Ch 13: mgmt 3300

Expert power

"Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skills, or knowledge."

Legitimate power

"In formal groups and organizations, probably the most common access to one or more of the power bases is through legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on the person's structural position in the organization."

Dependence

"Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B's dependence on A, the greater A's power in the relationship. "

referent power

"Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits."

Sexual harrasment

"Sexual harassment is defined as any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment or creates a hostile work environment. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), sexual harassment happens when a person encounters "unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature" on the job that disrupts work performance or that creates an "intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work environment.3"

Coercive power

"The coercive power base depends on the target's fear of negative results from failing to comply. On the physical level, coercive power rests on the application, or the threat of application, of bodily distress through the infliction of pain, the restriction of movement, or the withholding of basic physiological or safety needs.

Reward power

"The opposite of coercive power is reward power, with which people comply because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards others view as valuable will have power over them."

Zero-sum approach

"The zero-sum approach treats the reward "pie" as fixed, so any gain one person or group achieves comes at the expense of another person or group. "

"You can increase your chance of success by using two or

"more tactics together or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible.15 Using ingra-tiation and legitimacy together can lessen negative reactions, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcome of a decision process or the policy is routine"

Political behavior

"political behavior in organizations consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual's formal role but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization"

Power

"power simply refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so B acts in accordance with A's wishes."

"In general, you're more likely to be effective if you begin with

"softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pres-sure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. A single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics."

"At the organizational level,

A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B values the job."

"If A can assign

B work activities B finds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Coercive power comes also from withholding key information. People in an organization who have data or knowledge others need can make others dependent on them."

Inspirational appeals

Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a tar-get's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations

Coalitions

Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree."

"Not all groups or organizations are equally political.

In some organizations, politicking is overt and rampant, while in others politics play a small role in influencing outcomes."

Consultation

Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to accomplish your plan.

"Why does this happen?

Interestingly, power not only leads people to focus on their self-interests because they can, it also liberates them to focus inward and thus come to place greater weight on their own aims and interests. Power also appears to lead individuals to "objectify" others (to see them as tools to obtain their instrumental goals) and to see relationships as more peripheral"

"Most also indicate they have never been trained to use political behavior effectively. But why, you may wonder, must politics exist?

Isn't it possible for an organization to be politics-free? It's possible—if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn't describe the organizational world in which most of us live."

"What power tactics do people use to translate power bases into specific action? What op-tions do they have for influencing their bosses, coworkers, or employees? Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics:"

Legitimacy rational persuasion inspirational appeals consulation exchange personal appeals ingratiation pressure coalitions

"There are also political forces at work in the relationships between organizations, where politics work differently depending on the organizational cultures.

One study showed that when two organizations with very political environments interacted with one another, the political interactions between them hurt performance in collaborative projects. "

"Those given power are more likely to make self-interested decisions when faced with a moral hazard (such as when hedge fund managers take more risks with other people's money because they're rewarded for gains but punished less often for losses).

People in power are more willing to denigrate others. Power also leads to overconfident decision making"

Personal appeals

Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty

"How are the two terms different?

Power does not require goal compatibility, just dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some con-gruence between the goals of the leader and those being led."

Rational persuasion

Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable

Pressure

Pressure Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

Legitimacy

Relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules.

"Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and two bases of personal power (expert, referent), which are most important?

Research suggests the personal sources of power are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these out-comes. One source of formal power, coercive power, can be damaging."

Exchange

Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for acceding to a request.

"Let's begin with a general postulate:

The greater B's dependence on A, the more power A has over B. When you possess anything others require that you alone control, you make them dependent on you, and therefore you gain power over them"

Impression Mgmt

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression management (IM)"

"does power corrupt?

There is certainly evidence that there are corrupting aspects of power. Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others' needs or goals."

"Finally, remember the saying that those with little power abuse what little they have?

There seems to be some truth to this in that the people most likely to abuse power are those who start low in status and gain power. Why is this the case? It appears that having low status is threatening, and the fear this creates is used in negative ways if power is given later"

Ingratiation Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request

Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request

"Where does power come from? What gives an individual or a group influence over others?

