CCJ4700FINAL

IPA, Stalking, & the Police

-Before the 1960's, police training in IPA was rare and there existed few policies on how police should respond to these calls. -In the 1960's, training taught police to treat IPA as a breach of public peace - this did NOT deter IPA at all. -In the 1970's and 1980's, the "Pro-Arrest Domestic Violence Policies emerged" - this included shelters for battered women and rape-crisis centers. When police respond to an IPA call, an arrest should be made unless there is a clear reason why an arrest could be counter-productive.

Victimization of Disabled Women

Some might think disabled women/girls are at less risk of being victimized. The assumptions are: 1. Who would hurt someone who is already so vulnerable? 2. No one finds disabled women "sexually attractive." According to Belknap, these are faulty assumptions. In fact, these women are at an increased risk of exploitation (especially those who are institutionalized or dependent on caretakers).

Statistics on Sexual Victimization

***Of all the violent crimes, sexual assaults are the least likely to be reported.**** Until 1973, UCR provided statistics about sexual violence. -Bias: ONLY included crimes reported to law enforcement Early crime surveys (National Crime Survey NCS) in 1973 did not ask specifically about sexual victimization. The redesign in 1992 did and the name was changed to NCVS. -There was a bias here, too - 86% of victims did not report their assault to the interviewer if their husband was in the room; 36% did not report it if the interview was over the phone.

Defining Intimate Partner Abuse

-Intimate partners refer to people in a romantic relationship (spouses, boyfriends, girlfriends). It also includes people who have only been on one date (if it resulted in abuse or stalking). -This is different from Domestic Violence because domestic violence includes child abuse, sibling abuse, and elder abuse. -It should also be distinguished from spousal abuse because that would ignore the abuse of couples who are not married. -It's important to remember that IPA is not necessarily violent. -According to Belknap, IPA is defined "as a serious form of victimization by a previous, current, or dating partner, lover, or spouse," (p.388).

Defining Stalking

-The 1st national study on stalking defined it as "a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear." -In other words, a stalker is someone who persistently pursues someone against their will causing fear and terror in that person.

IPA Tactics

-Various types of tactics have been identified -The 3 commonalities among IPA tactics (or requirements for behavior to be considered IPA) are: 1. It must occur between people in a current or former intimate relationship 2. It results in harm to the victim 3. The tactic involves aspects of domination and control

Categories of IPA

1. Nonsexual Physical IPA - this is what most people think of is associated with IPA; the "battered woman." Tactics include slapping, hitting, punching, kicking, shoving, etc. 2. Sexual Abuse - includes a sexual nature to IPA, like oral, anal, or vaginal rape or even beatings of the breasts or genitals. 3. Psychological/Emotional IPA - this is extremely harmful - many survivors claim it is the most damaging type of IPA. This type can manifest itself in many different ways including child abuse, destruction or property/pets, threats, social isolation, and verbal humiliation. Abusers will use a number of tactics on their victims

Rape Myths

1. Victimisnotarealvictim a) Victim blaming results in reduced offender culpability (excuses offender behavior and can actually perpetrate and sustain sexual violence). 2. Alcoholanddrugscausesexualviolence a) Half of all rape cases involve an intoxicated offender and/or victim (drinking co-occurs). b) REMEMBER! CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!!! c) The abuser must still be held accountable.

IPA as a Social Problem

1920's: After several pleas from activists, the U.S. finally outlaws wife battering in all states. 1970's - Today: There is much greater recognition that battering occurs. Pro- arrest laws have been implemented, which requires the arrest of the batterer. However, these laws were often geared ONLY toward the "pure victim" - a battered woman who: 1. Was not violent unless in self defense 2. Experienced extreme physical violence followed by emotional abuse 3. Suffers abuse in a pattern that won't stop without an intervention 4. Is terrified of the abuse Those battered women who did not fit the "pure victim" model were treated badly by the police.

Rates of Women in Policing

1968: The first two women were assigned to "patrol duty" - this was the start of non-gendered roles for women. With the enactment of Title VII, the number of women officers on patrol "exploded." In the U.S., women constituted: 1. 1.4% of all police officers in 1971 2. 5% of all police officers in 1980 3. 8.6% of all police officers in 1990 4. 10.6% of all police officers in 2000 5. 14.6% of all police officers from 2006 - 2010 Today, 58.4% of female police officers are White women; 23.7% are African American women; 14.6% are Latina women.

Gender Similarities & Differences cont...

2. The Job Model - female officers perform the job differently due to the organizational structure of the occupation and the institution - for example, if female officers are unable to guard male inmates in certain cases because of an institutional rule, this could affect how they do their job - and how they are perceived by certain officers. Studies show evidence for both the Gender Model and Job Model to explain why male and female guards perform the job "differently."

Rape Myths cont...

3. All rapists are sick (sexually starved or crazy). a) No empirical evidence to show that rapists are more likely to suffer from mental illness. 4. Rape is simply the result of miscommunication. a) This may occur in a small number of cases, but not the vast majority (e.g. - many date rapists proceed to rape despite significant communication from their victims that they are not consenting).

Limitations of Title VII cont...

3. Emphasis on men's gender equality • Under Title VII, males have been more successful than females both in access to courts and obtaining favorable decisions - "reverse discrimination." • According to Belknap, women have "won" under Title VII only when it was not at the expense of men • This is ironic because research suggests women are at a greater risk of sexual discrimination than men!

