Ch #15 Women in the Workforce

Equal Pay for Equal Work

A great challenge for working women has been the battle of receiving equal pay for performing equal work. In almost every field, men in the same jobs earn more than women with the same education and years of experience. In 2010, women who worked full time, regardless of age, race, or educational attainment, earned an average weekly Salary of $657 compared with $821 for men, or just over four—fifths (81 ofwhat men make (Table 15.3). Earning differences between genders varied by demographic features, with the greatest contrast arising between men and women aged 45 to 54, with women earning 74% as much as men in this age range. The narrowest gap between earnings was among workers 16 to 24 years old; in this demographic group, women earned 93% of what men earned (Figure 15.4). Wage gaps also exist by race, ethnicity, and other factors. There is less gender disparity among black and Hispanic/ Latino workers than there is among workers who are white or of Asian descent. The wage gap narrows to 95% for women who have never been married, but rises to 73% among women who are currently married (Table 15.3). As a result of these differences, the average 25 -year- old woman who works full time, year—round, until retiring at age 65 will earn more than half a million dollars less over her lifetime than the average working man. The pay gap is closing in some fields, but not in others and not quickly enough. In some professions, pay discrepancies are quite small, but in others they remain much larger (Figure 154). For example, in comparison to men in the same occupation, on a weekly average: I Women lawyers make almost $500 less I Women bartenders make about $70 less I Women engineers make about $150 less I Women doctors make nearly $500 less I Women registered nurses make about $100 less I Women professors make nearly $300 less Not only do women make less money than men in virtually every profession, but women are clustered in low-paying professions. Many women are worried about the "sticky floor"——employment practices that keep full time, working women right at the poverty threshold level, One—fourth of women who work full time do not earn enough to move their families above the federal poverty fi threshold. Women also fight against the "glass ceiling" phenomenon—employment practices that effectively keep working women out of top—ranking positions. Women remain strongly underrepresented in leadership positions in industry, politics, and other areas. Besides lower wages, a grim reality for working women is the lack of paid sick or family leave; childcare benefits; flexibility of schedule associated with employment; and employer-provided health insurance, pension plans, or retirement benefits. According to an AFL-CIO survey: I 97% of women are worried about healthcare costs I 88% do not have retirement benefits I 78% are concerned about a lack of job benefits I 57% do not have equal pay for equal work I 39% do not have affordable health insurance I 29% do not have paid sick leave I 24% do not have paid vacation time Pay gaps in women's earnings affect families as well as women. With more women in the workforce, more families depend on dual incomes. In addition, women are the head of households with no spouse present of one in eight (12 of households. Women maintain 14% of White families, 47% of Black families, and 24% of Hispanic—origin families. Nearly one—third of all families maintained by women live below the poverty level. Women occupy a greater proportion of low—paying jobs than men and generally receive fewer benefits and less flexibility in their working conditions. Minorities, especially minority women, are even more likely to be in these less desirable positions. The average weekly earnings for White women are 17% higher than Black women's and 32% higher than those of Hispanic women. While women overall are more likely than men to be among the working poor, African American and Hispanic women are two to three times more likely than White women to be members of the working poor.

