Ch. 12

D. 1. sulfonamides H. 2. zidovudine G. 3. penicillin B. 4. tetracycline C. 5. erythromycin A. 6. quinolone E. 7. amantadine F. 8. polymyxin

1. sulfonamides 2. zidovudine 3. penicillin 4. tetracycline 5. erythromycin 6. quinolone 7. amantadine 8. polymyxin a. reverse transcriptase inhibitor b. blocks the attachment of tRNA on the ribosome c. interferes with uncoating of the viral envelope d. interferes with synthesis of folic acid e. breaks down cell membrane integrity f. prevents the ribosome from translocating g. blocks synthesis of peptidoglycan h. inhibits DNA gyrase

b. antibiotic

A compound synthesized by bacteria or fungi that destroys or inhibits the growth of other microbes is a/an a. synthetic drug b. antibiotic c. antimicrobial drug d. competitive inhibitor

Selectively toxic

A drug that targets Lipopolysaccharides in the Gram negative cell would be considered what?

biofilms

A number of infections, including endocarditis, urinary infections, otitis media, osteomyelitis, and pneumonias are more resistant to drugs because they develop as ________________.

interferon (IFN)

A sensible alternative to artificial antiviral drugs has been a human-based glycoprotein produced primarily by fibroblasts and leukocytes which response to various immune stimuli , called what?

260; 20

About _______________ different antimicrobial drugs are classified into _____________ drug families

cell walls ( which humans lack)

All of the "-cillin" drugs are relatively mild and well tolerated because of their specific mode of action on _____________ (_____________).

a beta-lactam ring, a thiazolidine ring, and a variable side chain that dictates its microbicidal activity

All penicillins consist of what three parts?

orally; parenterally (by injection into a muscle or a vein)

Although some cephalosporins are given ___________, many are poorly absorbed from the intestine and must be administered _______________.

lining; disruption; microflora

Although some drugs directly irritate the intestinal ___________, the usual gastrointestinal complaints are caused by ____________ of the intestinal ______________.

protein synthesis

Aminoglycosides and Tetracyclines affect what part of the bacteria?

protein synthesis

Aminoglycosides are antibacterial drugs that target what?

complex; actinomycetes;

Aminoglycosides is a ____________ compounds are exclusively the products of various species of soil ________________ in the genera Streptomyces and Micromonospora.

Etest

An alternative quantitative system that provides a quantitative rating of drug effectiveness is the _________________.

c. a superinfection

An antibiotic that disrupts the normal flora can cause a. the teeth to turn brown b. aplastic anemia c. a superinfection d. hepatotoxicity

a. low, high

An antimicrobial drug with a __________ therapeutic index is a better choice than one with a ____________ therapeutic index. a. low, high b. high, low

protease; proteins ; (capsids, enzymes)

Another enzyme essential to the virus's release is HIV ___________, which is involved in cutting the __________that are an essential part of the virus structure (_______________, ________________)?

aerobic spore-forming bacterial; fungi

Antibiotics come primarily from ________________and ____________.

aminoglycosides

Antibiotics composed of one or more amino sugars and an aminocyclitol (6-carbon) ring and bind ribosomal subunits are referred to as what?

toxic; because cell membrane are similar in bacteria and humans medication can tell them apart

Antibiotics that affect the cell membrane of a bacteria can be _____________ to human cells? Why?

bactericidal

Antibiotics that weakened cell and are subject to lysis are considered what?

only active and growing ( old, inactive, or dormant cells do not synthesize peptidoglycan)

Antibiotics that work to block synthesis of peptidoglycan only works on what type of cells? and which ones doesn't work and why?

their origin, range of effectiveness, and whether they are naturally produced or chemically synthesized.

Antimicrobial drugs are described with regard to what?

selective action against (mitochondria, which contain a prokaryotic type of ribosome)

Antimicrobial drugs that block protein synthesis usually have a _____________________ bacteria but it can also damage. What in a eukaryotic cell and why?

peptidoglycan; positive

Bacitracin's primary effect is to block the elongation of the ____________ in gram-__________ bacteria?

ribosomal

Bacteria can become resistant to aminoglycosides when point mutations in ___________ proteins arise.

protein, RNA, DNA, or membrane structure; target

Because most drugs act on a specific target such as ____________, ______________ , _____________, or ____________ microbes can circumvent drugs by altering the nature of this _____________.

metabolizing and detoxifying

Because the liver is responsible for ___________________ and _____________ foreign chemicals in the blood, it can be damaged by a drug or its metabolic products.

nutrients and space

By inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms in the same habitat (antagonism), antibiotic producers presumably enjoy less competition for ___________ and ____________.

cell wall

Carbapenems (imipenem) and Monobactams (Aztronam) affect what part of the bacteria?

beta-lactam

Cephalosporins are similar to penicillins; they have a _____________ structure that can be synthetically altered and have a similar mode of action.

analogs (resemble); replication is blocked

Certain antiviral drugs are ____________ of purines and pyrimidines insert in the viral nucleic acid. What happens to DNA?

chemical processes

Chloramphenicol is entirely synthesized through ___________________________.

nucleic acid synthesis

Chloroquine , quinolones, and antiviral drugs affect what part of the bacteria?

quinoline; ciprofloxacin- resistant

Concerns have arisen regarding the overuse of ____________ drugs which can cause ____________________ bacteria.

extended spectrum

Differents types of penicillin combined medications show an __________________ because of the synergy of the two drugs working together.

competitive inhibition

Drugs that act by mimicking the normal substrate of an enzyme in a process called___________________?

synthetic

Drugs that block metabolic pathways are mostly __________________.

thymidine kinase;

Enzyme _________________is used by the virus to process nucleosides before incorporating them into viral RNA or DNA. When the inactive drug enters a virally infected cell, the virus's own ____________converts it to a working antiviral agent. In cells without viruses, the drug is never activated and normal DNA replication is allowed to continue.