Limitations of Title VII cont...

4. Bifurcation of race and sex/gender • This decreases employment protection for women of color -One example is the 1976 General Motors Lawsuit - African American women claimed discriminatory hiring and layoff procedures, but because General Motors was able to show that White women and African American men received equal treatment, General Motors won! -In other words, African American women (and perhaps other women of color) may be protected only insofar as their discrimination experiences coincide with those of African American men (or other men of color) or White women.

Limitations of Title VII cont...

5. Title VII does not guarantee equal representation of women in corrections (nor does it mandate women to hold high positions of power). • Women are still subject to "last hired, first fired" practices. • They are typically represented as "token" women. 6. Title VII focuses on "traditional concept" of sex discrimination. • Women need to prove that the discrimination against them was because of their biology (sex), not gender -Example: No U.S. court rules that discrimination based on breastfeeding violates Title VII's provisions based on sex alone. The argument here is that if men workers breastfed their babies, they would be discriminated against like breastfeeding women.

Sex Abuse Offenders

95% of the sexual abuses were perpetrated by men/boys (according to a recent NCVS analysis) Most abusers are NOT lacking sex - most have a good sex life with lovers, spouses, girlfriends, etc. One way to classify sex abusers is by using the 5 antisocial schemas identified by Beech: 1. Dangerous World - men with anger towards others (encompasses 79% of rapists used in the study) 2. Women as Sexual Objects - women exist to satisfy men's sexual desires (51%) 3. Male Entitlement - men are better and should be able to do what they want (44%) 4. Men have uncontrollable sex drives - men can't control their urges and should therefore not be held accountable for rape (15%) 5. Women are dangerous - hostility directed at women (9%) Remember, many rapes/sexual assaults are not reported to police so a small amount of offenders are convicted. Rapists tend to lack empathy for victims and often feel no guilt over their offense.

Rape Myths & Media

A 1996 study of the 50 top-grossing films in the U.S. found that 17% of sex scenes involved rape. -ALL of these involve female victims - they also enhance negative self-images and unrealistic expectations of women's and girl's bodies. Per Belknap, music videos and video games also sexualize females. -Example: Grand Theft Auto

Victimization of Immigrant Females

According to Belknap, immigrant females' victimizations are largely ignored (p. 304). Cultural differences may partially explain this (such as citizenship or language barriers). One study of Latina immigrants concluded that most victimizations are not reported because the women see this as "their lot in life."

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)

According to Olafson, CSA is defined as "any use of a child for sexual gratification by another person. It can be perpetrated by an adult, an older or more developmentally advanced child, or even a child of the same age if coercion is present. This broad definition encompasses a very wide range of experiences, from noncontact abuse (voyeurism, exhibitionism) to contact abuse that ranges from genital fondling to violent rape." Up until the 1980's (when it was finally labeled as social problem), CSA was thought to be rare: -A 1987 study estimated that 40 million Americans (or 1 in 6) had been sexually victimized as children. Although it is highly gendered, boys are also victims: -70%-85% of victims are female. Girls are 2.5-3 times more likely to be victims Offenders are mostly male: -95% of perpetrators against girls are male; 80% of perpetrators against boys are male

Who are the stalkers?

Again, it is highly gendered. NVAW survey studies found that women made up 78% of stalking victims and men made up 87% of stalking offenders! IPA and stalking occur in both same-sex and heterosexual intimate relationships. Stalking victims are stalked by intimate partners while the relationship in intact, but it typically begins when the victims leaves the relationship. The risk factors of becoming a stalker are similar to those of IPA, but there is a HIGHER chance of mental illness in stalkers. The most common motivations are: 1. Retaliation 2. Anger 3. Spite 4. Control 5. Mental Illness

Sex Abuse Victims & Survivors

Although anyone can be sexually abused and/or be abusers, there are gender, race, and age patterns. -Women/girls are at a much higher risk of sexual victimization (especially those between the ages of 16-24) -American Indian and Alaskan Native women are at a far greater risk than any other racial/ethnic group -African American women are more at risk than White women (this is especially true of stranger rape - this could be due to neighborhood effects). White women are more at risk of acquaintance rape.

Limitations of Title VII

Although its positive influence has been astounding, there are 6 important criticisms to consider: 1. It is costly to litigate this provision. • The cost of discovery (proof) is very high; experts that are needed to testify are often very expensive. 2. Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) • In certain cases, where it is rational to give one sex preferential treatment over the other, it excuses employers from claims of sexual discrimination. • Some claim that only wet nurses and sperm donor cases should apply here, but Belknap feels this exception allows some employers to discriminate against women. • BFOQ's have been used (legally) to exclude women from a variety of jobs, such as prison chaplain.

GBA & Fear of Crime

Although males are more likely to be victims of most crime (like robbery and aggravated assault), women have higher rates of certain types of crime (rape, partner violence, & stalking). Women also express greater amounts of FEAR of crime - in other words, women think they are more likely to be victims of crime than men. According to Belknap (2003): 2.6% of males reported violent victimization 2% of females reported violent victimization 54% of males reported violent victimizations by strangers 32% of females reported violent victimizations by strangers These numbers show that although males are more likely to be victims, females experience greater fear of being victims than men.

