Ch. 15, Autonomic Nervous System

What is the resting membrane potential? What happens at this potential? What does depolarisation do?

-55mV. At this potential, cells generate continuous action potentials at a very slow rate (1/20 sec to 2 - 3/sec) Depolarisation increases the rate of AP firing to 20-30/sec when receptor cells are activated

Autonomic motor neurons regulate visceral activities by 1. increasing activities in effector tissue. 2. decreasing activities in effector tissue. 3. allowing bidirectional conduction across synapses.

1 and 2

Acetylcholine binds to 1. nicotinic receptors 2. muscarinic receptors 3. alpha receptors

1 and 2 are correct

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system will1. 1. increase blood glucose 2. decrease blood glucose 3. distribute more blood to the kidney

1 only

Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors 1. are sensitive to epinephrine and norepinephrine 2. have several subclasses 3. mediate response to the sympathetic nervous system

1 only 2 only 3 only 1 and 2 are correct 1, 2 and 3 are correct

Acetylcholine is released 1. at the neuromuscular junctions 2. within sympathetic ganglia 3. within parasympathetic ganglia

1, 2 and 3 are correct

What are the 3 mechanisms for adaptation?

1. A large number of fibres from olfactory regions in the brain 2. Olfactory tract 3. Special inhibitory cells (granule cells)

Describe the 5 mechanisms of excitation of olfactory cells.

1. Odourant substances coming in contact w/ the olfactory membrane surface diffuse into the mucous covering the cilia 2. The odourant then binds with protein receptor molecules on the surface of the cilia. 3. From here, the odorant binds to a receptor protein coupled w/ a G-protein. Once bound, these proteins initiate a G-protein mechanism which uses cAMP as a 2nd messenger 4. When the G-protein is activated, adenylate cyclase is activated, which catalyses the conversion of ATP to cAMP 5. cAMP activates cyclic nucleotide gated action channels (sodium & calcium ions) which allow an influx of cations through the membrane into the receptor cell cytoplasm, causing a small depolarisation. This is conducted to the axon hillock region where APs are generated via voltage regulated Na+ channels & then transmitted to the olfactory bulb, which are transmitted to higher centres of the brain.

Place the events in order of sympathetic motor pathway. 1. postganglionic neuron depolarizes 2. acetylcholine binds to sweat gland's muscarinic receptor 3. postganglionic neuron releases acetylcholine 4. neuron exits lumbar segment of spinal cord 5. acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptor 6. neuron releases acetylcholine

4, 6, 5, 1, 3, 2

During periods of rest and recovery, the sympathetic activity to glands and smooth muscles predominates over parasympathetic activity. a) True b) False

A

The Sympathetic division is associated with excitement or embarrassment. a) True b) False

A

The primary difference between an autonomic reflex arc and a somatic reflex arc is that the former has two motor neurons connecting the CNS to an effector. a) True b) False

A

The primary reason that the sympathetic division of the ANS produces immediate responses within the body is based on the concept of divergence. a) True b) False

A

Which of the following does not describe the autonomic nervous system? a) the effectors are primarily skeletal muscles b) the sympathetic division generally stimulates an organ c) preganglionic axons release acetylcholine d) it is under involuntary control e) the parasympathetic division decreases heart rate

A

Which of the following effects does not occur during the fight-or-flight response? a) the pupils constrict b) the airways increase in diameter c) blood vessels to skeletal muscles dilate d) heart rate speeds up e) blood pressure increases

A

What does chemical change bring about? What are the 2 chemical senses?

A chemical change brings about an electrical change Chemical senses include: → Gustation (taste) → Olfaction (smell)

What is adaptation & when does this happen? What does this also include & what is its' function?

A decrease in sensitivity to odours, which occurs rapidly. Complete insensitivity to some or certain strong odours occurs about a minute after exposure. These include phasic receptors which adapt rapidly to a constant stimulus and then turns off

Cholinergic neurons release _____ and adrenergic neurons release _____.

ACh; NE

In a parasympathetic division motor pathway, which neurotransmitter is released at the effector?

