bsc final study guide
Where is red bone marrow located?
- epiphysis - spongy bone - flat bones - epiphyseal ends - primarily in axial skeleton
In which organelles would one find DNA, RNA? How are they the similar and different?
- nucleus - mitochondrion - chloroplast - cytoplasm Similarity: 4 nitrogenous bases (C,A,G) Difference: RNA has U, DNA has T
Where do you find serous/ mucus membranes? Where do you find goblet cells? What special function do goblet cells perform?
3 serous membranes line the thoracic cavity 2 pleura cover the lungs The pericardium covers the heart respiratory tract intestinal tract stem cells they secrete mucin and create a protective mucus layer
Describe the factors that contribute to maintaining a resting membrane potential. Know what ions are moving where for action potential generation.
A neuron containing large amounts of potassium on the inside, while large amounts of sodium are on the outside; theres ions have a goal to diffuse down the concentration gradient. Na+ channels begin the action potential moving in and out of the axon causing depolarization.
Know the Sliding Filament Theory and neurological events leading up to contraction. (i.e. from the impulse to relaxation). Can you outline how an electrical signal is transmitted from the neuron to the muscle? What is meant by the term "excitation-contraction coupling?"
A sarcomere contracts causing the Z lines to move closer together, and the I band becoming smaller. A band would stay the same width and when the full contraction occurs, the thin and thick filaments would overlap. Cross-bridges form, and sarcomeres shorten. (impulse) Calcium ions are pumped back to the sarcomere causing tropomyosin to protect the binding sites on the actin strands. If anything, this may cause the muscle to stop contracting when it runs out of ATP becoming fatigued. Tension decreases calcium levels while they are pumped out of the sarcoplasm and cross-bridge cycling stops. (relaxation) When axons connect to neurons, muscle cells start to form connections in junctions known as synapses. These are what allow electrical messages to be transmitted from the neuron to other cells and the muscle. The effect of motor neurons signaling adds together a wave summation. It goes from the relaxation phase to the point of stimulus phase. Cross-bridge forms between actin and myosin triggering contraction that involves calcium binding to troponin and ATP being present while muscle fibers continue to shorten.
Describe the anatomy of the ANS. How is it different from the somatic nervous system? Discuss the two divisions of the ANS. Describe the major parasympathetic and/ or sympathetic physiological effects on target organs (e.g., GI tract, heart, blood vessels, respiratory system, etc.).
ANS: "self-governed"; independent of our will; regulates fundamental states and life processes (heart rate, BP, and body temperature) Autonomic nervous system (ANS): organs other than skeletal muscles; involuntary; excitatory or inhibitory; contains ganglion (2 neurons from CNS to effector); acetylcholine and norepinephrine Somatic nervous system (SNS): skeletal muscle; voluntary; always excitatory; doesn't contain ganglion (1 neuron from CNS to muscle); acetylcholine Sympathetic: found in thoracic spinal cord; affects multiple areas of the body; ganglia is near spinal cord; fight or flight Parasympathetic: found in cranial nerves and sacral spinal cord; ganglia is near effector organ; rest and digest; causes inhibition Sympathetic division: prepares body for physical activity, increases heart rate, blood glucose levels Parasympathetic division: calms body functions reducing energy and assists in bodily maintenance; digestion and waste elimination
What is ATP? Explain the role of ATP in the cell. What organelle is responsible for aerobic production of ATP? What is cellular respiration?
ATP: the major energy currency of a cell Role of ATP in a cell is to transport the energy from the breakdown of food molecules which is then released to fuel other processes in the cell. The mitochondria is responsible for aerobic production of ATP Cellular respiration: the process where glucose is converted into ATP
Describe the different sources of energy systems used by the muscle to synthesize ATP.
All muscle contraction depends on ATP ~ Anaerobic fermentaton: enables cell to produce ATP when there is no oxygen present Aerobic fermentation: produces more ATP and requires a good supply of oxygen to do so Phosphagen system: a combination of ATP and CP which provides all energy for short bursts of activity (short term) Glycogen-lactic acid system (anaeroic fermentation): pathway from where its goes by glycogen to lactic acid
Distinguish between axial and appendicular skeletal components (locations, major components of each division, individual bones)
Axial skeletal components: central axis of body consisting of the vertebral column, parts of the skull, and the thoracic cage; rib cage, sternum, mandible, etc Appendicular skeletal components: consists of the pectoral and the pelvic girdles, as well as the limb bones, and bones of the hands and feet; clavicle, scapula, femur, etc
What is the blood brain barrier? Describe the structural basis and importance of the blood brain barrier and the role of astrocytes.