The History of women in policing

Although policing is viewed as "crime-fighting" (which requires strength and "masculinity"), most times it is actually safe and sometimes downright boring! Still, historically (and even now) women face resistance to entering this field. -This is similar to the sexist perspective that women's guard abilities were limited and that females working in these positions pose a threat to the image of this job as being "masculine" and purely "crime-fighting."

Comparing Racial & Gender Workplace Discrimination

Although women are not a "minority" in the literal sense (of population), they are still considered to be a "disadvantaged" group compared to men: -Limited access to rewards and opportunities -Discrimination faced on the job Women of color face even more challenges when it comes to employment. -"Double Marginality," "Double Jeopardy," or "Intersectionality" - having more than one stigmatized status (example: being an African American women - African American and Female)

IPA & Stalking Victims

Anyone can be a victim of IPA and/or stalking. Studies have found some factors that can contribute to victimization: 1. Women with less education or who are unemployed are more at risk 2. Immigrant women 3. Childhoodvictimization 4. Race/ethnicity (Native Americans face the highest risk of stalking) 5. Physical/mental disability

Gender Disparities in Power

Brownmiller believes rape (in which the victims are predominantly female) results in a "conscious state of female intimidation." -This keep women subservient to men Russell and Visano believe rape is a consequence of male dominance in the largely sociopolitical culture. Belknap believes that female victimization (Brownmiller) and the gender-power disparity (Russell and Visano) reinforce and complement each other: -Female victimization (and the threat of it) decreases the power of women and girls. At the same time, inequalities in power between men and women make women more likely to be victims and men more likely to be aggressors (see figure on page 298).

Consent

Consent is the key to establishing whether a sexual act is abuse (this is most disputed in "date rape" cases). Consent is knowing, understanding, AND voluntarily agreeing to engage in a sexual act. Consent and non-consent can be made both verbally or nonverbally: -Saying yes (verbal consent) -Saying no (verbal non-consent) -Removing one's own articles of clothing and embracing advances (nonverbal consent) -Pushing advances away (nonverbal non-consent)

WOMEN WORKING IN PRISONS AND JAILS: HISTORY

Corrections was traditionally considered a "masculine" job. The concept of PATERNALISM maintained the idea that women should not be working with offenders because it was "too dangerous" for them. Atkins & Hoggett (1984) discuss how the legal system attempted to justify limiting women's paying job opportunities: 1. Women's "natural" inferiority to men - physically, mentally, and emotionally too weak 2. Maternity - women should be mothers and should be responsible for childcare. It is dangerous to infants if the mother works outside the home 3. Marriage - all women should marry men and he should earn the money while she takes care of the home Things started changing in the 1970's as a result of the 2nd wave of feminism - gender discrimination was now illegal.

Date Rape

Date Rape is defined as forced sexual intimacy by someone with whom one has had an romantic relationship. This does NOT include sexual abuse by a spouse. Date rape is not a recent thing, but it wasn't labeled as a social problem until the 1980's. There is some evidence that a woman is at greater risk of date rape the longer they are in a relationship. -However, date rape can occur AT ANY TIME during the courtship. One study found that 12% of college women reported being the victim of attempted sexual assault and 15% were the victims of completed sexual assault (while at college). Prevalence levels - estimated that 62% of college women reported a sexual victimization since leaving high school.

Rates of Women cont...

Despite this increase, there is still much resistance. There are 4 reasons that try to justify the slow integration of women into policing: 1. Prejudice by male officers who view women as unable to perform the job 2. Societal attitudes that women are unable to police 3. Inherent physical differences between women and men 4. Lack of women who find the job of policing compatible with personal goals Advocates for women's rights claim the first 2 reasons are likely the best explanation for women's low representation in police recruitment and retention. -Claiming that there are many physically capable women and there are also many women able to balance a policing career and raising a family

The Frequency of IPA

Determining the prevalence and incidence rates of IPA is challenging, but it is thought to be more frequent than what is reported. -An NCVS 12 year study found that 89% of IPA victims were women. -Another NCVS study found that 85% of IPA victims were women, and over a 6 year period, 22% of the violent crimes against women and 3% of the violent crimes against men were by intimate partners. -According to UCR, 20% of violence experienced by women and 2% by men is from IPA. -In terms of prevalence risk, researchers forecast that roughly half of all women will experience IPA from a husband or boyfriend at some point in their lifetimes. -Women & girls ages 16-24 are at highest risk.

Gender & Stress

Early studies (and some recent ones) found that female officers report greater stress than male officers. However, this is primarily due to the sex- based hostility they face. -Indeed, one study found that stress differences between male and female officers were slight, and that women most stressed out about was "how policing got done" or the fact that they had little influence on the day-to-day operations for the department More recent studies report few gender differences in police officers' stress levels.

The Intersection of Racism and Sexual Identity

Even though White women reported more gender discrimination, African American women officers still reported serious levels of gender discrimination, as well. African American women reported experiencing both racism AND sexism: • They reported experiencing racism at higher levels than sexism. • They reported experiencing racism at higher levels than African American male officers (again, this shows the effect of "double marginality" - that is being a woman AND a woman of color).