5%; serious adverse reaction; side effects

Estimate that ___________ of all persons taking antimicrobial drug experience ____________________ to the drug (_____________).

natural selection

Eventually population will be resistant which is called what?

synthesis of the cell wall in bacteria (penicillins

Examples of drugs with excellent selective toxicity are those that block the ----------- (----------).

broad

Fluoroquinolones is a __________ spectrum and highly potent, the drugs are readily absorbed from the intestine.

eukaryotic; toxic

Fungal cells are ___________ and it a drug that is toxic to fungal cells is ___________ to human cells.

flucytosine

Fungi can acquire resistance to what drug by completely shutting off certain metabolic activities?

dosing schedules; fewer side effects

Generations of cephalosporins typically have improved ________________ and ________________.

low; limited; side effects

Generic tetracycline is __________ in cost but _______________ by its _____________.

half

Greater than __________ of all antimicrobic drugs are beta-lactams.

by taking larger doses of the drug, to complete loss of sensitivity

How can drug resistant be overcome?

peptidases that cross-link the glycan molecules, thereby interrupting the completion of the cell wall

How does Penicillins and cephalosporins affect the cell wall?

the worms are unable to maintain their grip on the intestinal wall and are expelled along with the feces by the normal peristaltic action of the bowel

How does antihelminthic drugs work?

blocking synthesis of nucleotides, inhibiting replication, or stopping transcription

How does antimicrobial drugs interfere with nucleic acid synthesis and what happens to the bacteria?

supplied to the cell in high concentrations to ensure that a needed enzyme is constantly occupied by the metabolic analog rather than by the true substrate of the enzyme. As the enzyme is no longer able to produce a needed product, cellular metabolism slows or stops

How does antimicrobial drugs that affect metabolic pathways work?

Many antiviral agents mimic the structure of nucleotides and compete for sites on replicating DNA. Once one of these nucleotide analogs is incorporated into the growing chain of DNA, replication of that strand stops, interrupting the viral life cycle

How does antiviral drugs work?

it affects the cell wall by affecting the enzymes required to make peptidoglycan ( causing cell wall to lyse)

How does penicillin and cephalosporins works to kill bacteria?

will survive and proliferate

If exposed sensitive cells are inhibited or destroyed while resistance cells ________________ and __________________.

low; destroy; survive

If no drug is present # of resistant form remain ______ with no growth advantages. If drug is present sensitive individuals __________ , and resistant forms __________.

vitro activity; vivo effect

In ______________of a drug is not always correlated with in __________________.

tuberculosis

Isoniazid and Ethambutol are drugs that are prescribed to treat what?

mutation or transfer of plasmids

Large population of microbes likely to include drug resistant cells due to prior ___________________ or __________--- no growth advantages until exposed to drug.

prior mutations; transfer plasmids

Large population of microbes with few individual cells that have drug resistant from ________________ or ________________.

beta-lactam ring

Many bacteria produce enzymes that are capable of destroying the ________________of penicillin.

amphotericin B

Many fungi are resistant to flucytosine, so it is usually combined with ___________ to effectively treat systemic mycoses.

(1) spontaneous mutations in critical chromosomal genes (2) acquisition of new genes or sets of genes via transfer from another species.

Microbes become newly resistant to a drug after one of the following events occurs and they are what?

enzymes

Microbes inactivate drugs by producing ___________ that permanently alter drug structure.

d. all of these

Microbial resistance to drugs is acquired through a. conjugation b. transformation c. transduction d. all of these

the minimum inhibitory concentration, or MIC

More sensitive and quantitative results can also be obtained with tube dilution tests which the smallest concentration of drug in the series that visibly inhibits growth is called what?

a. weakening the worms so they can be flushed out by the intestine

Most antihelminthic drugs function by a. weakening the worms so they can be flushed out by the intestine b. inhibiting worm metabolism c. blocking the absorption of nutrients d. inhibiting egg production e. all of these

peptidoglycan ( cells need to make constant peptidoglycan and transport it to cell envelop)

Most bacterial cell walls contain what? And needs to do what?

the ribosome-mRNA complex

Most drugs that inhibit protein synthesis react with _______________.

enzymes; synthesize; assemble; structures

Most of the drugs used in chemotherapy interfere with the function of -------- required to -------- or ------- macromolecules, but a few destroy --------- already formed in the cell.

fluoroquinolones

Much excitement was generated by a class of synthetic drugs chemically related to quinine called _______________________.

entry or fusion ; genome

Newer classes of anti-HIV drugs are two that block ________ or __________ of the virus at the beginning of its invasion and one that prevents viral integration into the host ____________.

sensitivity, or allergy

One of the most frequent drug reactions is heightened _____________ or _______________ .

reverse transcriptase (RT)

One of the most important targets is the _____________________ enzyme that HIV brings into the host cell.

drug resistance

One unfortunate outcome of the use of antimicrobials is the development of microbial ____________________.

B; E; kidneys

Only two polymyxins—_____ and ______ (also known as colistin)—have any routine applications, and even these are limited by their toxicity to the ______.

plasmids; transposons

Originates from resistance factors (______________) encoded with drug resistance, ______________.

50S subunit; chloramphenicol; erythromycin

Other antibiotics attach to sites on the _____________ in a way that prevents the formation of peptide bonds (______________) or inhibits translocation of the subunit during translation (_______________).

quinacrine (a quinine-based drug), sulfonamides, and tetracyclines

Other are other drugs with antiprotozoan activities?