Blood brain barrier (BBB): regulates substances that can get from the bloodstream into the tissue fluid of the brain It contain harmful agents; two points of entry must be guarded: blood capillaries throughout the brain and capillaries of the choroid plexus Role of astrocytes is to create a tight junction in the blood vessels that prevents pathogens from entering between cells
List the body cavities and the four quadrants. What organs are found in each cavity and quadrant? Name serous membranes surrounding lungs, heart, and abdominal viscera.
Body cavities: cranial cavity, dorsal body cavity, vertebral cavity, thoracic cavity (superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial cavity within the mediastinum, and diaphragm), abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity, ventral body cavity (both thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities), and abdominopelvic cavity The 4 quadrants: right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ); RUQ and LUQ are surrounded by the diaphragm RUQ organs: liver, stomach, gallbladder, duodenum, right kidney, pancreas, and the right adrenal gland (small and large intestines) LUQ organs: liver, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, and the left adrenal gland (small and large intestines) RLQ organs: appendix, reproductive organs, and the right ureter (small and large intestines) LLQ organs: left ureter, and the reproductive organs (small and large intestines) ~ All 4 quadrants are found in the abdominopelvic cavity Pericardium: found around heart Pleura: found around lungs Peritoneum: found around abdominal organs (viscera)
What is bone remodeling? What is the importance of bone remodeling and what are the factors that affect this process?
Bone remodeling: adjusts the bone structure in processes that require change; prevents accumulation of old bone forming Maintains plasma calcium homeostasis; hormones, physical activity, and nutrition Old bone is reabsorbed and new bone replaces it in the process
What is CSF? What is its function? Specifically where is it found in the CNS?
CSF: cerebrospinal fluid Function: cushions the brain and serves as a shock absorber for the CNS; circulates nutrients and filters chemical from the blood; removes products from the brain Formation: formed by the choroid plexus, in the lateral ventricles Circulates through the ventricular system and enter the subarachnoid space through the median and later apertures
Classify the organs of the nervous system into central and peripheral divisions.
Central ~ Brain Spinal cord Peripheral ~ Ganglion Nerve Sensory (afferent) - Somatic sensations Visceral sensations (carries signals towards the CNS) Motor (efferent) - Somatic motor Visceral motor (carries signals away from the CNS) Visceral motor - Parasympathetic: found in cranial nerves and sacral spinal cord (rest and digest); digestion (bladder) Sympathetic: found in thoracic spinal cord (fight or flight); heart (lungs)
List the four principle parts of the brain. Compare the structure and functions of the each area (brain stem, cerebellum, diencephalon, cerebrum.)
Cerebrum: large component of the CNS and an aspect of the folded surface (cerebral cortex) Function: initial point of movement, temperature, vision, etc Diencephalon: contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the epithalamus Function: relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and regulates sleep Cerebellum: consists of two hemispheres connected by vermis medially (arbor vitae: tree-like pattern) Function: coordination of movement, equilibrium and balance; motor learning Brain stem: contains the midbrain, pons, and the medulla Function: regulates actions of the body (heartbeat and breathing)
What are the gross anatomical features of the spinal cord and brain? Identify the meninges and describe their function.
Cerebrum: the brain; responsible for sensation, communication, memory, understanding, and movement Diencephalon: contains the thalamus (relay center that signals spinal cord and send it throughout the cerebrum), the hypothalamus (major part of the ANS; regulates body functions like temperature, hunger, and thirst), and lastly the epithalamus (controls sleep cycles by secreting melatonin) Brain stem: contains the midbrain (link between spinal cord and cerebrum), the pons and medulla (involved in the ANS) Cerebellum: consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis; essential for coordination of movement; equilibrium and balance Pia mater (innermost layer of connective tissue) Function: covers the brain and acts as a barrier that aids in the production of CSF Arachnoid mater (middle layer of connective tissue) Function: contains CSF that acts as a cushion for the brain Dura mater (outermost layer of connective tissue) Function: sac that envelops that arachnoid mater that has been modified to serve as supporting channels by carrying blood from the brain to the heart; supports brain
How is epithelial tissue classified (number of layers, cell shape)? Where do you find each type? What are the functions of each type? Correlate the structure with the function.