FIRST WOMEN POLICE

First woman in the U.S. to hold the title "policewoman" was ALICE STEBBINS WELLS (Los Angeles, CA 1910). -She was a social worker and theologian who wanted to help women and girls through police work claiming that "women were more suited than men for some aspects of policing, such as comforting and guiding wayward or abused children and preventing the victimization and offending of women and children," (Belknap, p.514).

Sexist Culture

Gender stereotypes begin before birth -Baby names -Expectations of the baby and his/her future depending on male/female Some believe that this gender socialization lays the groundwork for women/girls to be victims of GBA and men/boys to be the offenders -Girls are rewarded for passive/feminist behavior; boys for aggressive/masculine behavior. Even fairy tales are sexist (in a way!) -Little Red Riding Hood teaches girls to fear predatory men, but to trust and rely on other men who save them from predatory men. Why must the men be predatory? Why can the hero not be female? Gender Socialization!!!

IPA & the Courts

Historically, courts often dismissed IPA cases, or even legalized it in some cases: "The Rule of Thumb" - a rule in early British Common Law that allowed husbands to beat their wives as long as the rod they used to do it weren't larger than the thickness of their thumbs! Victims report many obstacles in the courts: -The process is confusing -The process is frustrating -Fear of the abuser and that the court won't protect them -Conflict they feel about turning the abuser in

Historical Developments

Historically, rape was ingrained in many cultures: -"Rape for a rape" - this is similar to "an eye for an eye" - the father of a raped daughter was allowed to rape the rapist's wife! -Bride capture - a man claimed a woman by raping her From 1770 to 1845, England (and other countries including the U.S.) defined rape only as penetration of a vagina by the penis with ejaculation. In the 1970's, rape was then defined as a man forcing a woman (who was not his wife) with penile-vaginal intercourse. But the truth is - rape and other types of sexual abuse can be committed by anyone regardless of gender, age, etc., and does not need to encompass ONLY penile-vaginal intercourse. Also, anyone can be a victim of sexual abuse, as well.

Marital Rape

Historically, this was not recognized as a crime -In 1978, only 5 states had laws against marital rape (by the 1990's, all states did). Estimated that 12% of married women have experienced marital rape What are the possible reasons? 1. Husband feels entitled to have sex with his wife under any circumstances 2. Husband uses rape to punish wife for something she(or someone else) did 3. Husband rapes to assert power over wife

Resistance

Hostility towards female officers may have resulted from male officers feeling threatened by them. For example, earlier research suggested that male officers typically ascribed myths about female officers: -Claiming that they are emotionally/physically weak, get sick when they menstruate and are not reliable during this time, and are more inclined to use deadly force against suspects. Men would also "test" women officers - they would show them pornography and take them to topless bars. If a women acted too "feminine," she would be criticized for not being capable of doing the job. If she acted too "masculine," she was criticized for not acting like a woman!

Sexual Abuse & the Legal System

It has been said that rape victims are often victimized again by the CJS. There are efforts to change that: -Better training of law enforcement officers -"Rape Shield" Statutes - limits the defendant's ability to introduce victim's past sexual behavior Still, it is very difficult to prosecute rape cases. -Less than 35% of arrests for rapes end in convictions - the rest are dismissed or acquitted.

Prisoner Privacy & Prison Safety cont...

It is important to note that the courts have tended to favor prison officers' rights to employment, over the rights of inmates, regardless of gender of the officer. Legal precedent has established that intrusive searches of female inmates by male prison officers constitute "cruel and unusual" punishment. However, a recent state case allowed for males to be strip searched by female officers - this often varies by state.

Women Trailblazers

It's important to recognize women "pioneers" of working in jails, prisons, and juvenile institutions. Some (not all!) include: 1. Katharine Bement Davis (1860-1935) - criminologist who tried to provide a better understanding about race, gender, and sexuality (especially female homosexuality) 2. Kate Barnard - very effective in organizing men and women to support society's "unfortunates." She also improved the treatment of inmates (both male and female). 3. Mary Belle Harris (1874-1957) - She was the first Superintendent of the Federal Institution for Women in Alderson, VA. Many more women contributed to shaping the current understanding of female workers in the CLS as well as a deeper understanding of female victimization, offending, and the link between the two.

CSA Reporting

Large percentage of CSA is not reported: -One study found that 1/3 of these cases are not reported to anyone! -This is likely an underestimate Why would a child keep such a horrific secret? 1. Shame 2. No protection 3. They are afraid they made it up 4. To forget 5. They were blamed for it (or there is fear of getting blamed) 6. Repressed it - don't even remember it happened (Generally, this occurs to adults repressing traumatic childhood abuse) -It is hard to estimate the actual extent of non-reporting

Male Attitudes Toward Women on Patrol

Martin also identified 3 roles that male officers adopted regarding their views of the 1st women on patrol: 1. Traditionals - believed that women police officers do not belong on patrol and if they are, they should be protected (and treated as less than a regular partner) 2. Moderns - willing to work with women police officers as equals 3. Moderates - ambivalent; they were neither supportive or negative toward women officers African American male officers were more supportive than White male officers of women police.

