Ch. 16 Image Analysis

Ikenga (shrine figure). Ibgo peoples (Nigeria). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood.

A seated male, most commonly. The figure has two horns. There is a symbol of symmetry and proportional balance throughout the figure. The hierarchy scale, which has the horns be ginormous in comparison to the body is to emphasize the greatness of the horns (power). Ikenga would be commissioned for warriors, farmers, or any other Igbo people and would be carved from wood, then consecrated by Kinsmen by a lineage head. There would be offerings of yam, roosters, wine, and other things. After the Ikenga is consecrated the owner will feed it with more sacrifices throughout their life to achieve success. Ikenga means strong right arm and thus physical prowess. It honors the right hand, which holds tools or weapons, makes sacrifices, conducts rituals, and alerts the speaker at public forums. Ikenga embraces traditional masculine associations of strength and potency. Often a mix of human, animal and abstract forms. It is carved from hardwood, thus it is considered masculine. .The longhorns also vary from carving. Some curl at the top or some don't.There is a saying from the Igbo that rams fight with their heads first. The idea that any action is taken first with the heads is emphasized through the size of the horns. Many horns have a lot of details on the sides: pod shaped forms with dots and lines. There are also a lot of lines or figures carved into the body, representing scarification: body decoration which was probably prevalent on the Igbo people themselves. The more scarification on the carving implied the higher rank for the owner. According to M.D.W Jeffreys, there are three types of Ikenga: ikenga madu (human), ikenga alusi (spirit), and ntu age (divination objects). The first is a fully developed human figure with horns, seated on a stool and shows the military prowess of a man. The second is a cylinder with horns showing humans with animals on top of each other in a cylinder-like shape. The divination objects are small and simple and come in different shapes which are given to those of a high class in the society. Ikenga is a personal god of human endeavor, achievement, success, and victory. The warrior ikenga corresponds to the stage in life when men are expected to demonstrate their military prowess. Owned by many of the younger members of the age grade, it depicts the ideal young man: robust, wearing the warrior's grass skirt, and holding a knife and a severed human head.

Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe. Southeastern Zimbabwe. Shona peoples. c. 1000-1400 C.E. Coursed granite blocks.

Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwi and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country's Late Iron Age. The wall itself is very plain looking with a simple repetitive pattern at the very top of triangles in two layers. The conical tower is in the shape of a cone and stands taller than its surrounding structures. These walls were constructed from granite blocks gathered from the exposed rock of the surrounding hills. The surrounding hills gave many architectural resources to Great Zimbabwe's society. Because granite naturally splits into even slabs and can be broken into smaller, more manageable sizes, the granite provided a convenient building material. The walls of Great Zimbabwe were constructed by laying stones one on top of the other, each layer going in slightly to produce a stabilizing inward slant. Some of the walls are several meters thick, and many of the walls, and the tower are decorated with designs and motifs. Patterns are carved into the walls such as vertical grooves, chevron patterns, and smaller designs. Great Zimbabwe is the largest stone complex built in Africa before the modern era (aside from the Egyptian pyramids). The settlement as a whole holds approximately 250 royal clay houses, which with other multi-story clay and thatch homes could have supported an estimated 20,000 habitants. The tower was originally capped with three courses of ornamental stonework. Resembling a large present-day granary, it may have represented good harvest and prosperity believed to result from allegiance to the ruler of Great Zimbabwe. The conical tower was most likely built to worship the remote but supreme all creator god, Mwari. Mwari was a kind and generous god of a monotheistic religion. Although they were the creator of all things, Mwari was notably the god of rain and earth. The conical tower is thought to have functioned as a granary. The walls were just symbolic representations of the king's authority. Great Zimbabwe was divided and ranked by the classes. The three most prevalent classes were the rulers, the owners of the cattle, and then the poor lower class. The enclosed walls only held around 100-200 people and were populated by the rich and powerful. Outside Great Zimbabwe lived the lower class in mud and stone huts.

Finial of a spokesperson' staff (Okyeame Poma). Attributed to Kojo Bonsu. Ghana, Ashanti culture, 1960s-1970s. Wood and gold.