Global Dimensions

Around the world, working women face many of the same challenges and opportunities that they do in the United States. Gender gaps in employment and pay Persist, but have fallen in Europe and much of the developing world. From 1990 to 2010, women's participation in the global labor market increased compared to men's. Progress in education has also occurred over the past generation. In the European Union, female students outnumber males in most universities. Progress has been more uneven and slow in much of Asia, Latin America, and Africa, with large gender gaps in adult literacy and enrollment in primary schools, secondary schools, and universities. In spite of this progress, however, women continue to face discrimination, reduced pay, and fewer opportunities than men. These problems are strongest in the developing world. Women are less likely than men to be employed as politicians, managers, senior officials, and other powerful positions, and more likely to work as clerks, sales workers, and other lower—status, low—paying positions. Women are working in greater numbers around the world, but still almost always have primary responsibilities for household chores, cooking, caregiving, and other housework. In all major areas of the world, women spend at least twice as much time as men doing unpaid household work. Women contribute to local, national and global economies through the informal sector. Informal work includes any position unrecognized or uncounted by government or other authorities; workers may grow food or make goods at home and sell them at an open market, or offer services such as manual labor, cleaning, or Child care. Women make up the backbone of this growing movement. In some sub-Saharan African or Southeastern Asian countries, for example, nearly 90% of the female labor force is in the informal economy. Many economic experts believe that stimulating this informal sector may be an important way to promote long—term, healthy economic growth through- out the developing world. Examples of such efforts include microlending programs, where women receive small loans with reasonable interest rates to further their businesses without the need for collateral. The rate of payback from these women—focused microlending programs has been higher than those observed with most other credit programs. Once women gain access to these loans, they can create sustainable and profitable business opportunities for themselves and their families, and protect themselves from the workplace health hazards that present themselves in many work environments. In addition, women typically reinvest the money they make in their local economies, and use it to improve the health of their families. The United States, one of the richest countries in the world, is one of only three countries (the other two are swaziland and Papua New Guinea, two developing countries With low incomes and poor infrastructure) that does not guarantee women any paid family leave. Worldwide, 128 countries mandate some sort of paid family leave. For example: I In Germany, a new mother receives 14 weeks of leave at full pay. I In Canada, new mothers can take up to a full year oiI from work at 60% pay. I In Norway, new mothers can take 1 year off from work at 100% pay. I In Japan, new mothers can take up to 14 weeks at 60% of their pay. I In South Africa, new mothers can take 4 months of paid leave, at up to 60% of their income. I In Mexico, new mothers can take 12 weeks Off from work at 75% pay.

Historical Issues

In colonial times, all members of the family worked together as an economic unit. Most of women's jobs outside the home appeared to be extensions of their house hold duties—making clothing, cleaning house, teaching, or cooking—but some women worked as blacksmiths, silversmiths, and shopkeepers. When their husbands were off at sea or at war, some women operated family businesses; other women accompanied troops to war and served as nurses and cooks. The Industrial Revolution brought women into the factories, providing many with new skills, educational opportunities, and social outlets. Many European women immigrated to the United States to work as indentured servants, with hopes of a more promising future. Work place violence, sexual harassment, and unfair pay were a fact of life, and many women were physically and sexually abused on the job, or deprived of personal freedom and financial compensation. Because many women's positions were viewed as temporary, many working women earned enough wages to help make ends meet, but not enough to make a comfortable living. In the mid—1800s, women's rights advocates like Charlotte Woodward campaigned to allow women rights to their earnings (under existing laws, husbands had full ownership of their wives' money). The New York Married Women's Property Act, which was passed in 1848, represented a major step for women's rights; by 1860, other states had passed similar laws. It was not until 1974, however, that Congress passed the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, which barred creditors from discriminating against women on the basis of sex or marital status. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, many women found opportunities to earn wages, often working as nurses, governesses, cooks, domestic servants, and teachers. In 1869, Wyoming became the first state to provide equal pay for female teachers; California followed soon thereafter. Although exceptions did arise, most women continued to work in positions where men defined their authority and control. When the United States entered World War II in 1941, jobs available to women increased dramatically. "Rosie the Riveter," the factory worker appearing on posters underneath the slogan 'We can do it!" became the symbol for women workers in the U.S. defense industries. More than 6 million women, from all backgrounds and from all over the country, worked at industrial jobs that challenged traditional notions ofwomen's capabilities and ensured U.S. productivity that helped win the war. During the war years, women became streetcar conductors, taxicab drivers, machine operators, business managers, and railroad workers. They unloaded freight, worked in lumber mills and steel mills, and made munitions. This trend led to a rise in salaries and an overall commitment by women to their jobs; however, most of these women lost their positions when the war ended in 1945. Women became more likely to enter the workforce grew throughout the 20th gmturv. As women became more likely to work and began earning more money, their contributions to family incomes increased. In 1970, women contributed 27% of the average family income; by 2009 that number had risen to 37%. Women also started becoming more educated. Today, women are more likely than men to attend college, a major change from 30 years ago. The desegregation of college majors has led more women into fields such as architecture, business, and the sciences. Many women are postponing childbearing and marriage, having smaller families, or focusing on their careers and personal development before taking on the roles of wife and mother. Women have opened up numerous opportunities for themselves by attending college, fighting for equal rights in the workplace, and breaking barriers in many occupations traditionally associated with men. Despite all of the advances, however, gender discrimination in jobs persists.