Classes of epithelium (layers) Simple Pseudostratified columnar Stratified Cell shapes of epithelial cells Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Simple squamous epithelium (location & function) Location: alveoli in lungs, capillaries, and serous membranes Function: rapid diffusion, secretes serous fluid Simple cuboidal epithelium (location & function) Location: thyroid gland Function: absorbs and secretes Simple columnar epithelium (location & function) Location: lines the gastrointestinal tract Function: absorbs and secretes; goblet cells secrete mucus Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (location & function) Location: lines the respiratory tract Function: cilia propels mucus; goblet cells secrete mucus Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (location & function) Location: epidermis of skin Function: resists injury, prevents water loss, and resists penetration Stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium (location & function) Location: tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus Function: resists injury (not as much), and resists penetration Stratified cuboidal epithelium (location & function) Location: ducts of sweat glands Function: secretes sweat Transitional epithelium (location & function) Location: urinary bladder Function: allows an organ to distend for filling
Distinguish between compact bone and spongy bone and name the type of ossification that occurs in both.
Compact bone: contains structural unit (osteon) that has concentric lamellae and central canals containing blood vessels and nerves Spongy bone: composed of trabeculae that contains osteocytes (red marrow in some spaces) Endochondral ossification occurs in both ~
Identify the various parts of a typical long bone (epiphysis, diaphysis, etc.)
Diaphysis (shaft): runs between proximal and distal ends of the bone Epiphyseal plate (in children) vs epiphyseal line (in adults) lines between both ~ Epiphysis (ends): contains spongy bone which contains red bone marrow
List the three layers of skin. What structures are located in dermis and what is their function? Which structure is responsible for finger prints? Compare and contrast structures in thick and thin skin.
Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis Nerve endings: sense pain, touch, pressure, and temperature Sweat/oil glands (sebaceous): forms fluid sweat; controls body temperature; produces skin oil Hair follicles: promote cell growth/tissue invasion Blood vessels: provides nutrients and helps regulate body temperature Dermal papillae is responsible for fingerprints Thick skin has a thinner dermis than thin skin; it lacks hair and sweat glands; Thin skin example would be eyelids Thick skin is found on fingerprints, palms and soles of feet
Identify the various macroscopic parts of skeletal muscle (epimysium, perimysium, fascicle, etc.)
Epimysium: dense connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle tissue Perimysium: connective tissue that surrounds each bundle of muscle fibers Fascicle: bundle of skeletal muscle fibers surrounded by perimysium Endomysium: connective tissue that covers each single muscle fiber or myofiber or muscle cell
What are the four major tissue types? Contrast the general features of the four major types.
Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous Epithelial: flat, cube/spherical, tall/skinny shaped, lines body cavities/hollow organs, covers body surfaces, and forms glands Connective: composed of cells and extracellular matrix, specialized to support, bind, and protect organs Muscle: tissue composed of elongated, excitable muscle cells specialized for contraction (consists of skeletal: long cylindrical cells, cardiac: short and branched, and smooth: short fusiform cells) Nervous: tissue containing excitable cells specialized for rapid transmission of coded info to other cells (consists of neurons: cell body with many extensions, and neuroglia)
List the anatomical features of the eye from superficial to deep and then from the point of light entering the eye to the optic nerve. Give the function and characteristics of each structure you listed.
Fibrous tunic Sclera: supports eyeball; keeping shape Cornea: controls the entry of light towards the eye Vascular tunic Choroid: supplies retina with nutrients; maintains temperature and volume of the eye Ciliary body: changes shape of pupil; creates fluid that fills the eye Iris: controls the amount of light that enters the eye Sensory tunic Retina: receives light and converts it into neural signals and then send them to the brain for visual recognition Cornea → aqueous humor in anterior chamber → pupil → aqueous humor in posterior chamber → lens → vitreous humor → retina
Name, describe, and give an example of the types of bones by shape (long, short, etc.)
Flat bones: flat shape that is made up of spongy bone Example: sternum Long bones: hard, dense bones Example: femur Short bones: roughly shaped like a cube and contains thin layer of compact bone Example: tarsals Irregular bones: vary in shape; has complex shape that protects internal organs Example: vertebra Sesamoid bones: embedded in tendons; small, round bones Example: patella
Name the lobes of the brain. What are the functional areas of the adult brain? Where is the location of motor and sensory cortexes? What is Broca's Area? Wernicke's Area?
