Ch. 10: Leadership and Organizational Change

Argyris's Immaturity-Maturity Theory

-According to Argyris, a number of changes take place in personality of individuals as they develop into mature adults over the years, further, these changes reside on a continuum, and the "healthy" personality develops along continuum from immaturity to maturity. Argyris questioned the assumption that widespread problems of worker apathy and lack of effort in organizations are simply the result of individual laziness; when people join the workforce, he contended, many jobs and management practices are not designed to support their mature personality. Employees who have minimal control over their environment tend to act in passive, dependent, and subordinate ways and, as a result, to behave immaturely; treating people immaturely is built into traditional organizational principles such as task specialization, chain of command, unity of direction, and span of control. These concepts of formal organization lead to assumptions about human nature that are incompatible with the proper development of maturity in human personality. Argyris challenged management to provide a work climate in which individuals have a chance to grow and mature as individuals while working for the success of the organization. He contended that giving people the opportunity to grow and mature on the job allows employees to use more of their potential. Furthermore, although all workers do not want to accept more responsibility or deal with the problems that responsibility brings, the number of employees whose motivation can be improved is much larger than many managers suspect.

Maslow's need hierarchy and methods of satisfying needs in organizations (1943)

-According to this theory, each need is prepotent or dominant all over higher level needs until it has been partially or completely satisfied. Prepotent need is one that has greater influences over other needs (satisfied need is no longer a motivator). Prepotent lower-order need, however, might not need to be satisfied completely before the next higher one becomes potent or dominant, for ex: safety need may not have to be satisfied completely before social needs become motivators. -This theory frequently referred to as hierarchy theory, states that people are motivated by their desire to satisfy specific needs, which are arranged in following ascending hierarchical order: -Physiological: needs of human body that must be satisfied to sustain life -Safety: needs concerned with protection of individuals from physical or psychological harm. -Social: needs for love, affection, belonging. -Esteem: needs relating to feelings of self respect and self worth, along with respect and esteem from one's peers. -Self actualization: needs related to one's potential or to desire to fulfill one's potential.

Existence Relatedness Growth

-Alderfer (1972) proposed a more simplistic model of human needs that influence worker behavior, termed the ERG theory. -ERG theory introduced frustration regression principle, which suggested that if higher level growth needs were not met the employees would become frustrated and regress to lower level relatedness or existence needs. -According to Alderfer, human needs could be grouped into 3 categories that were not hierarchical in nature: -Existence: basic needs for existence (food, water, shelter, safety) -Relatedness: involvement with family, friends, co-workers, and employers -Growth: desire to be creative, productive, and complete meaningful tasks

Philosophies of Human Nature

-Assumptions that managers have regarding other people are major factors determining the climate for motivation. To learn how to create an environment conductive to high level of employee motivation, managers should develop understanding and philosophy of human nature and its influence on leadership style. -McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y: McGregor stressed importance of understanding relationship between motivation and philosophies of human nature. In observing practices and approaches of managers, McGregor concluded that 2 concepts of human natures were predominant, Theory X and Theory Y. These 2 distinct concepts relate to basic philosophies or assumptions that managers hold regarding the way employees view work and how they can be motivated. Theory X suggests that motivation will be primarily through fear and supervisor will be required to maintain close surveillance of subordinates if organizational objectives are to be attained (furthermore, manager must protect employees from their own shortcomings and weaknesses, and if necessary, goad them into actions. Although Theory X is by no means without its supporters, it's not in keeping with more current concepts of behavioral science). Theory Y emphasizes managerial leadership by permitting subordinates to experience personal satisfaction and to be self directed. These contrasting sets of assumptions lead to different leadership styles among managers and different behaviors among employees. Mangers who hold on to Theory X tend to be autocratic, and those with Theory Y philosophy tend to be more participative.