Killing Abusive Partners in Self-Defense

Men are more likely to kill their women partners than women are to kill their men partners (even in self-defense). -40-50% of femicides (killings of females) in the U.S. are intimate partner homicides. When women do kill, they are likely to kill current or former intimate partners. Historically, court cases of women who were abused who killed their abusive partner resulted in convictions with no appeals (women could barely defend their actions during trial!) What factors influence the likelihood of a woman killing her abuser? 1. Women who's abuser also physically or sexually abused their children. 2. Women who perceived their danger to be more immediate (because the violence increased in frequency and/or severity). 3. Women who have received death threats or have been threatened with a weapon by the abuser. In the 1970's, Battered Women's Syndrome started to be used as a defense in U.S. courts.

CSA Statistics

More than half of rapes committed are against minors -Per the National Women's Study - 29% of all forcible rapes occurred when the victims were less then 11; another 32% occurred when the victims were between 11 and 17 -Per the National Violence Against Women Survey - 22% of women reported that their first rape occurred when they were under 12; 32% reported it occurred between 12 to 17; 29% reported it occurred between 18 to 24; and 17% reported they were 25+ when their first rape occurred.

CSA Offenders

Most CSA offenders seek out children because they represent a vulnerable and easily manipulated population. Most CSA offenders are young -70% under the age of 35 Many offenders have narcissistic personalities -Believe that rules do not apply to them Generally, offenders are: -Male -Well known to the victim -The abuse is not a one time thing -They do not use force

Who is more afraid?

Most afraid of sexual violence (perhaps due to media effects): 1. White women 2. Female college students Most afraid of crime in general (perhaps due to neighborhood effects): 1. Low income mothers of dependent children Most afraid of robbery: 1. MEN!

Stalking Frequency cont...

Most stalking victims know their stalkers Stalkers are typically not strangers - 10% of victims were stalked by strangers Women are far more likely to be stalked by intimate partners Women also reported significantly higher levels of fear than men

Wages by Gender

Not only were women being paid less than men, but women also had to deal with Gender Based Occupational Segregation: job placement or how men and women workers are concentrated into different jobs. A recent analysis of metropolitan areas from 1960-2010 found: 1. That both genders wages increased in the 1960's and 1970's, but men's at a much higher rate 2. In the mid-1970's, women's wages grew, while men's stayed the same and women were earning at about 60% of what men earned 3. Until the 2000's, women continued to gain more earnings. Eventually that stalled at 77% of what men earned. This is true even for professional occupations, such as lawyers, professors, physicians, and social workers.

Victim-Offender Relationship (VOR)

Official (and some survey) data elicit more reports of stranger rapes -However, most survey data suggests most rape victims know their offenders. -So why the discrepancy? It is likely that such rapes result in victim shame, guilt, & fear of retaliation by the offender. Also, the victim may not see what occurred as rape! Question wording from the interviewer (or survey) makes a difference: -When NCVS asks everyone if they have been raped (instead of just following up if a respondent reported an attack), more non-stranger and more of the less violent rapes were reported to interviewers. -Also using this scheme, stranger rape as a percentage of total rapes decreased from 47% in NCS to 15% in NCVS. Intimate partner and acquaintance rape doubled with the new form of questioning.

Resistance/Hostility cont...

Once male officers saw that women could "do the job," this threatened their "fringe benefit" and may be responsible for the hostility that female officers report. Research suggests that the most successful female officers (i.e. those most able to fit in) have to "flirt and be sexy" AND act masculine simultaneously! Although things have gotten better, women are still highly underrepresented in police work - only 15% Still, nowadays women, like men, are more comfortable with the police job.

Gender Differences in Performance

One claim to exclude women from policing is that they are physically weaker than men: -Although women, on average, are smaller, for this to be a meaningful claim, it would mean that size is directly related to the policing job. Research DOES NOT support this claim. -In fact, most research indicates that female officers are just as capable as male officers. 1. Women can learn defensive tactics to overcome typically smaller physical size and they can rely on typically better communication skills than men. 2. Women have a greater ability to deescalate potentially violent situations, have empathy for rape victims and battered women, and have a creative outlook on policing!

Leaving/Returning to IPA

People always wonder "why would a women stay in a relationship like that?" -This is Victim Blaming! -The focus should not be on why victims stay, but rather why abusers abuse. It is important to remember that many women DO leave abusive relationships, but we only hear about or focus on those who stay. -Shame and the tendency of others to discount the victimization keep survivors from identifying themselves as former "battered women." But, some women do stay. Why? 1. Fear/shame 2. Lack of financial security 3. Lack of social support 4. Denial of abuse 5. Fear of retaliation from abuser 6. Victim blaming

Defining Sexual Abuse

Per Belknap, the terms "rape," "sexual assault," etc., are too restrictive and do not account for sexual abuses that are not physically violent (example: although child sexual abuse is a heinous act, most times it is NOT a violent assault). Therefore, Belknap prefers the term "sexual abuse" as this refers to ALL types of sex crimes. According to our text, then, the definition of sexual abuse is "any forced, coerced, or exploitative sexual act or activity," (Belknap, p.324).

Stats cont...