Acetylcholine

In a parasympathetic division motor pathway, which neurotransmitter is released at the effector? Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Epinephrine Dopamine Serotonin

Acetylcholine

Which neurotransmitter is released at the adrenal gland by the preganglionic neuron in the sympathetic pathway?

Acetylcholine

Which neurotransmitter is released at the autonomic ganglion by the preganglionic neuron?

Acetylcholine

Which neurotransmitter is released at the autonomic ganglion by the preganglionic neuron? Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Epinephrine Dopamine Serotonin

Acetylcholine

Cholinergic neurons release ____________ while adrenergic release _______________. Acetylcholine; norepinephrine Norepinephrine; acetylcholine Cholecystokinin; adrenalin Acetylcholinesterase; norepinephrine

Acetylcholine; norepinephrine

Describe the feedback inhibition system. What effect do periglomerular cells have?

After the onset of a smell, the brain quickly develops a strong feedback inhibition to suppress the relay of it, which is signalled through the olfactory bulb (AKA olfaction adaptation). Periglomerular cells between glomeruli also have an inhibitory effect on mitral cells.

Autonomic reflexes help to keep which of the following in balance? Blood pressure Digestion Defecation and urination All of these

All of these

The balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity is referred to as _____________. Antagonism Autonomic tone Enteric tone Hirsutism

Autonomic tone

Cholinergic neurons are named after the neurotransmitters that they release, the catecholamines. a) True b) False

B

The definition of autonomic tone is: a) the communication between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system b) the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity c) the constant slight contraction seen in skeletal muscles d) the canceling out effect of adrenergic and cholinergic responses to a stimulus

B

Which of the following neurotransmitters does not bind to adrenergic receptors? a) noradrenaline b) acetylcholine c) epinephrine d) norepinephrine e) adrenaline

B

Which of the following sympathetic responses is mismatched with its body part? a) iris of eye - dilation of pupil b) liver - increased glycogen synthesis c) stomach - decreased motility d) hair follicles - contraction of arrector pili muscles e) adipose tissue - increased lipolysis

B

Which organ is matched incorrectly with either its sympathetic or parasympathetic ganglion? a) eye - ciliary ganglion b) urinary bladder - superior mesenteric ganglion c) ear - otic ganglion d) stomach - celiac ganglion e) heart - inferior cervical ganglion

B

Which statement is false in reference to the autonomic ganglia? a) the prevertebral ganglia lie close to the abdominal arteries b) the terminal ganglia lie near the bellies of skeletal muscles c) the sympathetic chain ganglia lie close to the vertebrae on each side d) the sympathetic preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic chain are very short e) the terminal ganglia are parasympathetic ganglia

B

How do glomerular mitral cells process odour signals & where do they get sent to?

By refining & amplifying the signals Mitral cells send impulses to: → The olfactory complex → The hypothalamus, amygdala & limbic system

An agonist is: a) a substance that binds with a neurotransmitter to enhance its effects b) a substance that blocks a hormone from applying its effect c) a substance that activates a receptor producing the same effect as a neurotransmitter d) a substance that prevents a receptor from receiving a hormone

C

Which would be an example of a condition in the body not controlled by autonomic reflexes? a) breathing rate and depth b) rate of urine formation c) tracking a bird flying by d) digestion of your evening meal e) blood pressure change during exercise

C

The sympathetic division of the ANS is called the thoracolumbar division because: a) the axons of the preganglionic neurons control thoracolumbar inflow b) sensory stimulation is received via all thoracic and lumber nerve roots c) it controls only organs and muscles in the thoracic and lumbar areas of the body d) its preganglionic neurons' cell bodies are located in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord

D

Which of the following comparisons of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the somatic nervous system (SNS) is not true? a) the SNS carries information from the special senses b) the ANS has sensory receptors called interoceptors c) tissues of the ANS can function even if their nerve supply is damaged d) the SNS contains motor neurons which are only excitatory e) angina pectoris is an example of input from the ANS

D

Which of the following statements is/are incorrect? a) The autonomic nervous system operates under conscious control. b) Input into the autonomic nervous system is often from interoreceptors. c) Autonomic pathways consist of a single axon. d) a and c are incorrect statements.

D

What is the difference between dendrites & mitral cells?