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Sensory: primary auditory cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, and primary visual cortex Location: Parietal lobe Motor: planning, control, movement Location: Frontal lobe Broca's area: transmission of language to others; side of the brain that controls dominant hand Wernicke's area: understanding incoming language; language development
What are the functions of the plasma membrane? Function of various organelles within a cell (mitochondrion, ER, ribosome, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, centriole, nucleus, and nucleolus)?
Functions ~ Plasma membrane: provides protection for cell, transports nutrients into cell, and provides a fixed environment that keeps toxic substances out of cell Mitochondrion: consists of various molecules that work together to produce ATP to power cell reactions ER (endoplasmic reticulum): transports proteins (rough ER sites protein synthesis, whereas smooth ER synthesis phospholipids, steroids, hormones, regulates concentration, metabolizes carbohydrates, and breaks down toxins) Ribosome: reads mRNA and carries out translation to make protein; it also decodes messages, and forms peptide bonds Lysosomes: contains digestive enzymes from the breakdown of large cell structures; digest/break down foods, wastes, and broken parts Golgi apparatus: organizes, modifies, sorts, and packages proteins Centriole: organizes microtubules and determines the locations of the nucleus and organelles Nucleus: contains genetic material that determines the its structure and function of a cell; contains nuclear membrane and nuclear pores that allow transport into and out of a cell Nucleolus: produces and assembles the cell's ribosomes
Compare and contrast the characteristics and functions of neuroglia.
Glial cells ~ The PNS has satellite cells and Schwann cells (myelinate axons and wrap around axons) The CNS has astrocytes (maintain environment around neurons), oligodendrocytes (myelinate and wrap around axons), microglia (immune cells), and ependymal cells (make CSF) that all support neurons of the CNS Myelination: layers of the cell membrane around cell of an axon segment that has cells providing insulation for the segments. Conducts speed from electrical impulses
Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.
Graded potentials: changes in the membrane voltage; depends on the size of stimulus; some stimuli can cause depolarization, where others cause hyperpolarization (depends on the ion channels that are activated in the membrane); when firing neurons, these occur in the dendrites due to the opening of ligand-gated ion channels Action potentials: when voltage is measured across the membrane against time, this potential begins with depolarization, followed by repolarization, which goes past the resting potential leading it to hyperpolarization; this results in the membrane rest phase; when firing a neuron, it occurs in the axon rather than the dendrites due to the graded potential reaching a threshold causing voltage-gated channels to open
Define gray matter and white matter. What makes the tissue gray or white? What are the functions of the two types of matter in the spinal cord?
Gray matter: contains no myelin; contains the integrating center White matter: contains myelin (where it is white); carries signals up and down the spinal cord The type of fat that is carried in the myelin Gray matter has to do with muscle control and sensory perception. It has three horn (posterior, anterior, and lateral) that are present for motor neurons White matter deals with action potentials acting as relay and coordinates communication between brain regions. It sounds the gray matter where columns are made of ascending and descending tracts.
Define homeostasis. What is a positive feedback loop? A negative feedback loop? Recognize examples of negative feedback and positive feedback. What is the effect on the controlled variable?
Homeostasis: how the body keeps its internal conditions within a stable range Positive feedback: response in the same direction as the initial change; enhances or reinforces the initial change Examples: labor contractions during childbirth and blood clotting Negative feedback: response in the opposite direction to the initial change; will counteract or negate the initial change Examples: control of the body's temperature, blood sugar, and blood pressure What is kept the same throughout the experiment eventually becomes a concern. It would indicate a invalidate result of both dependent and independent variables causing the results to be affected.
Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis, describe the events that take place in each stage.
Interphase ~ G1 phase: 1st gap phase where growth and normal metabolic roles take place S phase: synthesis phase where DNA replication takes place G2 phase: 2nd gap phase where growth and preparation for mitosis take place M phase: phase that includes mitosis and cytokinesis Interphase: period of the cell cycle that takes place between cell divisions G0: cells leave cycle where they are not actively dividing Prophase: 1st stage of mitosis where chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle fibers form, and centrosomes move towards opposite poles Prometaphase: 2nd stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense, kinetochores appear, and microtubules attach to the kinetochores Metaphase: 3rd stage of mitosis where chromosomes line up at center plate, and sister chromatids attach to the spindle fiber Anaphase: 4th stage of mitosis where centromeres split in two, sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles, and spindle fibers begin to elongate cell Telophase: 5th stage of mitosis where chromosomes arrive at the poles and start to decondense, nuclear envelope surrounds chromosomes, mitotic spindle breaks down, and the spindle fibers push poles apart Cytokinesis: stage where cell division occurs (animal cells: cleavage furrow separates daughter cells, whereas plant cells: cell plate forms new cell wall that separates daughter cells)
What is an ion? What are the major intracellular and extracellular cations and anions in the human body?