Women with Disabilities In the Workplace

Just over 14 million women with disabilities live in the United States; one in five of these women are either working or looking for work. Women with disabilities confront many barriers in the workplace: I Lack of job opportunities or appropriate jobs I Inaccessible work environments I Discouragement by family and friends I Fear of losing health insurance or Medicaid I Little or no accessible parking or public transportation nearby Just over 14 million women with disabilities live in the United States; one in five of these women are either working or looking for work. Women with disabilities confront many barriers in the workplace: I Lack of job opportunities or appropriate jobs I Inaccessible work environments I Discouragement by family and friends I Fear of losing health insurance or Medicaid I Little or no accessible parking or public transportation nearby Women who are able to get a job may still need to spend time and energy obtaining functional assistance, flexible work arrangements or hours, handrails or ramps, or other equipment. The severity of a woman's disability has the greatest influence on her employment status. Women with mild disabilities are about four—fifths as likely as women Women who are able to get a job may still need to spend time and energy obtaining functional assistance, flexible work arrangements or hours, handrails or ramps, or other equipment. The severity of a woman's disability has the greatest influence on her employment status. Women with mild disabilities are about four—fifths as likely as women without disabilities to have jobs, but women with severe disabilities are only one-third as likely. Women with disabilities also earn, on average, less than women with no disabilities. Women with disabilities that directly affect their work are more likely to live below the poverty level than those people without work disabilities. Approximately 40% of women with a severe work disability are living in poverty.

Maintaining Balance

Many women suffer from job— and family-related stress, but do not feel they have any options that would relieve that stress. Some women aspire to the "superwoman" ideal of having a high—paying, successful career, while keeping a clean house, preparing homecooked meals, spending quality time with her Children, and being a loving and supportive wife. Women need to find their individual balance of work and family responsibilities and make changes if they are dissatisfied with their situation. For women with partners, open communication about the sharing of responsibilities can help couples to establish a good balance within their home. In situations where both partners work, sharing of chores is essential to minimize stress and maximize quality family time. Single women should also find balance between work and home responsibilities. This may mean reviewing policies at work that allow fiextime or telecommuting, or advocating for these options if they are not available. Women who own businesses should set examples for pay equity, fair workplaces, supportive work environments, and family-friendly policies.