Dendrites receive synapses from the olfactory cell neurons. Mitral cells send axons through the olfactory tract to transmit signals to the brain

What happens in the olfactory bulb?

Different odours excite different regions

What specialised epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity is involved in smell? What stage is it in terms of odour processing? What is the area for this in humans?

It is the olfactory epithelium and it specialises in the sensation stage. 5-10cm2

Describe the structure of primary and secondary neurons

Each bulb contains about 1200 - 2000 glomeruli, each about 50 - 150 µm in diameter & consist of discrete spheres of nerve tissue. Within each glomerulus, endings of about 25,000 primary olfactory receptor cell axons converge and terminate on the dendrites of second order olfactory neurons from mitral cells. Each glomerulus receives input from only receptor cells of a particular type.

An agonist binds and blocks a receptor while an antagonist binds and activates the receptor. T/F

F

Which cranial nerves contain preganglionic neurons for the parasympathetic motor pathway to the salivary glands? Select all that apply. Oculomotor (III) nerve Facial (VII) nerve Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve Vagus (X) nerve

Facial (VII) nerve Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve

Neurons leaving the superior cervical ganglion primarily serve what regions? Select all that apply

Heart Head

True

In the autonomic nervous system, the control of motor output is involuntary. T/F?

The fight or flight response involves all of the following except: Glycogenolysis Increase in heart rate Activation of the sympathetic division Increase in digestive tract activity to mobilize glucose Release of epinephrine

Increase in digestive tract activity to mobilize glucose

Jennifer is at a stoplight and begins to accelerate into traffic when the light turns green. She stops suddenly as a truck runs the red light and is only a few inches away from her front bumper. Which effect would you NOT expect to see in Jennifer's body?

Increased secretion of digestive juices

Which autonomic plexuses serve the large intestine?

Inferior mesenteric plexus Superior mesenteric plexus

What is the relationship between juxtaglomerular cells & Mitral cells?

Juxtaglomerular cells surround the glomeruli & transfer olfactory information to Mitral cells.

Acetylcholine is always released by _____ postganglionic neurons and is removed from the synaptic cleft at a _____ rate than norepinephrine.

parasympathetic; faster

___receptors are always found on the membrane of the postganglionic cell body. ____ receptors are only found in brown adipose tissue used for thermogenesis. ____ receptors are located on the sweat gland cells of only the palms and soles.

Nicotinic Beta 3 Alpha 1

If a doctor administers atropine IV, a muscarinic antagonist, followed by a high dose of ACh, you still see an increase in heart rate. Where is the ACh acting?

Nicotinic receptors of the postganglionic sympathetic neuron causing NE release to the heart, increasing heartrate.

In a sympathetic division motor pathway, which neurotransmitter is released at the kidney?

Norepinephrine

Which contributes to the longer lasting and more widespread effects observed with sympathetic activation versus parasympathetic activation?

Norepinephrine is more slowly removed from synapses than ACh. Additional norepinephrine is released from the adrenal gland. Greater divergence occurs in sympathetic neural pathways.

_____ is the neurotransmitter used by the pathway shown in the diagram and it causes ____.

Norepinephrine; depolarization Acetylcholine; depolarization Epinephrine; depolarization Norepinephrine; hyperpolarization Acetylcholine; hyperpolarization

Describe olfactory cilia & what they do.

Olfactory cilia is about 0.3µm in diameter & up to 200µm in length. They project into the mucous that coats the inner surface of the nasal cavity & increases the receptive SA

What projects into the olfactory mucous? Describe these.

Olfactory hairs (cilia). These are formed on a dendritic knob which come from mucosal ends.

Describe the Olfactory Pathway

Olfactory receptor cells synapse in the Glomeruli, which then synapse with mitral cells.

How much of a stimulating agent is needed to reach threshold? Provide an example

Only a minute quality in the air is needed to elicit a smell sensation. E.g. methylmercaptan can be smelled when only one 25 trillionth of a gram is present in each mL of air Natural gas is odourless but lethal & can be potentially explosive if it accumulates. To provide olfactory warning of gas leaks, only a small amount of methylmercaptan is added to natural gas

Which parasympathetic terminal ganglion is associated with the parotid salivary gland?