We answer by dividing the bases or sources of power into two general groupings, formal and personal, and breaking each of these down into more specific categories"

"Leaders use power as

a means of attaining group goals."

"Referent power can be

a powerful motivator."

"Dependence increases when

a resource you control is important, scarce, and nonsubstitutable"

"A graphical illustration of the associations among individuals in a social network is called

a sociogram, which functions like an informal version of an organization chart. The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization."

"Dependence, in turn, is based on

alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire"

"One tool to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within

an organization is social network analysis"

"Power energizes

and increases motivation to achieve goals. It also can enhance our motivation to help others. "

"The pressure tactic tends to

backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine"

"Legitimate power is broader than the power to

coerce and reward. Specifically, it includes members' acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical position. We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an orga-nization chart leads people to infer the leaders are especially powerful."

"Lastly, leadership

concentrates on the individual leader's influence, while the study of power acknowledges that groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups."

"As jobs become more specialized, we become

dependent on experts to achieve goals. It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: most of us follow our doctor's advice"

"Sexual harassment is

disproportionately prevalent for women in certain types of jobs."

"Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element in

effectiveness (it's damaging to be labeled political). These individuals are able to use their political skills in environments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice. When an organization has fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually negatively related to job performance ratings."

"Many managers report some use of political behavior is

ethical, as long as it doesn't directly harm anyone else. They describe politics as necessary and believe someone who never uses political behavior will have a hard time getting things done."

"The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues,

exhibits higher levels of social conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Because they believe they can control their environment, individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. Not surprisingly, the Machiavellian personality (see Chapter 5)—characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire for power—is consistent with using politics as a means to further personal interests"

"Personal power, which comes from an individual's unique characteristics. There are two bases of personal power:

expertise and the respect and admiration of others. Personal power is not mutually exclusive from formal power, but it can be independent."

"Lastly, we know cultures within organizations differ markedly; some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are

formal and conservative. Some encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure"

"In terms of traits, we find that employees who are

high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power (nPow; see Chapter 7) are more likely to engage in political behavior. "

"First, the toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality. Research suggests that

if you have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt you because you are less likely to think that using power benefits yourself."

"A second difference relates to the direction of

influence. Leadership research focuses on the downward influence on followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Power research takes all factors into consideration."

"For a third difference,

leadership research often emphasizes style. It seeks answers to questions such as: How supportive should a leader be? How much decision making should be shared with followers? In contrast, the research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance."

"People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence. Specifically, extraverts tend to be

more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. People who fit the culture are influential because they can perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. Thus, the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as accept-able for use."

"Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that

most of the "facts" used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation."

"If nobody wants what you have, it's not going to create dependence. However,

note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience."

"People differ in their political skill, or their ability to influence others to enhance their own

objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics. Political skill is also more effective when the stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important organizational outcomes."

"You may have noted that for a power situation to exist,

one person or group needs to have control over resources the other person or group values. This is usually the case in established leadership situations. However, power relationships are possible in all areas of life, and power can be obtained in many ways. "

" rational persuasion is the

only tactic effective across organizational levels."

"This method examines patterns of communication among

organizational members to identify how information flows between them. Within a social network, or connections between people who share professional interests, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties."

"Referent power develops

out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person."

"For most people who have modest political skills or who are unwilling to play the politics game,

outcomes tend to be predominantly negative in terms of decreased job satisfac-tion, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance"

"When resources are reduced,

people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Also, any changes, especially those implying a significant reallocation of resources within the organization, are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking."

"Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee per-formance,

perhaps because employees perceive political environments to be unfair, which demotivates them.54 Not surprisingly, when politicking becomes too much to handle, it can lead employees to quit.55 The negative effects from politicking seem to be universal to most cultures."

"Preference for power tactics varies across cultures. Those from individualistic countries tend to see power in

personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others"

"Formal power is based on an individual's

position in an organization. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority."

"Political behavior is outside specified job requirements. It requires some attempt to use

power bases. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. Our definition is broad enough to include varied political behaviors such as withholding key information from decision makers, joining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information to the media, exchanging favors with others for mutual benefit, and lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual or decision alternative. In this way, political behavior is often negative, but not always."