Prevalence Rates - refer to victimization at some point in someone's life (lifetime risk) Incidence Rates - are measured within some time period (usually the last year) prior to the interview. The NCS/NCVS and UCR are incidence rates. Both statistics suggest widespread sexual victimization: -According to the National Violence Against Women Survey, 18% of women experienced sexual violence in their lifetimes, compared to 3% of men; translates into 1 in 6 women and 1 in 33 men (this is a PREVALENCE rate) -According to Russell (1984), 3% of women reported being raped in the prior year. This statistic was 13 times higher than UCR stats and 7 times higher than NCS stats (this is an incidence rate)

Walker's Cycle Theory of Violence

Psychologist Lenore Walker developed the "Cycle of Violence" Theory and identifies 3 phases in a continuous cycle of IPA: 1. PHASE 1 - "Tension building" or the "calm before the storm" phase: victims feel a mounting pressure that an abusive episode is imminent. 2. PHASE 2 - "Acute abuse incident": Major abuse occurs. This is the briefest of the 3 stages. If police are notified (this only happened 10% of the time in Walker's study), it will be during this phase. 3. PHASE 3 - "The Honeymoon Phase" or the kindness and forgiveness phase: the offender begs for forgiveness, promises to change, promises to quit drinking, etc. This stage is longer than phase 2, but shorter than phase 1.

Force to Coercion

Rape laws have broadened to include coercive means of obtaining nonconsensual sex. Force - a physical method to gain power (holding down, hitting, etc). This is what most people associate with sexual abuse Coercion - the use of psychological methods to sexually abuse a person (threats or the promise of a reward)

Gender Similarities & Differences

Resistance to women guards: -Research from the 1980's and 1990's found that male guards & supervisors were extremely resistant to females becoming guards in men's prisons - largely because of the male perspective that the job is too "masculine" for women. • This resulted in a lot of sexual harassment towards women guards from male guards (increased hostility). Job performance & attitude: -Studies found that the emergence of female officers has resulted in reduced tensions, a more relaxed prison environment, and led to improvements in inmate behavior. -However, there is evidence that women "do the job" differently than men. The two reasons behind this could be: 1. Gender Model - gender differences in guards' occupational experiences are shaped by what they bring to the job in terms of attitude, prior experiences, and preferred models of interaction. For example, women place greater value than men do on relationships with others in their work environment.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is thought to only happen in the workplace, but it can occur anywhere. It occurs on a continuum: -Gender Harassment - sexist comments; putting down women, but not necessarily sexual in nature -Seductive Behavior - sexual advances or requests to discuss victims personal/sex life -Sexual Bribery - request for sex in exchange for a reward -Sexual Coercion - threatening punishment for not complying with sex demands -Sexual Assault - physical sexual assault; this is the most severe level of sexual harassment

Is women's fear rational?

Since female victimization show lower rates, some criminologists argue that their higher fear of crime is irrational Lane & Fox categorize female fear into 4 groups - in other words, why do females fear crime so much if their rates of victimization are lower? 1. Physical Vulnerability - women are typically smaller than men so are more vulnerable 2. Gender Socialization - women are supposed to be passive/weak while men are dominant/aggressive 3. Patriarchy - men use rape (or the threat of) to control women (through fear) 4. The Shadow of Sexual Assault - GBA victims are ashamed of their victimization and unlikely to discuss it with law enforcement. Women fear the emotional consequences of being sexually assaulted.

Characteristics of CSA

Some of the tendencies of CSA include: 1. Offenders are usually male 2. Offenders are typically well known to victims 3. The risk of CSA increases with age a) Girls are 2.5 - 3 times more at risk than boys 4. Physical disabilities of children increase risk 5. The absence of one more biological parents increases risk (girls are at high risk of CSA by stepfathers) 6. CSA is often a series of acts (not just a one time occurrence) 7. CSA RARELY involves force

Stalking as a Social Problem

Stalking is a much more recent emergence. It wasn't until the 1980's and 1990's that it gained recognition as a social problem. It gained widespread recognition because of "celebrity" stalkers (examples: Ronald Reagan, Jodi Foster) -However, there is overwhelming evidence that "regular" people are at risk of being stalking victims and stalking has ALWAYS been a problem. The majority of stalking occurs in the context of intimate partner relationships. California was the 1st state to pass an anti-stalking law in 1990 - this happened because of 5 murdered stalking victims in less than a year! By 1995, all states had passed anti-stalking laws.

Rape Myths & Violence

Studies of college students - sexually aggressive males are more likely to endorse rape myths (particularly, blaming their victims for their victimization). Findings indicate that endorsement of such myths might results in sexually aggressive behavior among men. -Results in "rape culture/climate" -If the girl didn't want it, she shouldn't have engaged in ANY sexual behavior, but she did so she got what she deserved - Male Entitlement

Job Satisfaction/Stress - Gendered?

Studies on guard's job satisfaction also examined job stress claiming the two are correlated. -The more satisfied one is at work, the less stress he/she has. Early research found that female guards reported higher levels of stress and lower levels of satisfaction. (This is not surprising given the resistance and hostility they faced.) They were also cynical about their chances of getting a promotion, which exacerbates the problem of low job satisfaction. More recent studies are showing an improvement in job stress and satisfaction levels for women. Others found greater job satisfaction for women than for men and still others found few disparities between them.