Ion: group of atoms with either a positive or negative charge that are produced from both the loss or the gaining of electrons Major cation - intracellular fluid: potassium ; extracellular fluid: sodium Major anion - intracellular fluid: phosphate ; extracellular fluid: chloride
Describe the 4 types of bonds. Provide a biologically significant example of each one.
Ionic bond: the transfer of electrons that results in 2 charged ions (cation+ and anion-). Example: Na+ Cl- Non-polar covalent bond: the strongest bond that consists of equal sharing between electrons that results in there being no charge. Example: oxygen atom = oxygen atom Polar covalent bond: the unequal sharing of electrons that results in there being a partial charge. Example: inside water molecules Hydrogen bond: considered the weakest bond that has an attraction between partial positive and negative charges, which consists of bonds that give molecules their 3-dimensional shape. Example: the shape of DNA and the proteins that lie between water molecules
What are the general characteristics of connective tissue (CT)? Name the 6 types of CT proper and give an example of where you would find each type in the body. What are the other types of CT? Where are these found? What are their functions? List & describe the 3 types of cartilage and where each is found in the body.
Key component is extracellular matrix matrix is made of ground substance and protein fibers Areolar CT: basement membrane under most epithelium Reticular CT: lymph nodes and spleen Adipose CT: hypodermis; around heart and kidneys Dense regular CT: tendons and ligaments Dense irregular CT: reticular dermis of skin Dense elastic CT: tendons, intervertebral discs, and pubic symphysis Others: blood, cartilage (hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage), and bone (spongy and compact) Hyaline cartilage Location: articular cartilage at end of long bones, and trachea Function: creates smooth surface for joint movement Elastic cartilage Location: external ear and tip of nose Function: provides flexibility and stretch Fibrocartilage Location: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, and menisci of knees Function: shock absorption Compact bone Location: skeleton Function: provides support for the body, protection for organs, and calcium reservoir (the same goes for spongy bone) Blood Location: inside heart and blood vessels Function: transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes wastes
In which area of the brain is the limbic system located and what is its function?
Limbic system: central underside of cerebrum; can be found in each cerebral hemispheres Function: important center of emotion and learning
List the three parts of the brain stem. State the functions of each component of the brain stem. What is a refractory period? Distinguish between absolute and relative refractory periods. What is the consequence of a neuron having an absolute refractory period?
Midbrain: link between the spinal cord and cerebrum Function: motor movement The pons: involved in autonomic nervous system (ANS) Function: works together with the medulla to generate respiratory rhythm of breathing Medulla: involved in the ANS Function: work it pons to control autonomic activities like heartbeat and breathing (respiration) Absolute refractory period: during repolarization, neuron absolutely cannot fire again Relative refractory period: during hyperpolarization, neuron can fire again if threshold is reached It is much harder to deal with the relative refractory period compared to a resting membrane potential; excitability can be restored during the absolute refractory period since the neuron isn't able to be fired up.
Describe the myelin sheath and its importance in conduction. Describe continuous conduction. Compare and contrast it with saltatory conduction.
Myelin sheath surrounds the axon. It insulates the axons to increase the speed of electrical signal conduction. This allows for more speed to occur. Continuous conduction: an alternative path for nerve impulse transmission; this occurs in unmyelinated axons. Saltatory conduction: propagation of action potential along myelinated axons; opposite of continuous conduction.
Describe the (microscopic) functional parts of skeletal muscle cell (myosin, actin, etc.). Include describing a sarcomere and its associated structures (Z line, etc.).
Myosin: muscle that splits ATP and reacts with actin in muscle contraction; motor protein Actin: protein found in microfilaments that appears to be active n muscular contractions; structural protein Troponin: controls tropomyosin Tropomyosin: prevents myosin from binding actin Titin: connects sarcomere to cell membrane Sarcolemma: cell membrane that surrounds itself by striated muscle fibers Sarcoplasm: the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber Sarcomere: basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber (from one Z line to the other) Z discs: define the boundaries of each sarcomere M line: runs down the center (midline) of the sarcomere I band: region containing only thin filaments (without thick filament present) A band: contains thick filaments (where they are present) H zone: contains only thick filaments
Describe the difference between a neuron and a nerve.