G; gram-positive cocci (streptococci); gram- negative bacteria (meningococci and syphilis spirochete)

Penicillin _________ is a narrow spectrum and the drug of choice for infections by sensitive __________________ and some _______________.

V

Penicillin ___________ has been modified to be stable in the stomach acid and so can be taken orally.

cell wall

Penicillin and cephalosporin affects what part of bacteria?

synthesized; natural; fermentation; semi- synthetic

Penicillin could be ______________ in the laboratory. More economical to obtain _____________ penicillin through microbial _______________ and modify it to ________________ forms.

compounds

Penicillin is a large diverse group of ______________.

less effective

Penicillin that do not penetrate the outer membrane are ______________ against gram-negative bacteria.

methicillin, nafcillin, and cloxacillin

Penicillinase-resistant penicillins such as ______________, _____________, and _____________ are useful in treating infections caused by some penicillinase-producing bacteria.

cell membrane function

Polymyxin, Amphotericin B, and nystatin affect what part of bacteria?

inherit; completely resistant

Population grows offspring of resistant ____________ drug resistant. Over time population will have more drug resistant and will become ____________.

tetracyclines

Pregnant women should avoid _______________ because they cross the placenta and can be deposited in the developing fetal bones and teeth.

b. plasmids, drug resistance

R factors are _________ that contain a code for ___________________. a. genes, replication b. plasmids, drug resistance c. transposons, interferon d. plasmids, conjugation

antigen; drug molecule ; substances

Reaction against drugs occurs because the drug acts as an ___________ (a foreign material capable of stimulating the immune system) and stimulates an allergic response. This response can be provoked by the intact ____________ or by __________ that develop from the body's metabolic alteration of the drug.

resistance (R); conjugation, transformation, or transduction

Resistance through intermicrobial transfer originates from chromosomal genes and plasmids called ______________ factors being transferred through the processes of what?

positive; negative

Rifampin is is mainly used to treat infections by selected gram-_____ rods and cocci and a few gram-____________bacteria.

d. both a and b

Select a drug or drugs that can prevent a viral nucleic acid from being replicated. a. azidothymidine b. acyclovir c. amantadine d. both a and b

DNA synthesis

Several antimicrobials inhibit _____________________.

vancomycin

Several species of enterococci have acquired resistance to ____________through a similar alteration of cell wall proteins.

seizures ; brain disturbances

Side effects that can limit the use of quinolones include __________ and other ______________.

lapsing into dormancy; cell-wall-deficient

Some bacteria can become resistant indirectly by ________________ or, in the case of penicillin, by converting to a ________________form (L form) that penicillin cannot affect.

natural immunities

Studies have shown that interferon (IFN) it is a versatile part of animal host defenses, having a major role in ______________.

metabolic pathways

Sulfonamides and trimethoprim affect what part of the bacteria?

folate metabolism; for synthesis of folic acid and production of DNA and RNA and amino acids

Sulfonamides and trimethoprim interfere with __________________________ by blocking enzymes required for the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate. Which is needed by bacterial cells for what?

C. Smallest concentration

The MIC is the ___________ of a drug that is required to inhibit growth of a microbe. A. Largest concentration B. Standard dose C. Smallest concentration D. Lowest dilution

c. smallest concentration

The MIC is the of a drug that is required to inhibit growth of a microbe. a. largest concentration b. standard dose c. smallest concentration d. lowest dilution

lipids

The antibiotic classes that damage cell membranes usually have specificity for particular microbial groups, based on differences in the types of ------in their cell membranes.

microbial structures; functions

The best drugs are those that act specifically on --------- or -------- not found in vertebrate cells.

with proteins involved in synthesis of the cell wall, leading to lysis and cell death

The beta-lactam group antibiotics interferes with what?

versatile (able to adapt and change); broad spectrum; allergic reactions

The cephalosporins are ____________. They are __________________ , resistant to most penicillinases, and cause fewer __________________ than penicillins.

protease inhibitors

The class of drugs called ________________ has the effect of blocking this enzyme and causing the assembly of faulty viruses that are not infective.

genetic versatility and adaptability

The development of mechanisms for resisting antimicrobial drugs is a result of the ________________ and ________________of microbial populations.

penicillinases or beta-lactamases

The enzymes that bacteria have that capable the rings of penicillin are referred to as _____________ or ____________________, and they make the bacteria that possess them resistant to many penicillins.

Tetracycline

The first antibiotic in this class was aureomycin. It was used to synthesize terramycin, tetracycline, and several semisynthetic derivatives, commonly known as what?

Synthetic azoles

The following drugs ketoconazole (Nizoral), fluconazole (Diflucan), clotrimazole (Gyne-Lotrimin), miconazole (Monistat), voriconazole (VFEND), and itraconazole (Sporanox) are the most effective drug of what ?

cef, ceph, or kef

The generic names for compounds of cephalosporin are often recognized by the presence of the root __________, ___________, or _________ in their names.

excreting; metabolites; tubules; filtration

The kidney is involved in _________ drugs and their ____________. Some drugs irritate the nephron ___________ creating changes that interfere with their __________ abilities.

Coartem

The latest drug approved for treating uncomplicated malaria is a combination of artimisinin and lumefantrine called what?

immobilize, disintegrate, or inhibit the metabolism of all stages of the life cycle

The most effective drugs for helminthic work how?

sensitivity, or antibiogram

The profile of antimicrobial ____________________ or ______________ provides data for drug selection.

entering the; target

The resistance of some bacteria can be due to a mechanism that prevents the drug from ___________ cell and acting on its _____________.

tetracyclines

The scope of microorganisms inhibited by ______________ is very broad. It includes gram-positive and gram-negative rods and cocci, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, mycoplasmas, rickettsias, and spirochetes.

allergy; direct toxic effect

The skin response can be a symptom of drug _________ or a _____________.

HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy)

The strategy for HIV and AIDS treatment currently involves some form of combined therapy or _________________ that reduces the development of drug resistance.

selectivity; toxicity ; therapeutic index

To chose a drug with highest level of ___________ but lowest level __________ measured by _______________- the ratio of the dose of the drug that is toxic to humans as compared to its minimum effective dose.

30S subunit and the 50S subunit

Two possible targets of ribosomal inhibition are the ___________________ and ________________.

RNA; reverse transcriptase; DNA; RNA

Upon entering a host, the _________ is used as a template by _________________ to produce a _______copy of this __________.

(non beta- lactam) cell wall

Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Isoniazid, and Rifampin affect what part of the bacteria?

(Synthetic azoles) fluconazole (Diflucan)

What antifungal drug can be used in selected patients for AIDS-related mycoses such as aspergillosis and cryptococcus meningitis?

flucytosine

What antifungal drug can be used to treat certain cutaneous mycoses?

(Echinocandins) Capsofungin

What antifungal drug damages the cell walls of several types of fungi, thereby making them sensitive to lysis. which gives a significant advantage of this mode of action is that it cannot target human?

(Synthetic azoles) voriconazole (VFEND)

What antifungal drug is generally used orally for fungal infections of the nails and systemic candidiasis?

(Synthetic azoles) itraconazole (Sporanox)

What antifungal drug that crosses blood-brain barrier, it is the treatment of choice for fungal meningitis?

Synthetic azoles

What antifungal drugs are broad-spectrum antifungal agents with a complex ringed structure that also inhibit ergosterol and cell membrane synthesis?

(Synthetic azoles) clotrimazole (Gyne-Lotrimin), miconazole (Monistat)

What antifungal drugs are used mainly as topical ointments for infections in the skin, mouth, and vagina?

ganciclovir (Cytovene)

What antiviral drug is used parenterally to treat cytomegalovirus infection in patients with compromised immune systems?

Amantadine, rimantidine

What are antiviral drugs that restricted almost exclusively to influenza A viral infections; prevent fusion of virus with cell membrane?6

Carbapenems ( imipenem)

What are broad- spectrum drugs are active in very low concentrations and can be taken by mouth with few side effects except for allergies?

Imipenem and ertapenem

What are broad-spectrum drug for infections with aerobic and anaerobic pathogen with a mode of action similar to penicillin but with greater resistance to beta-lactamases?

carbapenems or "penems" and aztreonam

What are other beta-lactam drugs?

dicloxacillin, methicillin, and nafcillin

What are other narrow-spectrum penicillins?

and irregular heartbeat

What are side effects of Amphotericin B?

heart arrhythmias

What are side effects of azithromycin (Zithromax)?

gastrointestinal disruption due to changes in the normal flora and staining of the teeth, ingestion during pregnancy can interfere with fetal bone development

What are some side effects of generic tetracycline?

antibiotics

What are substances produced by the natural metabolic processes of some microorganisms that can inhibit or destroy other microorganisms?

Narrow spectrum (limited spectrum)

What are the antimicrobials effective against a limited array of microbial types; for example, a drug effective mainly on gram-positive bacteria?

Broad spectrum (extended spectrum)

What are the antimicrobials effective against a wide variety of microbial types; for example, a drug effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria?

1.reduces healing time and some complications of infections (mainly of herpesviruses) 2.prevents or reduces some symptoms of cold and papillomaviruses (warts) 3.slows the progress of certain cancers, including bone cancer and cervical cancer, leukemia and lymphomas 4.treating a rare cancer called hairy-cell leukemia, hepatitis C ,genital warts, and Kaposi's sarcoma in AIDS patients.

What are the benefits of Interferons (INF)?

macrolide polyene antibiotics, griseofulvin, synthetic azoles, flucytosine, and echinocandins

What are the five main antifungal groups?

1.inhibition of cell wall synthesis, 2.breakdown of the cell membrane structure or function, 3.interference with functions of DNA and RNA, 4.inhibition of protein synthesis, and 5.blockage of key metabolic pathways.

What are the five major components that are useful drug targets in an actively dividing cell?

Antibacterial drugs ( antibiotics, Synthetic drugs) Antifungal drugs Antiprotozoan drugs Antiviral drugs

What are the major antimicrobial drug groups?

-direct damage to tissues through toxicity -allergic reactions -disruption in the balance of normal microbial flora (superinfection possible)

What are the major side effects of drugs?

Penicillin G and V

What are the most important natural forms?

penicillins and cephalosporins

What are the most prominent beta- lactams?

Acyclovoir- herpesviruses Ribavirin- a guanine analog- RSV, hemorrhagic fever AZT- thymine analog- HIV

What are the nucleotide analogs?

allergies and resistant strains of bacteria

What are the primary problems of penicillin?

-administer a drug to an infected person that destroys the infective agent without harming the host's cells - produced naturally or synthetically

What are the principles of antimicrobial therapy?

damage to the bone marrow that results in a fatal aplastic anemia

What are the side effects of Chloramphenicol?

abdominal cramps

What are the side effects of antihelinthic drugs?

Fosfomycin trimethamine, Synercid, and Daptomycin

What are three new drug types?

Polyenes ; permeability; ergosterol

What bind to fungal membranes and cause loss of selective ___________ ?This are specific for fungal membranes because fungal membranes contain a particular sterol component called ____________ while human membranes do not.