Types of Dysfunctional Behavior

-Both needs and goals are interdependent, and individuals are not always aware of their needs; in addition, needs and goals are constantly changing. -As individuals attain goals, they develop new ones; if certain goals are not attained, they develop substitutes. -Individuals who are blocked in attempts to satisfy their needs or achieve goals may become frustrated and exhibit dysfunctional or defensive behavior such as: -Withdrawal: When individual becomes less involved in work; may be exhibited by apathy, excessive absences, lateness, or turnover. It is one mechanism used to avoid frustrating situations. -Aggression: When individual directly attacks source of frustration or another object or party. Ex: Foodservice employee who's upset with his/her supervisor may slam and bang pots and pans as way of venting frustration. -Substitution: When individual puts something in place of original object. Ex: foodservice employee bypassed for promotion may seek leadership positions in organizations outside workplace. -Compensation: When person goes overboard in one area or activity to make up for deficiencies in another. -Revert or regress: when individual exhibits childlike behavior as way of dealing with unpleasant situation. Ex: horseplay in dishroom is example of regression. -Repression: When individual loses awareness of or forgets incidents that cause anxiety or frustration. -Projection: when individual attributes his/her own feelings to someone else. ex: foodservice employee who's displeased about rule or policy may tell supervisor how upset another employee is rather than admit personal dissatisfaction. -Rationalization: when individual presents reason that is less ego deflating or more socially acceptable than true reason. Baker who blames oven for poor bakery products is using this defense mechanism.

Job Satisfaction

-Closely related to motivation is concept of job satisfaction, while motivation reflects a person's drive to perform, satisfaction reflects that person's attitude in a situation. Satisfaction is largely determined by conditions in environment and in the situation; motivation is determined by needs and goals. Job satisfaction refers to individual's mindset about the job, which may be positive or negative. -Job satisfaction appears to be related to what has been termed Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs): These are behaviors that are voluntary and above and beyond the call of duty. They are not required of organizational members, however, they're necessary for organizational efficiencies and include such things as protecting organization from theft, helping coworkers, making constructive suggestions, and developing one's skills and abilities. Research suggests satisfied employees are more likely to engage in various forms of OCBs. -When feelings and beliefs an individual has about his/her job are focused more broadly on organization, the concept of organizational commitment is used. 2 types of organizational commitment: affective and continuous. -Affective commitment is commitment to organization that employees display because they're happy to be members of organization, belief in it, and what it stands for, and intend to do what is best for organization. Employees with high affective commitment stay with organization because they want to stay. -Continuous commitment is commitment that exists when employee feels costs of leaving organization are too great (loss of seniority, pension, medical benefits). Employees with high continuous commitment stay with organization because they believe they must stay, not because they want to stay.

Two Factor

-Herzberg developed two factor theory of work motivation, which focuses on rewards or outcomes of performance that satisfy needs -Based on his research, Herzberg concluded that although employees are dissatisfied by absence of maintenance factors, the presence of those conditions does not cause motivation -Maintenance factors are necessary to maintain a minimum level of need satisfaction; in addition, the presence of some job factors can cause high levels of motivation and job satisfaction, but absence of these factors may not be highly dissatisfying. -Two sets of rewards or outcomes are identified: those related to job satisfaction and those related to job dissatisfaction. -Factors related to satisfaction, called motivators, are related to environment or content of job include: achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, the work itself, potential for growth. -Factors related to job dissatisfaction, called maintenance or hygiene factors, which are related to environment or context of job, include: pay, supervision, job security, working conditions, organizational policies, interpersonal relationships on the job.

Motivation

-Inner striving conditions (wishes, desires, and drives) that activate or move a person. -Process of motivation can be viewed as causative sequence. Needs --> Drives or motives --> Achievement of goals. -Needs: caused by deficiencies that may be physical or psychological. Physical needs, also called innate/primary needs, include food, water, and shelter. Psychological needs, also referred to as acquired needs, are those we learn in response to our culture or environment, they include esteem, affection, and power.

Achievement Power Affiliation

-McClelland emphasized needs that are learned and socially acquired as individuals interact with environment -All people have 3 needs: -A need to achieve: need for achievement is desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before -A need for power: need for power is basically a concern for influencing people -A need for affiliation: characterized by desire to be liked by others and to establish or maintain friendly relationships

Theories of Motivation

-Need hierarchy: one of most popular theories of motivation was proposed by Maslow. -Existence relatedness growth: Alderfer (1972) proposed more simplistic model of human needs that influence worker behavior, termed ERG theory. -Achievement Power Affiliation: In his writing on motivation, McClelland (1985) emphasized needs that are learned and socially acquired as individuals interact with environment. -Two Factor: Herzberg (1966) developed two factor theory of work motivation, which focuses on rewards or outcomes of performance that satisfy needs. -Expectancy: Managers should develop understanding of human needs and variety of organizational means available to satisfy employees' needs. Needs approach to motivation, however, doesn't account adequately for differences among individual employees or explain why people behave in many different ways when accomplishing the same or similar goals. -Reinforcement: Reinforcement theory, which is associated with Skinner (1971) is often called operant conditioning or behavior modification. Rather than emphasize concept of motive or process of motivation, these theories deal with how consequences of past action influence future actions in cyclical learning process. -Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Discussions of motivation often focus on whether motivation comes from within individual or form sources external to individual. Intrinsic motivation is within individual and is driven by interest in, enjoyment of, learning from, and/or satisfaction from task being done. Extrinsic motivation: factors outside of individual that drive behavior, extrinsic motivation occurs when task is done primarily because of external factors such as pay, coercion, or competition.