Neuron: the functional cell of the nervous system Nerve: where nerve fibers (axons) found in the PNS and blood vessels are bundled and wrapped in a connective tissue
Describe the various cells found in nervous tissue. Identify and give function of soma, axon, and dendrite.
Neurons: nerve cells that transmit signals (nerve fibers also called axons and blood vessels) Neuroglia: support system for the neurons (astrocytes, microglia, etc) Soma: does things cells would normally do Axon: carries signals away from the cell body Dendrite: receives signals
What is a neurotransmitter? List some examples. Are they excitatory or inhibitory?
Neurotransmitter: can be released from a neuron following an action potential Examples: Synapse end bulb of an axon; enzymatic degradation, neuronal reuptake, and glial reuptake The effect of neurotransmitters depends on its receptors. Some are viewed as "excitatory" making it possible for an action potential to be fired up. Where others view it as "inhibitory" due to the target neuron have a less likely chance of firing up an action potential (Received by dendrite causes hyperpolarization to become negative furthering itself from the threshold, whereas dendrite causes depolarization to become more positive making it closer to the threshold).
Know all twelve pairs of cranial nerves and a major function of each.
Olfactory nerve I: smell Oculomotor nerve III: eye movement Trochlear nerve IV: eye movement (M) Abducens nerve VI: eye movements (M) Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII: hearing/balance Hypoglossal nerve XII: motor-lower throat Accessory nerve XI: motor-head and neck Optic nerve II: vision Trigeminal nerve V: sensory/motor face Facial nerve VII: motor-face, taste Glossopharyngeal nerve IX: motor, throat, taste Vagus nerve X: motor/sensory-viscera (autonomic)
Distinguish between osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast, and chondrocyte.
Osteoblast: forms bone matrix Osteocyte: maintains bone tissue Osteoclast: resorbs bone Chondrocyte: maintains tissue homeostasis
Describe the (microscopic) functional parts of compact bone (canaliculi, osteon, etc.)
Osteon: structural unit of a compact bone Canaliculi: canals that line between the lacunae of ossified bone Lamellae: layers of the compact bone that has a tissue that surrounds a central canal (haversian)
List the structures sound waves would be conducted by from the external environment to the vestibulocochlear nerve. Describe how the various structures of the outer, middle, and inner ear function in hearing.
Outer ear Auricle (Pinna) → auditory canal → tympanic membrane (ear drum) Middle ear Vibrations in the ear drum push against the ossicles (malleus → incus → stapes) → oval window Inner ear Sets the fluid in the cochlea in motion Pressure waves travel from hair cells in the organ of Corti→ cochlear nerve of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) → temporal lobe of brain Outer ear: collects sound wave and channels them into the ear canal; causes the eardrum to vibrate Middle ear: offset the decrease in energy that occurs in the ear canal Inner ear: changes sound waves to electrical signals; this allows brain to hear and understand sounds
Ear: Anatomy of outer, middle, and inner ear.
Outer ear: external auditory canal; brings in sound; consists of the eardrum and converts sound waves to movement Middle ear: eustachian tube (auditory tube) that allows drainage of fluid and pressure equalization; ossicles that transfers movement from tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the cochlea; oval window where ossicles interact with cochlea Inner ear: vestibule - equilibrium; cochlea - where sound id detected
With respect to proteins and nucleic acids, compare/contrast general molecular structure. Provide specific examples where found in the body.
Proteins: a chain of more than 50 amino acids - Peptide bonds hold the amnio acids together - Most abundant organic compound in the body Examples: proteins are found in every body part or tissue (muscle, skin, hair, bones, etc) Nucleic acids: made up of chains of nucleotides 5 include: A, T, C, G, and U Most famous nucleotide is ATP, which is used as energy "currency" in the body DNA is a type of nucleotide that consists of millions of nucleotides as well as our genes and uses A, T, C, G as building blocks RNA is also a nucleotide that consists of a messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and a transfer RNA; it uses A, U, C, and G as its building blocks Examples: nucleic acids are found in all living cells (DNA: mainly found in the nucleus of a cell; RNA: mainly found in the cytoplasm of a cell)
Describe the receptors of the retina. Which ones have better acuity in bright light? Dim light? Why? Compare/ contrast the function of rods and cones.