Chloroquine

What binds and cross-links the double helix?

Polymixins

What can be indicated to treat drug-resistant infections caused by gram-negative rods such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and severe UTI?

1.Inducement of alternate enzymes can inactivate the drug (only occurs when new genes are acquired) 2.Permeability or uptake of drug into bacterium is decreased or eliminated. 3.The microbe engages special drug transport pumps that remove the drug. 4.Binding sites for drug are decreased in number or affinity (can occur via mutation or acquisition of new genes). 5.An affected metabolic pathway is shut down or an alternate pathway is used (occurs due to mutation of original enzyme)

What causes the bacterium to be resistant?

mammalian cell membranes (because they have similar components to ergosterol)

What cell membrane can still be affected by Polyenes and why?

Synercid

What drug binding to sites on the 50S ribosome, inhibiting peptide transfer and elongation; inhibits protein synthesis?

Vancomycin; Enterococcus faecalis

What drug can be chosen to treat Clostridium infections in children and endocarditis (infection of the lining of the heart) caused by __________________?

Chloramphenicol

What drug can severely depress blood-forming cells in the bone marrow, resulting in either a reversible or a permanent (fatal) anemia?

trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole; (Septra, Bactrim)

What drug combination is treatments for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) in AIDS patients, urinary tract infections, and otitis media?

aminoglycosides; respiratory failure

What drug damage nerves leading to dizziness, deafness, or motor and sensory disturbances. When drugs block the transmission of impulses to the diaphragm, ________________can result

(Macrolides) Erythromycin

What drug has a structure that consists of a large lactone ring with sugars attach and ribosomes attach 50s subunits, is broad spectrum and fairly low toxicity?

(Macrolides) clarithromycin

What drug has additional applications in controlling infections and gastric ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori?

aminoglycosides

What drug have a relatively broad antimicrobial spectrum because they inhibit protein synthesis by binding to one of the ribosomal subunits?

(Macrolides) Clindamycin

What drug is a broad-spectrum antibiotic derived from lincomycin?

Daptomycin

What drug is a lipopeptide directed mainly against gram-positive bacteria, disrupt membrane function?

Bacitracin

What drug is a narrow-spectrum peptide antibiotic produced by a strain of Bacillus subtilis?

Fosfomycin trimethamine

What drug is a phosphoric acid effective as alternate treatment for UTI; inhibits an enzyme necessary for cell wall synthesis?

Chloramphenicol

What drug is a potent broad-spectrum antibiotic with a unique nitrobenzene structure which blocks peptide bond formation and protein synthesis?

Mefloquine

What drug is a semisynthetic analog of quinine used to treat infections caused by chloroquine-resistant strains of Plasmodium (malaria), an increasing problem in Southeast Asia?

(aminoglycosides) Streptomycin

What drug is among the oldest of the drugs but has gradually been replaced by newer forms with less mammalian toxicity but is choice for treating bubonic plague and tularemia, and is considered an effective antituberculosis agent?

Flucytosine

What drug is an analog of the nucleotide cytosine that has antifungal properties. It is rapidly absorbed after oral therapy, and it is readily dissolved in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid?

Griseofulvin

What drug is an antifungal product especially active in certain dermatophyte infections such as athlete's foot. The drug is deposited in the epidermis, nails, and hair, where it inhibits fungal growth?

Because of its solubility, Sulfisoxazole

What drug is an effective choice for treating shigellosis, urinary tract infections, and certain protozoan infections?

Chloramphenicol

What drug is as broad spectrum as the tetracyclines, it is so toxic to human cells that its uses are restricted?

(aminoglycosides) Gentamicin

What drug is less toxic and is widely administered for infections caused by gram-negative rods (Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, and Shigella)?

Amphotericin B

What drug is most versatile and effective of all antifungals. Work on most fungal infections, including skin and mucous membrane lesions caused by Candida albicans, but it can be injected to treat systemic fungal infections such as histoplasmosis and cryptococcus meningitis?

(Macrolides) azithromycin (Zithromax)

What drug is one of the most-prescribed antibiotics in the world used in respiratory, gastrointestinal, and sexually transmitted infections?

(Ketolides) telitromycin (Ketek)

What drug is similar to Erythromycin but with different ring structure; used for infection when resistant to macrolides?

Sulfones

What drug is use to treat Hansen's disease (leprosy)?

(Macrolides) Clindamycin

What drug is use to treat serious infections in the large intestine and abdomen due to anaerobic bacteria (Bacteroides and Clostridium), infections with penicillin-resistant staphylococci, and acne medications applied to the skin?

(Ketolides) telitromycin (Ketek)

What drug is used for respiratory tract infections caused by macrolide-resistant bacteria?

(Synthetic azoles) Ketoconazole (Nizoral)

What drug is used orally and topically for cutaneous mycoses, vaginal and oral candidiasis, and some systemic and invasive mycoses?

(Macrolides) Erythromycin

What drug is used to treat Mycoplasma pneumonia, legionellosis, Chlamydia infections, pertussis, diphtheria, and a prophylactic drug prior to intestinal sx, penicillin-resistant streptococci, gonococci, syphilis and acne?

(Oxazolidinones ) Linezolid (Zyvox)

What drug is used to treat infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE)?

Chloramphenicol

What drug is used to treat typhoid fever, brain abscesses, and rickettsial and chlamydial infections?