Classifications of Women Police

Susan E. Martin labeled the roles of women working in policing: 1. POLICEwomen - emphasize their job (policing) over their gender (woman); accomplish this through professionalism, departmental loyalty, assertiveness, etc. 2. policeWOMEN - emphasize their gender (woman) over their work (policing); they are more accepting of ascribed gender roles 3. Institutional Role Officers - these are "rule" and policy followers. They see themselves as equal to male officers; similar to POLICEwomen. 4. Modified Role Officers - they tend to request safer assignments. They rely on male officers (believe that males do a better job). They don't have as much confidence in their abilities; much more similar to policeWOMEN. 5. Inventive Role Officers - Don't see themselves as equal (institutional) or unequal (modified), but believe their weaknesses (being smaller) is overcompensated for by their communication skills and respect for offenders. These type of officers face a lot of resistance from male co-workers who typically resent how these women treat offenders.

Cycle of Violence cont...

The ending of phase 3 signals the beginning of phase 1 (and the cycle repeats itself again and again). Although Walker's theory seems applicable to some domestic violence or IPA situations, more research is needed. Not all IPA is carried out by these three phases and it does not account for some victim's experiences.

Defining Gender-Based Abuse

The most common (and most ignored) human rights violation is that of violence against women. Sexual Exploitation - is an encompassing term because it includes both violent and non-violent forms of abuse. -Rape, child sexual assault, sexual harassment -All of these include abuse of power by the offender over the victim. Violence is just a portion of abuse. Abuse can include threats and emotional abuse (which are not violent!)

Who are the abusers?

The stereotype of an abuser - unemployed, alcoholic, lower-class, mentally ill, psychologically disturbed -This is not necessarily accurate. -There is, however, some evidence that arrest for domestic violence results in reduced recidivism for employed offenders, but increases subsequent violence for unemployed offenders. So...there is an indirect SES effect. Some of the risk factors for becoming an abuser:- being male, violence prone, having sexist views of women, being controlling, being exceptionally jealous, alcohol and/or drugs (this is not a direct risk factor, but it may increase injury of abuse). Pregnancy IPA: - the abuse starts, continues, and worsens when the victim is pregnant. This is done to further control the woman and out of fear that the child is not theirs (JEALOUSY!) Intergenerational Transmission of Violence: - does violence beget violence? This theory claims that children who witness IPA learn that violence is an acceptable method to resolve conflict. It is a learned behavior passed down from generation to generation. This theory has received a lot of criticism.

GBA & Depression: A Social Problem

The term Gender-Based Abuse (GBA) first appeared in reference to women's rates of depression (higher than men) What's the big question here? Is depression gendered? If stress leads to depression, then does this mean that women lead more stressful lives than men? --One study found that women's lives are not more stressful. They are just more likely to seek help. Men turn to drugs and/or alcohol instead of doctors. Some studies show that married women are at a higher risk of depression - this was perhaps due to boredom or frustration by the limitations of gender based roles for married women. --But...studies largely ignored the idea that abuse may have been more prevalent within marriages, which in turn causes depression.

Wide Range of GBA's

The terms GBA and GBV (Gender-Based Violence) have been used to include many types of victimization GLOBALLY! (specifically victimization of women) -Rape/sexual abuse -Intimate Partner Abuse -Stalking -Suttee (performed in India - when a woman's husband dies, she is forced to kill herself) -Foot binding (China) -Clitoridectomy (performed in African cultures - forced removal of the clitoris) -Female infanticide -Human trafficking (also known as modern day slavery - occurs pretty much everywhere) -Many many more! (Refer to pages 291 - 293 in the text for more examples)

Female Abusers

There is some evidence that females abuse male spouses/boyfriends, but this is thought to occur at more minor levels (slapping, hitting). The more severe abuse occurs when the male is the abuser (punching, kicking). Although the Conflict Tactic Scale is biased, it is one way to measure female on male battering.

Victimization of Minority Females

There is some evidence that minority females experience greater victimization than white females 1993 - 1998: African American women experienced highest rates of intimate partner violence • This is 35% higher than White females and 2.5 times higher than other minority females Native American females have the highest lifetime rate of being raped at 34% Mixed Race females at 24% African American women at 19% White women at 18% Asian women at 7% This causes major concern with how minority victims are treated and perceived by the public and CJS.

Restraining/Protection Orders

These are a legal intervention - if one person is a threat to another, he/she is ordered to have zero contact with the person and usually has to stay a certain distance away from that individual. -Developed to reduce IPA incidences. Most protection orders are sought by women against abusive men. -One study found that women who are more financially dependent on their abusers are LESS LIKELY to obtain an order of protection.

Intersection of Racism & Sexual Identity cont...

Things are changing! Formal policy changes have emphasized minority females in policing. Some emerging research suggests that lesbian women have been more encouraged to be "out" in departments. -Lesbian minorities reported being more reluctant to be "out" because of their high visibility as women of color.

Stalking Frequency/Rates

This is also a highly gendered behavior: The National Violence Against Women (NVAW) survey found: 1. 78% of victims - female; 22% - men 2. 87% of stalkers - men; 13% - female 3. Women were 8 times more likely as men to report stalking by former intimate partners 4. 94% of women's stalkers are men and 60% of men's stalkers are men!

Title VII

Title VII emerged in 1972 as an amendment to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. -It stated that it was illegal to base any terms of employment (conditions, compensation, firing, hiring) on a person's race, sex, religion, or national origin. • Until Title VII, the refusal to hire women into corrections went unchallenged - legally! • Title VII was the greatest motivator to begin hiring women into non-gendered ("real") jobs in prison.