Introduction

Over the past century, women have gone from being a workplace rarity to an essential part of the workforce. In 1900, women made up roughly one—fifth (18 of the labor force. By 1950, these numbers had risen to 30%, and today women make up just under half of the labor force (47% in 2011). Today, women become doctors, accountants, astronauts, politicians, or members of any other occupation with greater ease than any previous generation. It is difficult to overstate the importance of these changes. Throughout the 19th century and through a good deal of the 20th century, women were banned, either explicitly or in practice, from entering a number of vocations. Women who did have jobs systematically received less pay than men working those same positions and were more likely to be working in low-paid, low-status positions. Discrimination also existed in universities and colleges that offered the necessary training for many jobs. Major universities like Princeton and Yale did not admit women until the 1960s, and a few public military colleges did not admit women until the 1990s. Women's participation in the workforce and enrollment in colleges and universities grew throughout the 20th century. In addition, the amount of money they earned steadily increased (Figure 15.1). Despite this progress, sexism and discrimination against many forms. On average, women only make less money than men working in comparable jobs. The average gender gap has remained at about 81% over the past decade, with wider income gaps in many industries. In addition, women are still not reaching the highest echelons of the work world in great numbers. In 2010, just 18 of Fortune magazine's top 500 companies had female CEOs (roughly 4; only 14% had women holding at least one— fourth of their officer positions. The greater presence of women in the workforce has highlighted many new issues, including pay differentials between genders, the balancing of work and family, health and safety in the workplace, and the struggle for many women between choosing a career and choosing to stay home. Women typically shoulder more of the burden of family and household responsibilities than men, often working at their paying jobs and then taking on a "second shift" of responsibilities when they return home. Some women who choose to stay home feel conflicted by their choice, as do some women who choose to pursue a career and leave their child with a surrogate provider. Health and safety issues also affect women in the work— place. Workstations, tools, and protective equipment have traditionally been designed for men and therefore may compromise the health and safety of women. Health hazards from biological, chemical, and disease-causing agents exist in many predominantly female occupations, including they return home. Some women who choose to stay home feel conflicted by their choice, as do some women who choose to pursue a career and leave their child with a surrogate provider. Health and safety issues also affect women in the work— place. Workstations, tools, and protective equipment have traditionally been designed for men and therefore may compromise the health and safety of women. Health hazards from biological, chemical, and disease-causing agents exist in many predominantly female occupations, including the textile, laundry, and meat industries; health care; and food preparation. Additionally, physically intense activities or exposure to certain substances while on the job can harm working women who are pregnant. In addition, women currently in their 205 and late teens face the toughest job market in decades. Today, there are millions more qualified people looking for work than there are positions. Most women graduating college 10 or 20 years ago could count on their degrees and hard work to provide them with full—time employment, but today's college graduates have no such guarantees. National and global economic crises, followed by slow economic growth, have caused millions of people to lose their jobs and many companies and organizations to delay or stop creating new positions. Although employment levels have started to recover, today the average unemployment rate is more than 50% more than what it was before the recession of 2008-2009. For men and women the textile, laundry, and meat industries; health care; and food preparation. Additionally, physically intense activities or exposure to certain substances while on the job can harm working women who are pregnant. In addition, women currently in their 205 and late teens face the toughest job market in decades. Today, there are millions more qualified people looking for work than there are positions. Most women graduating college 10 or 20 years ago could count on their degrees and hard work to provide them with full—time employment, but today's college graduates have no such guarantees. National and global economic crises, followed by slow economic growth, have caused millions of people to lose their jobs and many companies and organizations to delay or stop creating new positions. Although employment levels have started to recover, today the average unemployment rate is more than 50% more than what it was before the recession of 2008-2009. For men and women 25 and under, the unemployment rate has more than doubled (Figure 15.2). This chapter discusses gender differences in the workplace, the balancing of work and family, and occupational safety issues. In addition, the chapter presents strategies for reducing job stress and increasing workplace satisfaction.

Informed Decision Making

Sources of stress for women in the workplace may vary, depending on the profession they are in; their personality types; their age, race, or ethnicity; whether or not they have children; and other factors. All jobs, however, are likely to have some stress (being a homemaker has its own sources of stress, and for women looking for work, the search for a job can be a major source of stress). The key to improving one's mental health (and toward creating a more productive workplace) is to avoid stress when possible, and to deal with unavoidable stress in healthful ways. Supportive companies produce workers who are less stressed, feel more successful in the balancing of work and family, are more satisfied with both their work and home lives, and are more loyal and committed to their employers. Employers can help employees to better balance parenthood and work life by offering services related to family planning, preconception health care and counseling, and parenting classes. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) has been a valuable tool for many women. The FMLA provides 12 weeks of unpaid, job-guaranteed leave for employees who need to care for newborns or a seriously ill relative, or to recover from a serious illness of their own. This benefit is available to employees who have worked at least 1,250 hours over the past year for employers with 50 or more employees. Currently, the act covers just over half of the country's private workforce. Workers in entry-level, low—paying jobs are less likely to be offered paid maternity leave than are managers and are less likely to get the time off after having a baby. More than half of the women who are covered by the FMLA do not know it. Although the FMLA was originally envisioned as dealing with a women's issue, almost half of those who have requested family and medical leave since its passage are men. Employers can also ease new mothers' return to the workplace by providing breastfeeding support through lactation assistance programs and private breastfeeding rooms. Only 10% of working mothers continue nursing for 6 months following birth, compared with 24% of at—home mothers. Flirty—seven percent of employers currently provide opportunities for women who are nursing to continue to do so; this provision cuts down on absenteeism and healthcare costs for both mothers and infants. In addition, employers need to help employees find affordable, quality child care and elder care; develop child care programs; or offer employee assistance for childcare facilities. Childcare assistance programs need to include more flexibility, by allowing for the needs of employees who work night and weekend shifts (Figure 15 .5). Flexible work schedules, jobsharing programs, and prorated benefits for part—time and temporary employees also need to be enforced—two—thirds of part—time workers and three- fifths of temporary workers are women. Some employers have established flexible work policies and are promoting the idea of a family—friendly workplace. Unfortunately, the people who need the extra support are the people who are often the least likely to receive it. Women also need to be aware of their rights in the workplace. Women should not tolerate discrimination based on gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, disabilities, pregnancy, or other characteristics. Women who experience any of these forms of discrimination should promptly write down the details of the incident, and then report it to their supervisor or the company's human resources division. Women may also report a discrimination complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) or their state's fair employment agency.