(Macroline Polyene) Nystatin (Mycostatin)

What drug is used topically or orally to treat candidiasis of the skin and mucous membranes, but it is not useful for subcutaneous or systemic fungal infections or for ringworm?

vancomycin

What drug is very toxic and hard to administer and is usually restricted to the most serious, life-threatening conditions?

maraviroc

What drug keeps HIV out of cells by preventing the viruses from adhering to host cells, and without this step, they cannot invade?

Sulfonamide and trimethoprim

What drug resistance develops when microbes deviate from the usual patterns of folic acid synthesis?

Penicillin

What drug resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae and methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus are related to an alteration in the binding proteins in the cell wall?

Erythromycin and clindamycin; 50

What drug resistance is associated with an alteration on the ____S ribosomal binding site?

praziquantel

What drug treatment for various tapeworm and fluke infections?

(Tetracycline) from minocycline—tigecycline

What drug was developed to treat serious hospital skin and soft tissue infections in cases of drug resistance (Acinetobacter and MRSA)?

Azidothymidine (AZT); Zidovudine ; thymine

What drug was the first NRTI and the first drug developed to treat HIV and AIDS? It is an analog of ______________ that becomes incorporated into the DNA strand of HIV but terminates synthesis because it does not offer the correct binding sites?

fluoroquinolones

What drug works by binding to DNA gyrase and a related enzyme, topoisomerase IV—both of which are essential for replication of the bacterial DNA?

Isoniazid (INH)

What drug works by interfering with the synthesis of mycolic acid, a necessary component of the cell wall of acid-fast organisms. It is used to treat infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis but is effective only against growing cells?

Tetracycline

What drug's action is to bind to ribosomes and blocking protein synthesis accounts for the broad-spectrum effects in the group?

sparfloxacin and levofloxacin

What drugs agents are especially recommended for pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinusitis?

Tetracycline compounds such as doxycycline and minocycline

What drugs are administered orally to treat several sexually transmitted diseases, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Lyme disease, typhus, Mycoplasma pneumonia, cholera, leptospirosis, acne, and even some protozoan infections?

tobramycin and amikacin; tobramycin

What drugs are also used for gram-negative infections, with _____________ especially useful for treating Pseudomonas infections in cystic fibrosis patients?

Mebendazole and thiabendazole

What drugs are broad-spectrum antiparasitic drugs used to treat several types of roundworm infections?

Zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu)

What drugs are broader-spectrum antiinfluenza medications that block neuraminidase actions in both influenza A and influenza B viruses?

Tetracyclines

What drugs are contraindicated (not advisable) for children from birth to 8 years of age because they bind to the enamel of the teeth, creating a permanent gray to brown discoloration?

quinolones, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin (Cipro

What drugs are have been successful in therapy for urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted diseases, gastrointestinal infections, osteomyelitis, respiratory infections, and soft tissue infections?

Sulfonamides or sulfa

What drugs are narrow spectrum and function as metabolic analogs to block the synthesis of folic acid by bacteria?

Silver sulfadiazine ointment and solution

What drugs are prescribed for treatment of burns and eye infections?

Acyclovir (Zovirax) and the related compounds valacyclovir (Valtrex), famciclovir (Famvir), and penciclovir (Denavir)

What drugs can be used either orally or topically to treat common herpes virus infections such as oral and genital herpes, chickenpox, and shingles?

Fungi; antifungal

What drugs can become resistant by decreasing their synthesis of ergosterol, the principal receptor for certain ______________ drugs?

sulfonamides

What drugs can crystallize in the kidney and form stones that obstruct the flow of urine?

Niclosamide

What drugs destroys the scolex and the adjoining proglottids of tapeworms, thereby loosening the worm's holdfast?

(Macrolide polyene) Amphotericin B and Nystatin

What drugs have a structures that mimics the lipids in some cell membranes?

trimethoprim; (Septra, Bactrim)

What drugs inhibits a second enzymatic step in the synthesis of folic acid because of this, ______________ is often given in combination with sulfamethoxazole to take advantage of the synergistic effect of the two drugs (______________, ___________)?

amoebicide, metronidazole (Flagyl),

What drugs is effective in treating mild and severe intestinal infections and hepatic disease caused by Entamoeba histolytica this medication inactivates essential metabolic enzymes of the pathogens?

pyrantel and piperazine

What drugs paralyze the muscles of intestinal roundworms?

Enfuvirtide (Fuzeon)

What drugs prevents HIV infection when it stops the envelope of the virus from fusing with the host cell after it has attached?

(Oxazolidinones ) Linezolid (Zyvox)

What drugs uses a unique mechanism, to inhibit the initiation of protein synthesis by interfering with the interaction between the mRNA and the two ribosomal subunits necessary for the initiation of translation?

Mebendazole and thiabendazole

What drugs work locally in the intestine to inhibit the function of the microtubules of worms, eggs, and larvae, which interferes with their glucose utilization and disables them?

synergistic effect

What effects of a combination of antibiotics are greater than the sum of the effects of the individual antibiotics?

Third-generation cephalosporins, such as cephalexin (Keflex) and ceftriaxone (Rocephin),

What generation of cephalosporins are broad spectrum with especially well-developed activity against enteric bacteria that produce beta-lactamases?

Second-generation forms (cefaclor and cefonicid); first

What generation of cephalosporins are more effective than the _____________-generation forms in treating infections by gram-negative bacteria such as Enterobacter, Proteus, and Haemophilus?

First-generation cephalosporins (cephalothin and cefazolin)

What generation of cephalosporins are most effective against gram-positive cocci and a few gram-negative bacteria and what are they?