"Those in the position of brokers tend to have more

power because they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups. In other words, many people are dependent upon brokers, which gives the brokers more power. "

"Someone can thus have

power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential. "

"This study points to an important insight about power. It is not so much that

power corrupts as it reveals what we value. Supporting this line of reasoning, another study found that power led to self-interested behavior only in those with a weak moral identity (the degree to which morals are core to someone's identity). In those with a strong moral identity, power enhanced their moral awareness and willingness to act"

"Generally, sexual harassment is more

prevalent in male-dominated societies."

"The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to

protect their employees from a hostile work environment. They may easily be unaware that one of their employees is being sexually harassed, but being unaware does not protect them or their organization. If investigators believe a manager could have known about the harassment, both the manager and the company can be held liable."

"Finally, some individuals engage in political behavior simply because they are better at it. Such individuals

read interpersonal interactions well, fit their behavior to situ-ational needs, and excel at networking.47 These people are often indirectly rewarded for their political efforts."

"Some people who are not in formal leadership positions have

referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional appeal."

"At the individual level,

researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors likely to be related to political behavior"

"Other organizations look at data from human resources (HR) information systems, analyzing how supervisors and subordinates interact with one another. These data sources can produce

sociograms showing how re-sources and power flow. Leaders can then identify powerful brokers who exert the stron-gest influence on many groups, and address these key individuals"

"As we mentioned, the effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience. People especially likely to comply with

soft power tactics tend to be more reflective and intrinsically motivated; they have high self-esteem and a greater desire for control. Those likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action-oriented and extrinsically motivated, and are more focused on getting along with others than on getting their own way."

"Inspirational appeals work best as a downward-influencing tactic with

subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors relating to the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture."

"Networks can create

substantial power dynamics."

"The most important aspect of power is

that it is a function of dependence."

"Second,

the corrosive ef-fect of power can be contained by organizational systems."

"the effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on

the direction of influence, and of course on the audience."

"There are many ways to implement a social network analysis in an organization. Some organizations keep track of

the flow of e-mail communications or document shar-ing across departments. These big data tools are an easy way to gather objective informa-tion about how individuals exchange information. "

"Conversely,

the more alternate job opportunities an individual has—due to a favorable job market, possession of scarce skills or knowledge, prominent reputa-tion, or influential contacts outside the organization—the more likely the person is to employ politics."

"The fewer viable substitutes for a resource,

the more power a person controlling that resource has."

"But if something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your power. Therefore,

the more you can expand your own options, the less power you place in the hands of others. This explains why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than give their business to only one. It also explains why so many people aspire to financial independence. Independence reduces the power others can wield to limit our access to opportunities and resources"

"Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be

the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process"

"There is no shortage of definitions of organizational politics. Essentially,

this type of politics focuses on the use of power to affect decision making in an organization, some-times for self-serving and organizationally unsanctioned behaviors"

"Powerful people react—especially negatively—to any

threats to their competence. People in positions of power hold on to it when they can, and individuals who face threats to their power are exceptionally willing to take actions to retain it whether their actions harm others or not. "

"Those with good political skills have the ability to

use their bases of power effectively. Politics are not only inevitable; they might be essential, too"

"When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they are said to have

very strong ties. Other nodes that are not engaged in direct communication with one another achieve resource flows through intermediary nodes. In other words, some nodes act as brokers between otherwise unconnected nodes"

"Third,

we have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. One study showed that simply expressing gratitude toward powerful others makes them less likely to act aggressively against us. "

"On the other hand,

when companies with less internal political behavior interacted with one another, even political disputes between them did not lead to lower performance in collaborative projects. This study shows companies should be wary of forming alliances with organizations that have high levels of internal political behavior."

"Finally, because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—

where facts are rarely objective and thus open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to support their goals and interests. That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. One person's "selfless effort to benefit the orga-nization" is seen by another as a "blatant attempt to further his or her interest"

"We see the scarcity-dependence relationship in the power situation of employment. When the supply of labor is low relative to demand,

workers can negotiate compensation and benefits packages that are far more attractive than those in occupations with an abundance of candidates"