Balancing Work and Family Life

Women today face a growing challenge of combining family and work. Women may juggle many tasks to perform well at work, run a household, provide a loving home for their children, spend quality time with their partners, and provide care for their elders. Having these roles can be a source of satisfaction, but can also contribute to strain and stress. One in five working parents is a member of the "sandwich generation," meaning that the individual is caring for both children and elderly relatives. More than one—third of those with elder responsibilities—men and women alike-- reduced their work hours or took time off to provide the necessary care. Fifty—four percent of Americans say they will probably be responsible for the care of an elderly parent or other relative in the next 10 years. Women account for 70% of the unpaid people caring for the elderly; they also constitute the majority of paid workers, including nurses, nurse's aides, and home healthcare workers.

The Current Situation

Working Mother magazine rates the 100 best companies for working mothers every year, based on various measures of flexibility within the workplace, such as flextime, telecommuting, and job sharing. The magazine also rates companies based on their propensity to listen to employees by surveying them on work—life topics and, in response to the survey results, adding features such as lactation rooms. However, when these benefits are present, they do not always extend to those in greatest need. In many organizations, workers in low—wage jobs are half as likely as managers and professionals to have flextime; low-wage workers are also more likely to lose a day's pay When they must stay home to care for a sick child. Within many companies, only 20% of employees have access to childcare information and referral services; 25% have access to eldercare information and referral services. Only 12% of employees with children younger than age 6 have childcare services on or near their work site that are operated or sponsored by their employers, and these facilities are usually located at headquarters, where managers and executives work. Even those lower-paid employees who have access to nearby childcare facilities usually find the fees too high for their earnings. Many of the company—operated daycare centers are open only during regular business hours, such as 8 am. to 6 p.m.; however, close to one-third of employees with young children have unpredictable or erratic work schedules, and these are the employees who are most likely to earn less than $25,000 per year.

Child Care

Childcare facilities, relatives, and nannies have become a necessity for working families with children. The United States is one of only three countries in the world that does not offer paid time of for new mothers. More than three- fourths of preschool—age children with employed mothers are regularly cared for by someone other than their parents. Almost two—thirds of children from birth to age 6 spend some time in nonparental child care. A babysitter or nanny regularly cares for 6% ofchildrcn in the child's home. Families with children between the ages of 3 and 5 say that child care is their third greatest expense after house ing and food. The cost of full—day child care can range from $5,000 to $25,000 per year per child. In addition to the high costs, 9 out of 10 Americans describe finding quality child care as difficult. Only 12 states require childcare providers to have any early childhood training before minding children in their homes. Child care does not always ease the stress for working women. In fact, 52% of women say that childcare problems affect their ability to perform well at work. Eighty percent of employers reported that childcare problems force employees to lose work time. In addition, only 9% of sampled workers with children in daycare facilities report feeling "very successful" in balancing work and family.

Socioeconomic Issues

Low—income women—particularly those living in poverty—face many challenges when trying to find and keep a job. For these women, the consequences of not finding employment or the inability to maintain a job can have devastating consequences. Low—wage workers are disproportionately women and minorities with family respon— sibilities. Women heads of household represent a high percentage of this group. Welfare—to—work programs have helped some of these women move from welfare into paid employment. Most of these individuals work in service industries characterized by low hourly wages (averaging about 38—10 per hour), however, and are at significant risk for layoffs or workhour reduction in a weakened economy. Work opportunities for low—income women or women on welfare are often limited because many persons in this situation lack education, training, transportation, or child care. Many jobs that are available either cover odd hours or have changing schedules. Both situations make transportation and finding childcare difficult. Low—income women who live in rural areas with little or no public transportation often have trouble getting to and from job training centers orjobs. Other women are caught between taking a job to put food on the table and leaving young children at home alone because of lack of child care. Even when women are able to find transportation and child care, the costs for these services may consume most of their incomes. Low-wage jobs often provide few or no benefits, such as healthcare coverage, paid sick leave, or paid family leave. Furthermore, because the positions do not require advanced skills, employers are typically quick to replace a woman who may have to miss work because her child is sick. Women who find work after receiving welfare are less likely than other working women to have jobs offering paid sick days, family leave, or flexible job schedules, even though they were more likely to have children with chronic health problems.