Otic ganglion

Which neurons would normally have the shortest axons? Select all that apply

Preganglionic sympathetic neurons Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons

A postganglionic neuron in the ANS

Releases neurotransmitter that binds to the effector cell.

What is high convergence related to?

Sensitivity & lateral inhibitory interactions involved in the sharpening of olfactory responses, which aid in odour discrimination by decreasing firing in response to background odours.

What are basal cells? What do they continuously undergo

Stem cells located between the bases of the supporting cells. They continually undergo cell division to produce new olfactory receptor neurons.

Which of the following describes the sympathetic division of the ANS? Select all that apply.

Stimulates sweat glands Synapses with smooth muscle in blood vessel walls Short preganglionic neurons Releases hormones

Which neuron is most likely to be adrenergic? Sympathetic preganglionic Sympathetic postganglionic Parasympathetic preganglionic Parasympathetic postganglionic Both Sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic

Sympathetic postganglionic

___innervates sweat glands over the entire body. ___stimulates urination and defecation. ____ innervates the sex organs. ____ increases gastric motility.

Sympathetic system Parasympathetic system Both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Parasympathetic system

During emotional stress, the sympathetic dominates the parasympathetic system. T/F

T

In the autonomic nervous system, the control of motor output is involuntary. T/F

T

The Sympathetic division is associated with excitement or embarrassment. T/F

T

The autonomic nervous system operates by reflex arcs that include sensory neurons, integrating centers that are mainly in the hypothalamus and brain stem, and motor neurons. T/R

T

The parasympathetic NS is also called the craniosacral division because it includes four cranial nerves and spinal nerves from S2-S4. T/F

T

The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is called an energy conservation/restoration system because it supports body functions that conserve and restore energy during periods of rest and recovery. T/F

T

The primary difference between an autonomic reflex arc and a somatic reflex arc is that the former has two motor neurons connecting the CNS to an effector. T/F

T

What is the main principle of Olfactory Receptor cells?

That one OR can recognise multiple odourants, one odourant is detected by multiple OR's, & different odourants are recognised by different combinations of OR's. This indicates that the OR family is used in a combinational manner to encode odour identities. Different odourants have different "receptor codes"

What ability occurs when an odour activates a different pattern of glomeruli?

The ability to analyse the different sets of activated glomeruli, & thus the ability to decode the identity of the odour produced.

Which of the following statements describes a common response of an autonomic effector during the "fight-or-flight" response? Gastric motility and secretory activity increases. Blood vessels serving skeletal muscles constrict. Adipose tissues stores away triglycerides for later use. The pupils of the eyes dilate. Blood vessels serving the kidneys and digestive organs dilate

The pupils of the eyes dilate.

Where is the olfactory epithelium located?

The superior part of the nasal cavity & the inferior surface of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It also extends along the superior nasal concha

Describe the SURFACES of olfactory cilia. What do they react to?

The surface of each cilia is covered with olfactory receptors (G-coupled proteins) They react to odours in the air & stimulate the olfactory cells

Nicotinic receptors are found in all autonomic ganglia are found in sweat glands do not bind nicotine are found in all autonomic ganglia and are found in sweat glands are found in all autonomic ganglia and are found in sweat glands, and do not bind nicotine

are found in all autonomic ganglia

What do the chemoreceptors in the chemical senses respond to? Describe 2 examples.

Their chemoreceptors respond to chemicals in aqueous solutions → Taste: receptors respond to substances dissolved in saliva (5 receptor types) → Smell: receptors respond to substances dissolved in nasal membrane fluids. (Thousands of different types of receptors)

What are supporting cells & what do they provide?

These are columnar epithelial cells of the mucous membrane that line the nose. They provide physical support, nourishment & electrical insulation for the ORs They also help detoxify chemicals that come in contact with olfactory epithelium

Describe the structure of individual glomeruli. What happens here?

They consist of a shell of small neurons & glial cells w/in which axons of sensory neurons synapse onto the dendrites of Mitral cells & interneurons that surround the glomerulus.

What are Olfactory Receptor Cells?

They're bipolar neurons with an exposed knob-shaped dendrite & an axon projecting through the cribriform plate & ending in the olfactory bulb

How is the Olfactory Bowman's Gland innervated? Provide an example.