Bases of Power

-There are 7 bases of power, or potential means of influencing the behavior of others. -Although all these dimensions of power are important to leaders, expert and referent powers tend to be related to subordinates' satisfaction and performance, and coercive is most negative. -Expert and legitimate powers appear to be the most important for compliance. -Legitimate power: comes from formal position held by individual in organization; generally, the higher the position, the higher legitimate power tends to be. A leader high in legitimate power induces compliance from others because followers believe this person has right to give directions by virtue of his or her position. -Reward power comes from leader's ability to reward others. Ex: increases in pay, promotions, favorable job assignments. -Coercive power: Comes from authority of leader to punish those who don't comply. Leader with coercive power can fire, demote, threaten, or give undesirable work assignments to induce compliance from others. -Expert power: held by those leaders who are viewed as being competent in their job; knowledge gained through education or experience and a demonstration of ability to perform are sources of expert power. Leader high in expert power can influence others because of their respect for his/her abilities. -Referent power (charisma): Based on identification of followers with a leader. Leader high in referent power is generally well liked and admired by others, thus, leader can influence others because of this identification and admiration. -Information power: Based on leader's possession of or access to information that others perceive as valuable. This power influences others either because they need information or want to be a part of things. -Connection power: based on leader's connections with influential or important persons inside or outside organization. Leader high in connection power induces compliance from others who aim at gaining favor or avoiding disfavor of influential connection.

Vocabulary

Affective commitment Commitment to an organization because one is happy to be working for the organization, believes in the organization, and wants to do what is best for the organization. Change Movement from one state to another. Change agent Person who initiates change. Continuous commitment Commitment to an organization only because the cost of leaving is too great. Emotional intelligence Extent to which a person is in tune with his or her own feelings and the feelings of others. Job satisfaction An individual's feelings and beliefs about his or her job. Leadership Process of influencing activities of an individual or group toward achieving organizational goals. Metacognition Ability to learn and adapt to change. Motivation Inner force that activates or moves a person toward achievement of a goal. Motive Something that prompts a person to action. Organizational change Any substantive modification to some part of the organization. Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) Positive, voluntary behaviors that enhance organizational efficiency. Prepotent need Need that is dominant over all others. Social intelligence Ability to determine the requirements for leadership in a particular situation and select the appropriate response. Transactional leadership Leadership that focuses on clarifying roles and responsibilities and use of rewards and punishment to achieve goals. Transformational leadership Leadership that inspires followers to become motivated to work toward organizational rather than personal gain. Valence Value an employee places on rewards offered by the organization

Personal and Organizational Change

Change, the movement from one state to another, is an expected occurrence in both personal life and organizational activity. Change often involves a paradigm shift, a break in an old way of thinking about something to allow one to look at a situation differently. Personal Change. Personal change focuses on the examination of one's personal characteristics and the development and execution of plans to change one of more of those characteristics. Organizational Change. Organizational change involves moving the organization from one point to another. Managing change is an integral part of a foodservice manager's job. For change to occur, a catalyst is needed; managers often serve in this role as catalyst for change in an organization, and as a result they may be termed change agents.

Reciprocal Approaches to Leadership

Reciprocal approaches to leadership focus more on the interactions among leaders and their followers than on characteristics of the leaders themselves; emotional components of this interaction are recognized as important as well. Transformational Leadership. The concept of transformational leadership was introduced initially by Bernard Bass. According to Bass, transformational leadership occurs when leaders transform or change their followers in ways that lead the followers to: trust the leader, perform behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals and perform at a high level. Servant Leadership. Greenleaf introduced the term servant leader to describe individuals who were servants first, not leaders first; those who worked to be sure that others' needs were met and helped others to grow both physically and emotionally. A servant leader, encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the ethical use of power and empowerment. Emerging Leadership Competencies. Yukl suggests that several additional leadership competencies have been identified: emotional intelligence, social intelligence, and metacognition; each involves a cluster of related skills. Emotional intelligence has been defined as the extent to which a person is in tune with his or her own feelings and the feelings of others and can manage his or her emotions well in relationships with others. Social intelligence is the ability to use social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility to determine the requirements for leadership in a particular situation and select the appropriate response. Metacognition is the ability to learn and adapt to change. Primal Leadership. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee's concept of primal leadership stresses that the emotional task of the leader is primal (first and most important); primal leadership draws heavily on the concept of emotional intelligence and emphasizes the importance of empathic listening and resonance, a leader's ability to perceive and influence the emotions of others. The authors described six leadership styles within the primal leadership model: visionary, coaching, affiliative, democratic, pacesetter and commanding.