Other Health Concerns

Many women work in the informal work sector, employed in seasonal or domestic jobs that are not officially reported or recognized. Because these jobs often employ women who may not have official work permits or are "paid under the table" (meaning that the women do not receive benefits or declare taxes), women may face additional risks and insecurities. Injuries that occur during migrant crop picking, a for example, often go untreated because the workers have few resources and are afraid of drawing the attention of authorities. Additionally, women who do odd jobs around the home, such as cleaning houses or painting, often do not have health coverage or disability coverage should an injury occur. Hazardous work environments put many youths at risk of serious injuries. Young workers have been killed on construction sites, during robberies while tending retail establishments, and while working on farms. Common nonfatal injuries incurred by young workers include sprains and strains, burns, cuts, and bruises. Homicide is the leading cause of death among youths in retail trade, accounting for nearly two—thirds of the youth fatalities in the industry. Most of these homicides are the result of robberies. Pregnant and lactating women may face additional stresses as they cope with sickness caused during pregnancy, co—workers' responses to pregnancy, and the time and privacy needs of nursing or pumping breast milk. Sexual harassment in the workplace is also a major form of stress (see Chapter 14).

Occupation Trends of Women

Of the 120 million women in the United States, 59% are either working or looking for work. Women between the ages 35 to 44 are more likely to be working than women in Other age groups (Figure 15-3). This may be partly due to the fact that mothers are more likely to participate in the workforce as their children get older. The stronger an education a woman has, the more likely she is to be working, and the more money she is likely to make (Table 15.1). More than three-fourths of women age 25 years or older Who are employed are college graduates. Although women work in all industries and contribute in multiple ways to the economy, their participation is often concentrated in certain sectors. Women make up a strong majority of many positions in health care, education, communications, for example, but continue to be underrepresented in the fields of engineering, computer science, and construction work (Table 15.2) Nearly one of every five employed women works as a teacher (excluding postsecondary positions), secretary, manager or adminis- trator, or cashier. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, women own just under one—third (29 of all nonfarm businesses, totaling nearly 6.5 million businesses. More than half of such firms are in the services industry, particularly business services and personal services. Women cite a variety of reasons for starting their own businesses: I Flexibility I Independence I Outlet for creativity - Relief from sexual harassment in the workplace I An exit from poverty Over the past generation, the number of women in the workforce who have young children has increased. Today, 64% of mothers with children under the age of 6, and 77% of mothers with children ages 6 to 17, are in the workforce. The number of dual-earner families also has increased. Before World War 11, less than 10% of the workforce was from a dual—earner family. Today, more than 57% are dual—earner families. In nearly 75% of dual— earner families, both partners work full time. Despite this change, many two—parent families with young children are having difficulty making ends meet. Fifty percent of young children are members of families with incomes less than $40,000; 25% are in families making less than $20,000.

Achieving Equal Pay

One key factor for women who are seeking to help themselves is education. Completing high school is the first step in increasing one's potential income. Women with high school diplomas earned an average of $540 per week in 2010—about 40% more than women without a diploma. Women's average earnings increases steadily with income: Women with bachelor's degrees earned an average of $910 a week, and women with doctoral degrees earned an average of $1,350—roughly 2.5 and 4 times as much as women without high school diplomas. To achieve fair compensation for their work, women should learn what fair and equitable pay is for their position and experience, be aware of the laws that prohibit pay discrimination against women, and support efforts to bring "pay equity" to their workplaces. Employees should encourage their employers to implement a pay equity policy, along with a way of creating a grading system to categorize jobs based on education, skills, and experience.