Fourth-generation drugs, such as cefepime

What generation of cephalosporins have the widest range of antimicrobial properties and are effective with both gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial infections and are rapidly microbicidal?

beta-lactam

What group of antibiotics contain a 3-carbon, 1-nitrogen ring that is highly reactive?

parasitic infections

What infections are toxic to the heart, causing irregular heartbeats and even cardiac arrest in extreme cases?

broad-spectrum quinolones (stopping DNA replication and repair)

What inhibit DNA unwinding enzymes or helicases?

Polymyxins (leakage of proteins and nitrogen bases, particularly in gram-negative bacteria )

What interact with membrane phospholipids? Which causes what do the bacteria and which bacteria is mostly affected?

antibiotic ointment (Neosporin) for combating superficial skin infections by streptococci and staphylococci; with neomycin (an aminoglycoside) and polymyxin

What is Bacitracin used for and what is combined with?

Synercid

What is a drug that is effective against Staphylococcus and Enterococcus that cause endocarditis and surgical infections, and against resistant strains of Streptococcus?

metabolic analog

What is a drug that mimics the normal substrate of an enzyme and vies for its active site?

Monobactams (Aztreonam); penicillin because it is chemically different and does not cross-react with antibodies made to penicillin

What is a narrow-spectrum antibiotic for treating pneumonia, septicemia, and urinary tract infections by gram-negative aerobic bacilli? It can be used by people allergic to ___________________ and why?

Vancomycin

What is a narrow-spectrum antibiotic most effective in treating staphylococcal infections in cases of penicillin and methicillin resistance or in patients with an allergy to penicillins?

(Griseofulvin) terbinifine (Lamisil)

What is a newer antifungal drug for treatment of ringworm and athlete's foot which is an inhibitor of ergosterol synthesis that is readily deposited in skin and nails?

combined therapy

What is a protocol for taking more than two drugs at a time to treat an infection?

nephrotoxic

What is a side effect of Griseofulvin?

hepatotoxicity

What is a side effect of Terbinifine (Lamisil)?

ivermectin

What is a veterinary drug now used for strongyloidiasis and oncocercosis in humans?

antifungal drug flucytosine; dysfunctional RNA; it stops DNA replication; it shuts down metabolism and causes cell death.

What is an analog of uracil that creates ______________ RNA and by inhibiting an enzyme that acts in purine synthesis which does what? All this together does what to a bacteria?

HIV integrase; HIV DNA processing; incorporated or integrated

What is another important enyzme targeted for HIV therapy is _____________. This enzyme is essential for the final step in _________________. Integrase inhibitors prevent this viral DNA from being _____________ or ________ ______into a host cell's chromosome?Step must occur for full viral function, the cycle is terminated by this action.

Synthetic drugs

What is antimicrobial compounds synthesized in the laboratory through chemical reactions?

Chemotherapeutic drug

What is any chemical used in the treatment, relief, or prophylaxis of a disease?

-prevent survival of drug-resistant microbes - treating mixed infections by microbes that differ in the correct drug of choice

What is combined therapy used for?

Aminoglycoside resistance

What is known to develop through changes in drug permeability caused by point mutations in proteins of the transport system or outer membrane?

range of activity of a drug

What is spectrum?

Antimicrobials

What is the All-inclusive term for any antimicrobial drug, regardless of its origin?

Semisynthetic drugs

What is the drugs that are chemically modified in the laboratory after being isolated from natural sources?

interferences with viral DNA synthesis from viral RNA using nucleoside reverse transcriptase (NRTI) inhibitors (nucleoside analog) which directly stop DNA synthesis

What is the first target for anti-HIV drugs?

protects the cell against rupture from outside environment of cell

What is the function of cells' peptidoglycan?

-to disrupt the cell processes or structures of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa -to inhibit the virus multiplication cycle

What is the main function of antimicrobial drugs?

Penicillium chrysogenum

What is the major source of the drug?

diarrhea; irritation or colitis

What is the most common complaint associated with oral antimicrobial? which can progress to severe intestinal __________ or _____________.

blocking the action of RNA polymerase, thereby preventing transcription

What is the primary action of rifampin to treat tuberculosis?

interfence with synthesis of DNA using nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) which function of the reverse transcriptase enzyme itself

What is the second target for anti-HIV drugs?

Antimicrobial chemotherapy*

What is the use of chemotherapeutic drugs to control infection?

Prophylaxis

What is use of a drug to prevent potential for infection of a person at risk?

aminoglycosides; aerobic

What is useful in treating infections caused by _______________ gram-negative rods and certain gram-positive bacteria?

Broad spectrum

What kind of penicillins and cephalosporins can pass into the cell walls of gram-negative species?

(synthesized quinolones) Primaquine

What malaria medication eliminates the liver phase of infection?

(Synthesized quinolones) Chloroquine

What malaria medication is usually taken in combination with another drug to reduce the chances of parasite resistance?

(Synthesized quinolones) Chloroquine

What malaria medication suppresses acute attacks associated with infection of red blood cells?

selectively toxic

What means they can kill or inhibit the growth of microbes without simultaneously damaging host tissues?

oxazolidinone

What medication are a newer drug class that affect the assembly of the completed ribosome by blocking the attachment site for the 50S and 30S subunits?

vancomycin (cell wall)

What medication hinders the elongation of the peptidoglycan?and what part of a bacteria does it affect?

synthesized quinolones (chloroquine and primaquine)

What medication is used to treat Malaria that less toxic to human?

Polymixins (Bacillus polymyxa )

What narrow-spectrum peptide antibiotics with a unique fatty acid component that contributes to their detergent activity?