Situational and Contingency Approaches to Leadership

Situational and contingency approaches emphasize leadership skills, behavior, and roles thought to be dependent on the situation. These approaches are based on the hypothesis that behavior of effective leaders in one setting may be substantially different from that in another. Leadership Continuum. Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958, 1973) developed a continuum, or range, of possible leadership behaviors; each type of behavior is related to the degree of authority used by the manager and the amount of freedom available to subordinates in reaching decisions. The actions range from those in which a high degree of control is exercised to those in which a manager releases a high degree of control. Contingency Approach. Fiedler (1967) developed a leadership contingency model in which he defined three major situational variables; in his theory, Fiedler proposed that these three variables seem to determine if a given situation is favorable to leaders: Leader-member relations—personal relations with members of the group. Task structure—degree of structure in the task assigned to the group. Position power—power and authority a leader's position provides. Leader Effectiveness. Model Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson (1996) developed a leadership model that has gained considerable acceptance; in their model, task behavior and relationship behavior are used to describe concepts similar to those of consideration and initiating structure in the Ohio State studies. They define the terms in the following ways: Task behavior—the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilities of an individual or group. Relationship behavior—the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multiway communication. Path-Goal Leadership Model. Another important contingency leadership concept, which focuses on the leader's effect on the subordinate's motivation to perform, was developed by Evans and House; the model is based on the expectancy concept of motivation, which emphasizes expectancies and valences, previously discussed in this chapter. The path-goal concept focuses on the leader's impact on the subordinate's goals and the paths to achieve those goals. Basically, the path-goal theory assumes that individuals react rationally in pursuing certain goals because those goals ultimately result in highly valued payoffs to the individual.

Blake and Moutan's Leadership Grid

The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid then became the basis for the Leadership Grid® developed by Blake and McCanse, shown above (see Figure 10-6 in text). The Managerial Grid and now the Leadership Grid have been used widely in organization development and have become so popular among some managers that they refer to the styles by number. For example, 9,9, rather than team management, is often used to refer to the leader who has high concern for both people and work. It has 9 possible positions along the vertical and horizontal axes for a total of 81 possible leadership styles, although the following 7 basic styles are those most often discussed: Impoverished Management (1,1)—manager is very indifferent, exerts minimal effort to get work done, assumes little responsibility; shows minimal concern for people or results. Country Club Management (1,9)—manager is very accommodating; focuses on needs of people to achieve a friendly, harmonious environment; generates enthusiasm by focusing on the positive. Authority Obedience Management (9,1)—manager is very controlling, focuses on efficiency and results, enforces rules and expects results. Middle of the Road Management (5,5)—manager is very status quo oriented, focuses on balancing getting work out with maintaining positive morale, tests opinions with others to get support for decisions. Team Management (9,9)—manager is very sound, focuses on contribution, involvement, and commitment of all; develops a relationship of trust and respect. Paternalistic Management (1,9; 9,1)—manager prescribes and guides, defines initiatives for self and others, offers praise and appreciation, discourages challenging of plans or decisions. Opportunistic Management (1,1; 1,9; 9,1; 5,5; 9,9)—manager manipulates and exploits others, persuades others to do work that benefits manager personally, relies on whatever approach needed to gain personal advantageS