Older Women

Women have increasingly been participating in the part-time labor force during the traditional years of retirement. This trend is partly attributable to the recession of 2008—2009 disproportionately affecting younger workers, and partly because individuals are living longer and healthier lives, thus finding their retirement savings insufficient to make ends meet. Older women may have special health needs as members of the workforce, including the need for easy or disabled access to a work site, close proximity to restrooms, and seats with supportive backs or armrests to assist in getting up and down. Employers should be aware of the special needs of older workers, as they provide a valuable and often highly educated supplement to the workforce.

Health and Safety in the Workplace

Work—related stress may come from unsupportive workplace policies, unfair pay, concerns for quality child care, inflexible scheduling, or lack of support and help at home. With the economy still recovering from national and economic recessions, concerns over downsizing and layoffs create added pressures. Other stressors revolve around lack of control at work, such as high workload demands, unreasonable deadlines, role ambiguity and conflict, repetitive and boring work, and strained relationships with coworkers or supervisors. This kind of stress often produces little job satisfaction and a poor sense of well—being. The following jobs are associated with high stress because of the need to respond to others' demands and timetables with little control over events: ' Secretaries I Waitresses ' Middle managers ' Police officers ' Editors I Medical interns Long—term exposure to job stress can lead to higher levels of depression, anxiety, and other mental illnesses. As jobs become more demanding and less rewarding, employees often feel more stressed by the end of the workday and have less time and energy for their families. Twenty—five percent of employees reported feeling stressed often or very often over the past 3 months, and 25% described feeling emotionally drained often or very often. More than one- fourth of employees are not in as good a mood as they Would like for their families; 28% of people feel they have no energy for their families or other important people upon returning from work. This in turn creates a negative sense of well-being and results in negativity that affects a person's work performance. A person's work setting can create physical stress as well, because of noise, lack of privacy, poor lighting or ventilation, poor temperature control, or inadequate sanitary facilities. Physical stress on the body is a consequence of many different occupations. Jobs that require being on one's feet for long hours cause leg pain, swelling, and varicose veins; secretarial and desk-based jobs may cause neck and back aches and eye strain; and repetitive motions can cause musculoskeletal injuries to women on production lines. These difficulties are not restricted to gender, yet certain factors make women more susceptible to these types of injury. Equipment and workstations are often designed with men's larger body sizes in mind. Workstations and chairs that cannot be adjusted to the correct height for women promote poor posture; excessive reach; and strain on the neck, back, shoulders, and arms. Hand tools designed for larger hands may create unnecessary pain, stressed muscles, and calluses. Protective equipment and clothes that are too large are more likely to slip off, get caught in equipment, or create gaps for harmful chemicals to seep through. Men are still more likely to be injured at work than women, in part because somejobs with high rates of injury are still predominately held by men. Almost two—thirds of injured workers are men, even though they work less than 60% of the total hours worked in the United States. However, in the fields of management, business, financial occupations, professional and related occupations, service occupations, and office and administrative support, women are more likely to be injured than men. Musculoskeletal injuries, also referred to as ergonomic injuries, disproportionately affect female workers. Although women account for only 33% of the people injured at work in the United States, they constitute 64% of repetitive motion injuries, which include the following conditions: I Carpal tunnel syndrome—a condition that occurs when tendons in the wrist become inflamed after being aggravated I Tendonitis—inflammation caused by friction from overuse of tendons I Muscle strains from overexertion Repetitive motions can injure the nerves, often those in the neck and hands. Self-Assessment 15.1 discusses some of the common symptoms that nerve injuries can cause. Repetitive motion injuries account for more than half of all work time lost due to injuries and illness among women. Many women in low—wage occupations, or in occupations such as nursing aides, cashiers, maids, nurses, and assemblers that employ large numbers of women, are at significant risk of musculoskeletal disorders. Many of these jobs employ a large number of minorities, such as women who are Black, Hispanic, or of Southeast Asian descent. Back injuries are common among employees who need to lift large items or people. Correct lifting technique and using trolleys 0r coworkers to lift heavy objects greatly reduces the likelihood of injury. Computer-related injuries have also become a significant concern in the workplace (Self-Assessment 15.2). Prolonged use ofa keyboard or