Other than the arms and hand position, the finial is rather symmetric, which makes sense since the finial depicts a male figure, perhaps representative of the man in power. This figure sits in a very erect and upright position, indicating that he is attentive and ready to listen to whatever conversation the Okyeame will mediate. For example, the egg represented in this finial is much too large in comparison to the actual figure itself to be considered a realistic depiction. However, the artist employed this design to emphasize the underlying message: "Political power is like an egg. Grasp it too tightly and it will shatter in your hand; hold it too loosely and it will slip from your fingers." The Finial was sculpted out of wood and then covered in flattened gold using adhesive. Beginning in the 1920s, artists utilized adhesive rather than gold staples to stick thin sheets of metal like the gold here to the wood base. The Finial was also a direct carving, which meant the artists didn't use any preparatory models or drawings, but immediately went into carving the wood. Gold was very important to the meaning of the artworks it was used on. It displayed wealth, status, and power, but was also a spiritual substance, believed to be an earthly representation of the sun, and therefore, the force of life itself. The staff is composed of a long wooden shaft carved in two interlocking sections and a separate finial attached to the base. It is covered entirely with gold foil, a material that alludes to the sun, and to the vital force or soul contained within all living things. Gold was a major source of power for the Ashanti, who traded it first via intermediaries across the Sahara to the Mediterranean world, then later directly to Europeans on the West African coast. This magnificent gold-covered staff was created to serve as a mark of office for an Okyeame, a high-ranking advisor to an Asante ruler. The position of Okyeame encompasses a broad set of responsibilities, including mediation, judicial advocacy, political troubleshooting, and the preservation and interpretation of royal history. The Okyeame's most visible public role is as principal intermediary between the ruler and those who seek his counsel, leading to the popular characterization of his profession as being that of a linguist. The current Ashanti king has thirteen okyeame. Most paramount chiefs have seven and eight. An okyeame must come up with the words, proverb, saying, or metaphor that will most accurately express what the chief is saying or what is being said to the chief. This means that an okyeame must not only be a good speaker but must also know as much or more about the social and political system as the chief he serves. This finial sat atop a staff which the Okyeame carried when the king was absent. The Ashanti people had a council of elders who regularly met with the king to discuss various matters. The head of this council of elders was named the Okyeame and he was the voice of authority when the king was absent. As a result, the man carrying the staff with this finial on top held utmost power then, and the finial distinguished him as the speaker.

Power figure (Nkisi n'kondi). Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. late 19th century C.E. Wood and metal.

Space- space was very important as the figures design was nice, but the people of the Kongo were far more interested in the concoctions and powers the figure derived from the bilongo put inside the empty, hollowed out space within the power figure. Color- the color of the piece is mostly very dark which makes the few bright light parts very emphasized and a focal point. The eyes are bright and draw the viewer's attention. Similarity the reflective pieces used to look into the spiritual world would've been more emphasized as well. Proportion- interesting that this art from Africa uses different proportions than was common in Europe developing art at the time. Europe would've been focused on perfectly realistic proportions whereas this power figure depiction has a more abstract focus on the head and its importance, or more practically to hold objects in. The focal point is the hole in the naval. Nkisi was the Kongo word for spirit, but more literally it was a container that held substances that were supernaturally powered. The people believed the nkisi substances could cure both physical sickness and more "social" issues within a person. Medicinal substances (called "bilongo") would sometimes be held in the head of the figure, but more likely in the stomach. Cavities can be seen in the head or stomach where a special community elder would place the special concoctions within the power figure to "activate" it. It has wide, staring eyes and an imposing stance to help ensure that no other forces will interfere with the fulfillment of its ritual function because many Congo ceremonies had to do with connecting and interacting with the spirit world. These figures often contain medical combinations inside them which were covered by a piece of glass and this glass represented the "other world" There are several categories of minkisi. Those used in divination are often small anthropomorphic statues with a piece of mirror on the stomach or covering the abdominal or eye cavities. Protective minkisi are statuettes with mirrors on the stomach and back that indicate its capacity to detect, surprise, divert, or destroy maleficent forces. They protect an individual or a group against sorcerers, natural elements, or against moral sanctions when taboos have been violated unintentionally. Healing minkisi are used to relieve all kinds of diseases or afflictions. Some are symbolic representations of the diseases, while others depict the actual sufferer. Several figures in this category are supposedly also able to avert bad luck and grant various fortunes and favors. The Kongo believe that the great god, Ne Kongo, brought the first sacred medicine (or nkisi) down from heaven in an earthenware vessel set upon three stones or termite mounds. Nails or metal or wood points were driven into the statues during invocation rites. It was commonly believed that the nkisi could avenge the victim of injustice or affront if he formulated an appropriate complaint describing the injury and the punishment to be inflicted on the offender. Among some Kongo peoples contracts between individuals or groups were sealed by driving pointed objects into the nkisi. Breaking such agreements was believed to entail misfortune. These sharp figures served almost as a promise or record of deals, lawsuits, or any issue that was settled through the Nkisi Nkondi. People would lick the object to tie themselves to the either settlement or issue they had or wanted solved through the Nkisi Nkondi, and then they would drive the sharp object into the figure to set the promise.

Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, beads, and metal.

The Lukasa(Memory Board) is made of a large wooden plank with metal and small beads of various materials.It's varied in size but it's small enough to hold. Each board's design is unique and represents the divine revelations of a spirit medium expressed in sculptural form, so it was also rare to be symmetrical. Each pattern or engraving meant something different to the reader as a mnemonic device. The most prominent element of art in this piece is texture. The board is covered with a variety of beads and shells which create unique designs. To be more specific, hourglass-shaped wooden tablets that are covered with multicolored beads, shells and bits of metal, or are incised with carved symbols.Each Lukasa Memory board has different combinations of beads and shells . Each combination triggers a memory to the member of Mbudye society who is reading it. These memory boards are created through a combination of effort of two people . A skilled sculptor who is a member of Mbudye association creates the board , and a spirit medium who can communicate with spirit would receive and pass on specific instructions for the arrangement of the board. This also seems to be designed based on the spatial layout of the Luba royal court, which in turn mirrors the structure and order of Luba cosmology.One colored bead often stood for an individual while large beads surrounded by smaller beads in a king and his court. Lines of beads show the journey or paths of important people from the stories. The memory board is portrayed specifically to tell a story and remember the past easily for those who are trained to be able to do so.It is said that people in the Luba Tribe were specifically trained to read Lukasa and their main sole job was to remember the oral stories and traditions from the past. Every lukasa is unique and can be held in one's left hand. The board is read by touching its surface with the right forefinger. This specific lukasa is one of the oldest known, with geometric designs on the back and sides, as well as clusters of beads whose colors have faded over time. The board is narrower at the center making it easier to hold. The lukasa is usually arranged with large beads surrounded by smaller beads or a line of beads, which indicates certain information. The master's manner of delivery depends on the audience and assignment. The lukasa also tells myths and tells about the origins of the Luba as well as some names of the Luba royal line. The Luba had access to a wealth of natural resources including gold, ivory, and copper, but they also produced and traded a variety of goods such as pottery and wooden sculpture. While Europeans may open a history book to learn about their past, in the Luba Kingdom of the Democratic Republic of Congo, history was traditionally performed—not read.

Ndop (portrait figure) of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul. Kuba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 1760-1780 C.E. Wood.

The artists utilized the element of size and proportion to draw attention to the head. The head was sculpted to be one-third of the size of the statue, which is obviously not proportional to an actual human being, but this was done to move our eyes to the head, the most important part of the body to the Kuba people. The head symbolized the seat of intelligence, a valued ideal by that society. Kuba people. Settled between 2 rivers in central Africa. Process fo becoming an artist = becoming an apprentice and copying the artist's work you're apprenticing for. Curved lines accentuate each body part. Curved figures define the head and body. Emphasis on the head in proportion to the rest of the body, head = seat of intelligence No written history- these figures help give a look into life/culture. Artist used adz, a metal tool attached at an angle which helped give it a shape. Depiction of an ideal king's appearance. King's statues had an emblem in the front identifying the reign of the king, chosen by himself. This figure has a drum with a severed hand on it. King's expression is calm, reflects composure seen in kubo kings. Everyone in kuba society had a title. The more authority you had, the more elaborately your statue was designed. Made to honor/celebrate king. If the king was absent from the city, then the people would rub the figure with oil, symbolizing a safe return. Thought to carry a counterpart of the king's soul. A main function of the Ndop was to honor and celebrate Kuba King Mishe miShyaang maMbul for his generosity and the amount of loyal followers he had.

Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Late 19th to early 20th century C.E. Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal.