-Identify the microbe causing the infection - Test the microbe's susceptibility (sensitivity) to varios drugs in vitro - Overall medication condition of patient

What needs to be considered in selecting an antimicrobial drug?

clarithromycin and azithromycin (Zithromax)

What newer semisynthetic macrolides include _______________________ and ____________ which both drugs are useful for middle ear, respiratory, and skin infections and have been approved for Mycobacterium (MAC) infections in AIDS patients?

adverse reactions in the gastrointestinal tract

What side effect does Clindamycin have?

Kirby-Bauer technique

What test uses an agar diffusion test that provides the surface of a plate of special medium is spread with the test bacterium, and small discs containing a premeasured amount of antimicrobial are dispensed onto the bacterial lawn useful data on antimicrobial susceptibility?

-Block penetration into host cell - Block replication, transcription, or translation of viral genetic material - Prevent maturation of viral particles

What the 3 way antiviral drugs work?

Penicillins and cephalosporins ( causes the cell wall to lyse)

What type of antibiotics block synthesis of peptidoglycan which does what to a cell?

Penicillin G

What was the first antibiotic and is the parent compound for all "-cillin" drugs?

c. allergy

When a patient's immune system becomes reactive to a drug, this is an example of a. superinfection b. drug resistance c. allergy d. toxicity

1.the inability of the drug to diffuse into that body compartment (the brain, joints, skin) 2.a few resistant cells in the culture that did not appear in the sensitivity test 3.an infection caused by more than one pathogen (mixed), some of which are resistant to the drug.

When antimicrobial treatment fails, the failure is due to what?

when a the medication attack a cell structure of the bacteria that the human cell's also has such as the cell membrane

When is selectively toxic not good to use?

superinfection

When this therapy destroys beneficial resident species, resistant microbes that were once in small numbers begin to overgrow and cause disease. This complication is called a what?

valacyclovir and famciclovir

Which antiviral drugs are activated by an enzyme encoded by the virus itself, making the drug active only in virally infected cells?

Sulfonamides

Which drug inhibits bacteria by blocking folic acid synthesis?

Azidothymidine (AZT)

Which drug was the first to aimed at treating AIDS, thyme analog?

Sulfonamides and trimethoprim

Which medication blocks enzymes required for tetrahydrofolate synthesis needed for DNA and RNA synthesis?

Tetracyclines

Which medication blocks the attachment of tRNA on the A acceptor site and effectively stop further synthesis of that protein?

polyene antifungal antibiotics (amphotericin B and nystatin

Which medication forms complexes with the sterols on fungal membranes, which causes abnormal openings and seepage of small ions?

Cycloserine (cell wall)

Which medication inhibits the formation of the basic peptidoglycan subunits? and what part of a bacteria does it affect?

Aminoglycosides (streptomycin, gentamicin)

Which medication inserts on sites on the 30S subunit and cause the misreading of the mRNA, leading to abnormal proteins?

A. Killing extracellular viruses

Which of the following effects do antiviral drugs NOT have? A. Killing extracellular viruses B. Stopping virus synthesis C. Inhibiting virus maturation D. Blocking virus receptors

a. killing extracellular viruses

Which of the following effects do antiviral drugs not have? a. killing extracellular viruses b. stopping virus synthesis c. inhibiting virus maturation d. blocking virus receptors

c. preventing cell wall synthesis

Which of the following modes of action would be most selectively toxic? a. interrupting ribosomal function b. dissolving the cell membrane c. preventing cell wall synthesis d. inhibiting DNA replication

b. be active even in high dilutions

Which statement is not an aim in the use of drugs in antimicrobial chemotherapy? The drug should a. have selective toxicity b. be active even in high dilutions c. be broken down and excreted rapidly d. be microbicidal

negative; positive

While DNA gyrase tends to be the primary target in gram-___________ organisms, topoisomerase is targeted in gram-___________ cells.

The selective toxicity of these compounds does not affect human cells because humans get their folic acid from their diets

Why doesn't antimicrobial drugs that affect metabolic pathways affect humans?

it's good because penicillin attack the cell wall and human's cells do not have cell wall therefore can not be affect and there is less side effects

Why is penicillin a great selectively toxic?

neuraminidase

Without the functions of ____________, the virus cannot be budded off and released from the host cell, so cells cannot produce active viruses.

Four; negative

__________ generations of cephalosporins exist, with each group being more effective against gram-____________ organisms than the generation before it.

specimens

_____________ should be taken before antimicrobials are iniated.

Zosyn

______________ is a similar combination of the beta-lactamase inhibitor tazobactam and piperacillin, is used for a wide variety of systemic infections.

Sulfones

_______________ are compounds chemically related to the sulfonamides but lacking their broad-spectrum effects.

Semisynthetic; ampicillin and amoxicillin; gram-negative

_______________ penicillins such as ___________ and ____________ have been chemically altered with side chains which increase their spectrum and help them move across the outer membrane of _________________ cell walls.

cephalosporin

________________ antibiotics currently account for one-third of all antibiotics administered.

Selective toxicity

________________ is almost impossible due to obligate intracellular parasitic nature of viruses.

identification

________________ of infectious agent should be attempted as soon as possible.

Clavulanic acid

_________________ is often added to semisynthetic penicillins to augment their effectiveness.

Clavulanic acid ; beta-lactam

___________________ is a chemical that inhibits beta-lactamase enzymes, thereby increasing the longevity of ________________ antibiotics in the presence of penicillinase-producing bacteria.

Ticarcillin and piperacillin

______________________ have such an extended spectrum that they can be substituted for combinations of antibiotics.

Clavamox; Augmentin

______________________ is a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate marketed under the trade name _______________.

Zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu)

______________________drugs may be used preventive and must be given early in an infection of influenza to be most effective.

dies from disruption in metabolism or lysis

what happens to a cell with a damaged membrane?