mouse, as well as sitting at a computer for long periods without stretching, can lead to jobs employ a large number of minorities, such as women who are Black, Hispanic, or of Southeast Asian descent. Back injuries are common among employees who need to lift large items or people. Correct lifting technique and using trolleys 0r coworkers to lift heavy objects greatly reduces the likelihood of injury. Computer-related injuries have also become a significant concern in the workplace (Self-Assessment 15.2). Prolonged use ofa keyboard or mouse, as well as sitting at a computer for long periods without stretching, can lead to frequent muscle aches and nerve pain in the hands, arms, shoulders, neck, and back. Another common complaint of computer workers is visual discomfort, which is accompanied by eyestrain and headaches. Being aware of these risks and correcting improper posture and techniques can help prevent discomfort and injury. Exposure to suspected carcinogens, allergens, or agents that cause respiratory illness are also serious concerns for many working women. Occupational exposures occur in many industries that employ large numbers of women and minorities: ' Meat industry: exposure to suspected carcinogenic flames ' Laundry/dry—cleaning industry: exposure to solvents that increase risk of kidney, cervical, bladder, skin, and liver cancer frequent muscle aches and nerve pain in the hands, arms, shoulders, neck, and back. Another common complaint of computer workers is visual discomfort, which is accompanied by eyestrain and headaches. Being aware of these risks and correcting improper posture and techniques can help prevent discomfort and injury. Exposure to suspected carcinogens, allergens, or agents that cause respiratory illness are also serious concerns for many working women. Occupational exposures occur in many industries that employ large numbers of women and minorities: ' Meat industry: exposure to suspected carcinogenic flames ' Laundry/dry—cleaning industry: exposure to solvents that increase risk of kidney, cervical, bladder, skin, and liver cancer I Textile industry: exposure to dust that causes a variety of lung diseases I Metal-working industry: exposure to various chemicals that increase the risk of lung cancer I Agriculture: exposure to pesticides and herbicides that may increase risk of non—Hodgkin's lymphoma and lung cancer I Service industry: exposure to excessive cigarette smoke in bars or restaurants Healthcare workers face additional hazards, including needlestick injuries, radiation, infectious diseases, and latex allergies. Approximately 600,000 to 800,000 needlestick injuries occur annually in healthcare settings, mostly involving nurses (more than 90% of whom are women). Needlestick injuries can cause serious infections from blood-borne Approximately 600,000 to 800,000 needlestick injuries occur annually in healthcare settings, mostly involving nurses (more than 90% of whom are women). Needlestick injuries can cause serious infections from blood-borne Today 11:30 AM pathogens, such as hepatitis C and HIV, creating both physical and emotional threats to workers. In addition, 8% to 12% ofhealthcare workers who have frequent latex exposure develop sensitivity to this material. Symptoms can be as mild as contact dermatitis or as severe as anaphylactic shock (a severe and possibly fatal allergic response to a foreign substance, characterized by difficulty breathing and low blood pressure). The hazard from latex use is recognized in many different industries, including people in the latex-manufacturing industry, police, food handlers, and sanitation engineers. Pregnant women also appear to have a higher sensitivity to latex than the general population. The causes of most reproductive health problems are still unknown, but certain harmful substances can affect the health of pregnant women. Approximately 75% of all women of reproductive age are in the workforce, and more than half of all children born in the United States are born pathogens, such as hepatitis C and HIV, creating both physical and emotional threats to workers. In addition, 8% to 12% ofhealthcare workers who have frequent latex exposure develop sensitivity to this material. Symptoms can be as mild as contact dermatitis or as severe as anaphylactic shock (a severe and possibly fatal allergic response to a foreign substance, characterized by difficulty breathing and low blood pressure). The hazard from latex use is recognized in many different industries, including people in the latex-manufacturing industry, police, food handlers, and sanitation engineers. Pregnant women also appear to have a higher sensitivity to latex than the general population. The causes of most reproductive health problems are still unknown, but certain harmful substances can affect the health of pregnant women. Approximately 75% of all women of reproductive age are in the workforce, and more than half of all children born in the United States are born to working mothers. Women can be exposed to many different types of health hazards at work during pregnancy. Hazards from environmental pollutants in the workplace can cause multiple effects, depending on when the woman is exposed (see Tables 15.6 and 15.7). Substances may cause fetal damage, such as birth defects, low birthweight, developmental disorders, miscarriages, or stillbirths; infertility; menstrual cycle effects; and even childhood cancer. Other possible hazards to pregnant women include prolonged standing, lifting, and long work hours.