Rods: activated by dim light; numerous; used in peripheral vision; only photoreceptors in retina Function: converts visual stimuli in the CNS Cones: activated by bright light; sharp images; color vision; less in number; only photoreceptors in centralis Function: responsible for color vision Better acuity in bright light (cones); it is easier to constrict the pupil which protects the retina and helps it process the image better
Describe the location of sensory, autonomic and motor neurons in the spinal cord. List all structures an impulse would pass through on the way from the peripheral receptor to the effector. Where are cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons located?
Sensory (location): dorsal root ganglia; carries signals towards the CNS Autonomic (location): brain stem; autonomic ganglion Motor neurons (location): ventral roots; carries signals away from the CNS An impulse would make its way down the spinal cord, crossing a synapse between nerve fibers and a motor nerve, which is located in the spinal cord. Because a receptor detects stimulus, it is able to send electrical impulses to a neuron in the CNS which makes its way to an effector producing a response. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. The cell bodies of the motor neurons are located in ventral portion of gray matter of the spinal cord.
Explain differences: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport. Which of these describes gas exchange in lung, Na+/K+ pump, glucose entry into the cell?
Simple diffusion: allows small non-polar substances to pass through cell membrane down its concentration gradient Facilitated diffusion: diffusion that involves both a channel and carrier protein (channel: less selective than carrier; discriminates between cargo based on size and charge, whereas carrier: more selective; allows one type of molecule to cross) Active transport: movement along the concentration gradient that requires ATP Active transport describes gas exchange in lung, Na+/K+ pump, and glucose entry into the cell
What is the difference between a single twitch, temporal summation, tetanus, and treppe.
Single twitch: a latent period where contraction occurs when tension rises and during the relaxation phase, tensions lowers. When the action potential is propagated along the sarcolemma. Temporal summation: contractions occur due to the previous effect of contraction that has been fully relaxed. Tetanus: When the stimulus point is high, the relaxation phase disappears, contraction continues. Treppe: When muscle tension increases, it is described as a flight of stairs when each wave is represented as the point of stimulus.
Describe the structure, characteristics, location in the body, and function of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
Skeletal muscle: cylindrical cells; multiple nuclei; voluntary and striated Location: skeletal muscle; muscles of the face Function: attaches to bone; responsible for movement Cardiac muscle: short and branched; intercalated discs; involuntary and striated Location: only in the heart Function: contraction of cardiac muscle that pumps blood to organs Smooth muscle: short fusiform cells (thick in the middle); involuntary and unstriated Location: wall of digestive and urinary tract; walls of blood vessels Function: propels contents through organs; changes diameter of blood vessels
What characteristic(s) does water possess that makes it a good solvent?
Solvency due to polar covalent bond and V-shaped molecule - Cohesion - Thermal stability
List the different layers of the epidermis. Describe the function of keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans cells. What is the function of Meisner's Corpuscles and Pacinian Corpuscles?
Stratum corneum stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale Keratinocytes: make keratin and provide protection Melanocytes: make melanin Merkel (tactile) cells: sense touch Dendritic (Langerhans) cells: phagocytize pathogens Meisner's corpuscles: consists of free nerve endings that sense pain and temperature (vibrations) Pacinian corpuscles: pressure receptors that reduce sensitivity of the nerve terminal
List and describe the three major classes of joints. Know the degree of movement and types of movements allowed at each joint. Briefly describe the 6 types of synovial joints. Where in the body can you find each of these?
Structural Fibrous (collagen fibers): synarthroses Cartilaginous: synchondroses and symphyses Synovial: abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, and rotation Functional Synarthroses (practically immovable) Amphiarthroses (somewhat moveable) Diarthroses (freely movable) Synovial joints ~ Pivot joint: allows for rotation around an axis; found in the wrist, near the elbow, etc Hinge joint: works like a door hinge (elbow); found in the elbow, knee, hand, etc Saddle joint: articulation between trapezium carpal bone and metacarpal bone of the thumb; found in the thumb, shoulder, and inner ear Plane joint: those between tarsal bones of the foot, allows for gliding movement; found in carpal bones, foot, etc Condyloid joint: radiocarpal joint of the wrist; found in the base of the fingers Ball-and-socket joint: joint where bones move within a depression of another bone; allows greater movement; found in the hip, shoulder, pelvis, etc
List the structures in the diencephalon? What is the function of each?
Thalamus: relay center for signals to be sent throughout the cerebrum Hypothalamus: essential part of the ANS; regulates body temperature, hunger, and thirst Epithalamus: controls the sleep cycle by secreting melatonin Pituitary gland: affects vital parts in the brain like energy and mood, vision, etc; tells glands to release hormones
Explain the process of calcium storage in bone and its release into the blood stream. Distinguish between the roles of calcitonin and parathyroid hormones.
