [Liberal Party], born this day in 1930, served as prime minister of Australia from 1975 to 1983, during which time he successfully reduced inflation and foreign debt but struggled to curb unemployment. Malcolm Fraser Malcolm Fraser of the Liberal Party, born this day in 1930, served as prime minister of Australia from 1975 to 1983, during which time he successfully reduced inflation and foreign debt but struggled to curb unemployment.

[Sir Ian McKellen]

[Sir Ian McKellen], a British actor of great versatility who earned acclaim for his work with the [Royal Shakespeare Company] and for such films as *The Lord of the Rings* trilogy (2001, 2002, 2003), was born this day in 1939. Sir Ian McKellen Sir Ian McKellen, a British actor of great versatility who earned acclaim for his work with the Royal Shakespeare Company and for such films as *The Lord of the Rings* trilogy (2001, 2002, 2003), was born this day in 1939.