Stalking Tactics

Traditional Stalking tactics include: 1. Following the victim 2. Walking/driving by victim's house/workplace 3. Damaging victim's property 4. Sending unwanted gifts, letters, mail, cards 5. Watching the victim 6. Making unwanted phone calls Today, stalking has gotten worse and changed because of technology Cyberstalking tactics include texts, e-mails, and GPS tracking of victims! Stalkers or threats from stalkers should NEVER be taken lightly - they often result in violence.

Prisoner Privacy & Prison Safety

Two issues used in legislation defending women's restrictions in working with male prisoners: 1. Male prisoners' right to privacy 2. The impact of women officers on prison security (are they strong enough, tall enough, capable enough?) Ironically, questions about inmate privacy NEVER came up before females started to enter corrections. -It was rare for female inmates to complain about privacy and male prison officers prior to Title VII, but when females started to work in male prisons, inmate privacy suddenly became an issue.

History

Until the 1970's, victimized women/girls were invisible (even though sexual victimization has always occurred!) In the 1970's (2nd wave of feminism) these practices were finally recognized as social and legal problems. Examples are: 1. The term "battered woman" did not exist until 1974. 2. "Sexual harassment" was not considered a labeled behavior until 1975. 3. "Date rape" was finally identified as a problem in the early 1980's.

More Recent Legislative & Court Rulings

Virtually all of the movement of women in corrections, law enforcement, and the courts was due to lawsuits. Cheeseman identified the stages starting in the late 1960's that contributed to women being hired into men's prisons: 1. In 1969 - the Joint Commission on Correctional Manpower and Training recommended integrating women in guard positions 2. In 1972 - Title VII Act 3. In 1973 - the guidelines established by the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals to hire and recruit women in all areas of prison/jail work

Variation in Sexual Violence Stats

Why does this variation exist? -The offense - do the stats include oral and anal assaults -Sampling Plan - were the stats based off of phone interviews, in-person interviews, or written surveys? -Question wording - how did the interviewer word their phrases or questions? Was it clear enough? All of these variations can cause differences in the statistics of sexual violence!

Historical Developments cont...

With the 2nd wave of feminism in the 1970's, 4 major legal changes/recognitions took place: 1. Most sexual abuse victims are not strangers (they know each other) 2. Rape definition is not as narrow (it does not have to be defined as penile-vaginal intercourse) 3. Although most sexual abuse victims are female (making it a gender related abuse), both genders can be both victims and offenders 4. Sexual abuse can be forceful or coercive

Victim Blaming

Women and girls are often blamed for their victimizations -Especially in sexual assault cases where they have been drinking or are sex workers -Phrases like "asking for it", "deserving", "enjoying" are common to describe female victims of crime (especially if dressed promiscuously). Why is this the case? -"The Just World" Theory - people want to believe that everyone gets what they deserve. (Belknap, p.295) Big issue: blaming the victims diverts our attention from the real problem - the offenders!

Positions of Leadership

Women are VASTLY underrepresented in positions of leadership in policing. -In 2004, only 200 women chiefs of police and 30 sheriffs existed in the U.S. (there are estimated to be approximately 17,000 law enforcement agencies!) This is likely due to their small numbers overall and possibly other barriers - for example, the fact that women do not advance as much as men (discrimination).

Phases & Stages of Women's Entry

Women began entering U.S. Police work in the late 19th century. This was a result of the increased problems that male officers couldn't or wouldn't work with issues like prostitution or sex work. So, similar to female entry into guard positions, female entrance into police work relied on "maternal" roles to deal with troubled girls and women. British scholar, Frances Heidensohn, identified 4 phases of women entering policing: 1. Moral, Reform, Rescue, & Matrons - (1840 -1910) - Women were viewed as social workers more than cops. Roles were about helping women and children. 2. Specialist & Pioneer - (early 20th century) - Women were hired into police departments, but still worked in specialized roles confined to sexist (or "gender") skills. 3. Latency & Depression - (1930 - 1945) - The hiring of women police came to a halt. 4. Expansion - (late 1960's & 70's) - This is when an unprecedented number of female officers were hired (largely due to legislation).

Women as Token Workers

Women breaking into "men's jobs" is different than men breaking into "women's jobs." -Maybe because it is believed that men improve the status of "women's jobs," but women lower the status of "men's jobs." -Men are more hostile to token women entering their "domain"; women are more open and encouraging to men entering theirs. A related concept is that of the "Glass-Ceiling Effect" - blocked promotional opportunities for women and people of color (although they may get their foot in the door, their chances of being promoted to chief, captain, etc., are slim). -For men, it is the complete opposite - a 1992 study of men in predominantly female jobs found that these men were given preferential treatment that enhanced their position! This is known as the "GLASS ESCALATOR EFFECT". Women of color, immigrants, lesbians, etc., face this type of oppression on more than one front (again, we see the concept of intersectionality).

Breaking into the CLS

Women's first breakthrough into the CJS was in the 1900's-1960's: They had what were considered to be "motherly roles" - their title were "matrons." • Police "matrons" were typically white, upper-middle class with connections and were thought to be better at certain nurturing jobs like handling female and juvenile cases. -They tended to work as volunteers. After the 1960's, women began pushing for greater opportunities. There is a strong link between women working in prisons/jails and women working as police. Women's prison reformers paved the way for women to work in law enforcement and helped them move from volunteers to paid positions.