The body regulates calcium by homeostasis in two ways: one is signaled to turn on when blood levels drop below normal, and the other is signaled to turn on when blood levels are elevated. Role of calcitonin: produced by the thyroid; helps regulate levels of calcium in the blood opposing the action of the parathyroid hormone. Role of parathyroid hormones: produced by the parathyroid gland; regulates levels of calcium in the blood; small change can cause the body problems
What is a phospholipid? What is its structure? Where do you find phospholipids in the body?
The cell membrane is considered a phospholipid bilayer Phospholipid: consists of lipids that have 2 fatty acids "tails" that are hydrophobic (points away from ecf and icf); non-polar. It also has a phosphate "head" that is hydrophilic (points towards ecf and icf); polar. Phospholipids are found around the body's cells where they form structures; they are synthesized in the body to form cells and membranes.
List the sequence of events involved in generation of an action potential (AP). Understand events involved in depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and refractory period. What is threshold? How can it be reached?
The events can be related to changes in the membrane voltage. At rest, it is at -70mV. It then begins to depolarize when an external stimulus is applied. The membrane begins a rise towards +30mV and then returns to a negative value. Repolarization occurs resulting in hyperpolarization. This results in the voltage returning to a resting value. Depolarization: change within a cell where the cell goes through a shift in electrical charge (less negative) Repolarization: change in membrane potential where it returns to a negative value after depolarization (positive value) Hyperpolarization: change in cell's membrane potential that becomes more negative in value. The opposite of depolarization. Refractory period: neuron can't be fired again at this period (repolarization); neuron can be fired again if threshold potential is reached (hyperpolarization) The level where a membrane potential is depolarized to its action potential. A critically high level. (stimulus) When depolarization is reached, the neuron fires an action potential causing a threshold.
Describe the basics of protein synthesis in terms of transcription and translation.
Transcription: where mRNA is produced, modified, and sent into the cytoplasm Translation: where decoding takes place forming a protein with the help of a ribosome and a tRNA molecule
What are the functions of utricle and saccule, semicircular canals and organ of Corti. Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium.
Utricle: orientation and static balance Saccule: presents brain with information on how to orient the body through movement Semicircular canals: help keep balance Organ of Corti: transduction of auditory signals Static equilibrium: mechanical equilibrium where reactions stop; system is at rest; linear acceleration; example: moving hand up and down (tilting) Dynamic equilibrium (3 canals): steady state of reaction where the reaction is the same forwards and backwards; example: moving head left to right
Directional terms—be able to use. Describe the different planes and sections. Review the anatomical terms for body parts and regions.
anterior/ventral: closer to the front of the body posterior/dorsal: closer to the back of the body cephalic: closer to the head caudal: closer to the sit/butt bones superior: higher than inferior: lower than medial: closer to the midline of the body lateral: farther from the midline of the body proximal: closer to the trunk distal: farther from the trunk ipsilateral: on the same side of the body contralateral: on opposite sides of the body superficial: closer to the skin (closer to the surface of the body) deep: farther from the skin (farther from the surface of the body) ~ How the body is divided sagittal plane: splits body from the right side and the left side (contralateral sides) frontal (coronal) plane: splits body from the front and the back (anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal) transverse (axial) plane: splits body from up and down (superior and inferior) axial skeleton: head, neck, rib cage, vertebral column appendicular skeleton: clavicle, scapula, humerus, elbow, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, pelvic girdle (hip bones), femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges
List and recognize examples of "levels of organization"
chemical level: atoms bond to form molecules with three-dimensional structures examples: hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms - water molecule - cellular level: a variety of molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell examples: smooth muscle cell containing the organelles and cell fluid tissue cell: a community of similar cells form a body tissue example: smooth muscle tissue organ level: two or more different tissues combine to form an organ examples: bladder containing the smooth and skeletal muscle organ system level: two or more organs work closely together to perform the functions of a body system example: urinary tract system containing the kidney, ureter, bladder, and urethra organismal level: many organ system work harmoniously together to perform the functions of an independent organism example: an individual drinking water; this level includes all organ systems functioning in the human body
Define and describe a motor unit.
motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers innervated by motor neuron's axon terminals; it is where they work together to have fixed contractions in a muscle.