The mask shows balance created by the symmetry of the two sides. Emphasis is drawn to the eyes since they are at the middle of the face. The eyes are circular in shape which contrasts the straight horizontal line that makes up the slits of the closed eyes. The mask was carved by a man, and the hair of the mask is made of carefully detailed/difficult to carve wood fibers. Pigments were also used around the eyes to create the whiteness and to make the mask a bit more red in color. This mask is made and carved out of wood that is very difficult to carve. The artist had carved this mask with very delicate, even thin walls from the wood, Alstonia. The hair is made of a fiber, and it has been manipulated into an elaborate hairstyle. Red clay was put into the hair of the mask similarly to the way women in the tribe wore their hair. There is also white kalyan or white powder around her eyes. This whiteness draws attention to the eyes, and is connected to the spiritual realm in the ability of a second sight which comes from being able to give birth. The woman portrayed through the mask has eyes that are squinting or shut, a wide mouth that is closed and almost turned inwards. Since this mask was meant to honor women in Chokwe culture who have given birth, the closed eyes represent their wisdom beyond sight since they have gained new wisdom through giving birth. They do not need to open their eyes because they already see everything. The closed eyes of the mask and mouth represent her calmness, and almost a graceful serenity in that she isn't speaking, however she wouldn't need to speak as she has already earned respect from motherhood. This mask would have been worn by a male dancer even though it portrays the ideal woman. The man who wears the mask and the man who carved the mask had the intention of honoring women who were young and fertile and have given birth successfully. Chokwe culture is matrilineal, which meant family line and ancestral descent was passed down through the women in the generations instead of through the men. This mask is important because it depicts Pwo, the founding mother and deity of the Chokwe people. Pwo also represents fertility. She is used to help teach young boys who are being initiated into the society how to appropriately behave towards women, and to respect them.

Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool). Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana). C. 1700 C.E. Gold over wood and cast-gold attachments.

The most important element of art in this piece is the color gold. Not only does the gold material itself represent royalty and holiness, but the color also has an important role in the Ahanti culture. Along with the stool are 3 more golden "accessories", or golden bells attached to it which resemble human forms. These bells are also symmetric and the poses are static, with the arms really being the only aspect to change about them, looking from the photo at least. Golden Stool is made from a single block of wood from the Alstonia boonei tree. The boonei tree has many mythological associations and is thought to be the backbone of Ansanti forests, and thus fit to be the backbone of the Asanti tribes. Stool is inlaid with gold and hung with bells to warn the king and soul of the Asanti tribe of impending danger. Stools are given to Asanti males and females as a coming of age present from their parents. These stools are personalized and carry great symbolic meaning. Some are very simple, while others may be adorned with decoration. Either way, the stool is used in daily life and is thought to assume the owner's tsun tsun (energy and aura) as the owner sits and the stool collects their essence. Stools become symbols of their owners post-mortem and are used in funeral services for everyone regardless of their social class. stools were given to children when they came of age, as the stool meant that they could sit with the rest of the people (adults and elders). The Asante culture started when a man named Osei Tutu unified people under one area, creating the Asantes. The stool represents royalty, the divine, and even seen at a higher status than the actual king himself. Additionally, the Golden Stool is said to contain the souls of those who have ruled the Asantes, and the soul of the Asante nation itself. It is said that since the stool houses the soul of the Asante nation, it is of higher importance than the Asantehene himself. As a matter of fact, the stool is not allowed to touch the ground, so when it is sat on its chair (the stool has its own chair next to the king), it is set down on a blanket. When the British invaded and started sacking the Asante kingdom, they took what they could find, except for the Golden Stool. They wanted to sit on it. This offended the Asante people so badly a queen declared war on the British and was captured/exiled. Even then, the British could not find the stool. They continued to hide it from the British until in 1920, railroad workers found the Golden Stool. They stripped the stool of its golden bells, but was caught in the act, tried, and sentenced to death. The British interfered and lowered the punishment to exile instead, which was just as harsh. The Stool was sat next to the King, as if the stool was just as divine as the Asantehene. The intended function of this piece is to be the divine throne of the Asante People.

Wall plaque, from Oba's Palace. Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria). 16th century C.E. Cast brass.