This is innervated by branches of the Facial Nerve (7) which can be stimulated by certain chemicals. Impulses in these nerves that stimulate lacrimal glands & nasal mucous glands results in tears & a running nose after inhaling substances e.g. pepper

Which of the following describes the parasympathetic division of the ANS? Select all that apply.

Vagus nerve output Ganglia found near visceral effectors sacral spinal cord output Only releases acetylcholine Four cranial nerves involved

there is one motor neuron in the pathway because the effector is a skeletal muscle

What statements support that this diagram represents a somatic motor pathway and not an autonomic motor pathway? Select all that apply.

Parasympathetic division only releases ACh and sympathetic releases ACh and NE Parasympathetic has a long preganglionic neuron and sympathethic has a short preganglionic neuron.

What statements support that this diagrams represents only one specific division of the autonomic nervous system? Select all that apply.

How is a sneeze reflex triggered & what cranial nerve is involved? Describe.

When nerve endings inside the mucous membrane of the nose are stimulated, external stimulants pass through nasal hairs to the nasal mucosa. This triggers a histamine release which irritates nerves in the nose, sending signals to the brain, via the Trigeminal Nerve (5), to initiate a sneeze. This produces mucous that is carried to the surface of the epithelium by ducts. The secretion moistens the surface of olfactory epithelium & dissolves odourants, so transduction can take place

How are mitral cells inhibited?

When the olfactory bulb houses granule cells (GABA - gamma - aminobutyric acid releasing cells). This allows only for the transmission of highly excitatory impulses

____ rami communicantes contain ______axons and only are present in the thoracic and L1-3 region. The rami are formed from ____neurons

White Myelinated Preganglionic sympathetic

The ______contains sympathetic preganglionic axons and connects the anterior ramus of the spinal nerve with the sympathetic trunk ganglia.

White rami communicanes

An agonist is: a substance that binds with a neurotransmitter to enhance its effects a substance that blocks a hormone from applying its effect a substance that activates a receptor producing the same effect as a neurotransmitter a substance that prevents a receptor from receiving a hormone

a substance that activates a receptor producing the same effect as a neurotransmitter

Which statements describe a preganglionic neuron? Select all that apply a) Has axons that exit the CNS in a cranial or spinal nerve. b) Has mostly myelinated axons. c) Forms the first part of an autonomic motor pathway. d) Has its cell body in the brain or spinal cord. e) Forms gap junctions with postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglia. f) Has unmyelinated axons g) Releases acetylcholine h) pathway will lead to skeletal muscle

a,b,c,d,g

Which of the following neurotransmitters does not bind to adrenergic receptors? noradrenaline acetylcholine epinephrine norepinephrine adrenaline

acetylcholine

Interoceptors can detect what sensation? Select all that apply.

blood gas levels stretch of organ walls pain

The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system have antagonistic effects on all of the following effector structures EXCEPT

blood vessels in skeletal muscles

Muscarinic receptors are associated with ____ . Nicotinic receptors are associated with _____. Beta receptors are associated with _____

both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system sympathetic nervous system

During a hike in the woods, Susan encountered a grizzly bear. Which of the following would probably not occur? a) Her pupils would dilate. b) Salivation would increase. c) Airways would dilate. d) Heart rate would decrease. e) b and d would probably not occur.

e) b and d would probably not occur.

The autonomic nervous system is involved in controlling what effectors? Select all that apply.

exocrine glands. cardiac muscle. smooth muscle. endocrine glands

Autonomic tone is regulated by the

hypothalamus

What part of the nervous system is the main control and integrative center of the autonomic nervous system? medulla oblongata cerebrum hypothalamus thalamus

hypothalamus

Autonomic tone is regulated by the: medulla oblongata. cerebellum. cerebrum. vermis. hypothalamus.

hypothalamus.

What part of the nervous system is the main control and integrative center of the autonomic nervous system?

hypothalmus

Release of acetylcholine by postganglionic cells will increase heart rate dilate bronchioles increase digestion increase heart rate and dilate bronchioles dilate bronchioles and increase digestion

increase digestion

The sympathetic division will promote digestion. promote urination. increase heart rate. decrease pupil size. decrease the diameter of the airways.

increase heart rate.