Leadership Development

The process of helping individuals identify and improve their abilities to function in leadership roles is known as leadership development; these programs are based on the assumptions that leadership is essential to organizational success and leadership can be developed in individuals. Greenberg. Greenberg identified several techniques that are being used in leadership development programs: 360-degree feedback—getting evaluative input from subordinates, peers, and superiors helps identify aspects of one's leadership that might need to be changed. Networking—interacting with individuals both within and outside the organization can provide important information, build peer relationships, and promote cooperation. Executive coaching—interacting one-on-one with a coach to assess leader strengths and weakness and develop a comprehensive plan for leadership development. Mentoring—receiving support from more experienced colleagues to help in career development. Job assignments—holding positions that provide leadership experiences. Action learning—participating in a continuous process of learning and reflection. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®. Although not a leadership development process per se, the identification of one's personality traits is commonly used in leadership development programs to assist participants to learn more about themselves and how they respond to others; the most common personality type testing used are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI®). The MBTI® categorizes personality on four dimensions: Extroversion-Introversion (EI)—Extroverts are outer world oriented and base their perception on people and objects; introverts are inner world oriented and base their perceptions on concepts and ideas. Sensing-Intuition (SN)—Sensing denotes a preference for clear, tangible data; intuition shows a preference for abstract and conceptual. Thinking-Feeling (TF)—Thinking uses logical, analytical, objective decision making; feeling relies on feeling, and personal and social values in decision making. Judgment-Perception (JP)—Judgment uses a judgment process when viewing others in the world; perception denotes a use of a perceptive process about others. The DISC® assessment also categorizes personality on four dimensions. However, rather than using the bipolar approach of the MBTI®, the DISC® focuses on intensity demonstrated within each dimension. Dominance: emphasis is on shaping the environment by overcoming opposition to accomplishing results (described as: direct, daring, domineering, forceful). Influence: emphasis is on shaping the environment by influencing or persuading others (described as enthusiastic, persuasive, sociable). Steadiness: emphasis is on cooperating with others within existing circumstances to carry out tasks (described as patient, loyal, predictable). Conscientiousness: emphasis is on working conscientiously within existing circumstances to ensure quality and accuracy (described as accurate, fact finding, systematic).

Behavioral Concepts of Leadership

When research shifted from an emphasis on personality and physical traits to an examination of leadership behavior, the focus was on determining the most effective leadership style. Many of the studies were conducted at the University of Michigan and Ohio State University. University of Michigan Leadership Studies. Leadership studies conducted at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan were designed to characterizes leadership effectiveness. These studies isolated two major concepts of leadership: employee orientation and production orientation. Employee-centered leaders were identified by their special emphasis on the human relations part of their job. Production-oriented leaders emphasized performance and the more technical characteristics of work. Ohio State Leadership Studies. Beginning in the 1940s, researchers at Ohio State University started a series of in-depth studies on the behavior of leaders in a wide variety of organizations. These studies were conducted about the same time as those at the University of Michigan and used similar concepts. Two dimensions of leadership behavior emerged from those studies: consideration and initiating structure. Consideration indicates behavior that expresses friendship, develops mutual trust and respect, and develops strong interpersonal relationships with subordinates. Leaders who exhibit consideration are supportive of their employees, use their employees' ideas, and allow frequent participation in decisions. Initiating structure indicates behavior that defines work and establishes well-defined communication patterns and clear relationships between the leader and subordinate. Leaders who initiate structure emphasize goals and deadlines, give employees detailed task assignments, and define performance expectations in specific terms. Leadership Grid. The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid then became the basis for the Leadership Grid® developed by Blake and McCanse. [See Slide 10-15] Leadership Practices Inventory. Kouzes and Posner (2002) developed the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) as a tool for measuring practices they found common in leaders. Their work proposes that successful leaders exhibit five best practices: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart.

Leadership Effectiveness

n effective leader influences others. Some leaders have formal authority to exert influence on others and are called formal leaders; other (informal) leaders may have no formal job authority, yet may exert considerable influence because of special skills or talents. In general, both exist in every organization and both, because of their influence, can help an organization meet its goals. Trait Concepts in Leadership. Many studies have been conducted and articles written attempting to identify traits of leaders. Traits are personal characteristics that describe how a person thinks, feels, and/or acts. Basic Leadership Styles. Early studies on leadership identified three basic styles: autocratic, laissez-faire, and democratic; responsibility for decision making is the key factor differentiating these leadership styles. Generally, the autocratic leader makes most decisions, the laissez-faire leader allows the group to make the decisions, and the democratic leader guides and encourages the group to make decisions. Behavioral Concepts of Leadership. When research shifted from an emphasis on personality and physical traits to an examination of leadership behavior, the focus was on determining the most effective leadership style. [See Slides 10-14 to 10-15] Situational and Contingency Approaches. Situational and contingency approaches emphasize leadership skills, behavior, and roles thought to be dependent on the situation. These approaches are based on the hypothesis that behavior of effective leaders in one setting may be substantially different from that in another. [See Slide 10-16] Reciprocal Approaches to Leadership. Reciprocal approaches to leadership focus more on the interactions among leaders and their followers than on characteristics of the leaders themselves. [See Slide 10-17]