The sympathetic division will promote digestion. promote urination. increase heart rate. decrease pupil size. decrease the diameter of the airways.

increase heart rate.

You are just about to perform a clinical procedure for the first time and your palms begin to sweat. This is due to

increased sympathetic stimulation of sweat glands possessing alpha 1 receptor

Autonomic motor neurons regulate visceral activities by

increasing activities in effector tissue. decreasing activities in effector tissue.

The sympathetic division of the ANS is called the thoracolumbar division because: the axons of the preganglionic neurons control thoracolumbar inflow sensory stimulation is received via all thoracic and lumber nerve roots it controls only organs and muscles in the thoracic and lumbar areas of the body its preganglionic neurons' cell bodies are located in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord

its preganglionic neurons' cell bodies are located in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord

Cholinergic receptors include

nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

Cholinergic receptors include: nicotinic and adrenergic receptors muscarinic, alpha, and beta receptors adrenergic and nicotinic receptors nicotinic and muscarinic receptors alpha, beta, and nicotinic receptors

nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

When acetylcholine binds to _____ receptors on postganglionic neurons or chromaffin cells it is always _____

nicotinic receptors Excitatory

The two main neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system are

norepinephrine and acetylcholine

The two main neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system are noradrenaline and adrenaline. adrenaline and acetylcholine. norepinephrine and dopamine. norepinephrine and acetylcholine. acetylcholine and dopamine.

norepinephrine and acetylcholine.

To decrease heart rate, the ____ division causes a release of ____to ____receptors.

parasympathetic acetylcholine muscarinic

Acetylcholine is always released by _____ postganglionic neurons and is removed from the synaptic cleft at a _____ rate than norepinephrine. sympathetic; slower sympathetic; faster parasympathetic; slower parasympathetic; faster both parasympathetic and sympathetic; slower

parasympathetic; faster

Parasympathetic innervation of the liver occurs through oculomotor (III) nerve facial (VII) nerve glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve vagus (X) nerve pelvic splanchnic nerve.

pelvic splanchnic nerve.

Beta blockers are used to

prevent a rise in heart rate.

A postganglionic neuron in the ANS releases neurotransmitter that binds to the effector cell. is the first part of an autonomic motor pathway. has its cell body in the brain or spinal cord. has its axons exiting the CNS through cranial nerves. carries information into the sympathetic chain ganglia.

releases neurotransmitter that binds to the effector cell.

In the muscular system, which portion of the nervous system stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles for movement? central nervous system somatic nervous system sympathetic division of the ANS parasympathetic division of the ANS

somatic nervous system

The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the terminal ganglia visceral organs spinal cord sympathetic trunk ganglia

spinal cord

Which structure is dually innervated?

stomach

To decrease urine volume, the___ division causes a release of ___to _____ receptors causing vasoconstriction of the kidney arterioles involved in filtration.

sympathetic norepinephrine α1-adrenergi

The definition of autonomic tone is: the communication between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity the constant slight contraction seen in skeletal muscles the canceling out effect of adrenergic and cholinergic responses to a stimulus

the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity

Which of the following does not describe the autonomic nervous system? the effectors are primarily skeletal muscles the sympathetic division generally stimulates an organ preganglionic axons release acetylcholine it is under involuntary control the parasympathetic division decreases heart rate

the effectors are primarily skeletal muscles

Which of the following effects does not occur during the fight-or-flight response? the pupils constrict the airways increase in diameter blood vessels to skeletal muscles dilate heart rate speeds up blood pressure increases

the pupils constrict

Which would be an example of a condition in the body not controlled by autonomic reflexes? breathing rate and depth rate of urine formation tracking a bird flying by digestion of your evening meal blood pressure change during exercise

tracking a bird flying by

What are the 3 cells that are to do with smell? What do the Bowman gland's secretions do?

→ Olfactory Receptor Cells → Supporting Cells → Basal Cells They bathe the surface of these cells

What are 3 major components of the olfaction system?

→ Olfactory epithelium → Olfactory bulb → Higher-order parts of the brain