The oldest nonhereditary man is called the oba (chief kind of) and serves as a priest of ancestral and earthly spirits and was formerly a political authority also serving as the head of state. There is a rhythm of symmetrical balance as the servants on both sides of the Oba are symmetrical and even the Oba and horse are symmetrical. The hieratic scale is utilized to highlight the importance of the Oba in contrast to every other character of the plaque. Despite standing upon the same ground line, the greatest size belonging to the Oba indicates his essence to the culture. The emphasis is placed upon the Oba who is covered by the shields and in the center of the piece. The Plaque was made by the Lost Wax Casting technique. This brass plaque depicts an oba (then king of the Benin state) seated atop a horse with 4 attendants beside him. He has distinctive coral beaded regalia as well as two attendants holding up shields to protect him from attack or the immense heat which were all privileges reserved to an oba. However, this entire plaque is filled with references to Benin's mutually beneficial trade with Portugal which began in the late 15th century. The Portuguese took things like peppers and beads while the Edo got things like coral beads and even the brass that we see used in this piece. The rosette shapes in the backgrounds are possibly derived from the Marion rose from the Christianity brought. The horse was introduced in Africa by the Europeans also. Coral symbolizes the Oba's relationship to the god of the sea, concreting the legitimacy of his rule - today's Obas are the only ones allowed to wear coral uniforms. As the Portuguese empire started to lose power, Britain swooped in to hopefully create trade alliances with Benin. These alliances weren't as beneficial to Benin as they had been when they were trading partners with Portugal, resulting in aggressive actions from both Benin and Britain. This eventually led to the burning of the Oba's palace and looting of art and artifacts including this Wall Plaque. The plaque originally hung alongside many others on posts throughout the palace of the Oba. The order of their placement on these posts would have told the history of the royal lineage of Benin's Obas, who traced their dynasty all the way back to Oranmiyan, whose son was the first Oba of Benin.

Reliquary figure (nlo bieri). Fang peoples (southern Cameroon). C. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood.

The sculptor shaped this talisman to illustrate the ability to hold opposites in balance, a quality admired by the Fang. He juxtaposed the large head of an infant with the developed body of an adult. The static pose and expressionless face contrast with the palpable tension of the bulging muscles and the projecting forms of the arms, legs, and breasts. The elongated torso and elongated head make the piece unrealistic, especially with the powerful musculature. The darkened surface that results from the ritual application of copal resin and vegetable oils is common on reliquary figures from Cameroon. Cleansing and purifying palm oil is frequently applied to produce a rich, glossy black surface. They were often decorated with gifts of jewelry or feathers and received ritual offerings of libations, such as palm oil. Palm oil was used for ritual purification. The statuary of the Fang can be classified into three main groups: heads on long necks, half-figures and full figures, standing or seated. The eyes are often made of metal roundlets. An intentionally abstracted figure, the nlo bieri was an ancestral relic that held great spiritual significance for the Fang people. These guardian figures were placed on a cylindrical box containing the bones and skulls of venerated individuals of society whether man or woman, nobility or craftsmen. They are not figures representing the dead but a guardian to watch over their physical and spiritual remains. According to traditional Fang beliefs, infants are closely aligned with ancestors and only become fully human as they age. Playing on this association, reliquary figures often combine features of infants and the elderly. This figure has rounded arms and childlike hands. Metal disks at the eyes (now missing) gave it the wide-eyed stare of a baby. In contrast, it has the sunken cheeks and drawn mouth of someone near death. The Fang people were nomadic and so were their funerary rituals; the easy-to-move container that held the bones and skull of honorary (at times females who birthed many children) individuals required both a physical and spiritual protection from this figure. This figure was an object of ritual significance and connecting the physical and spiritual of those that have passed through this world but are passing through the spiritual. Usually the relics were kept hidden away from the uninitiated and women. To the Fang, these sculptures were replaceable protective adjuncts that topped bark boxes containing ancestral bones, part of the Bieri ancestor cult. Ancestral bones, especially the skulls of male ancestors, were kept inside cylindrical boxes of bent and sewn bark.

Great Mosque of Djenne. Mali. Founded c. 1200 C.E.; rebuilt 1906-1907. Adobe.

This is the third iteration of the city's mosque located in Djenne, Mali in Western Africa. Engaged columns used throughout the outer wall give a rhythm that guides the viewer's eyes across the building. Three minarets face the city's marketplace. Within the mosque, numerous adobe columns hold up the structure in a uniquely planned hypostyle hall. There is a special court reserved for women as well as a small graveyard for local leaders. It is the largest mud building in the world. Torons, the wooden beams jutting out from the tower, provide as the support for the scaffolding during the annual replastering of the building: thus creating a rhythmic pattern through the towers and Torons. Buttressing as support for the walls, rise above the roofline in conical turrets, emphasizing the entrance. adobe and mud buildings such as the Great Mosque require periodic and often annual re-plastering. If re-plastering does not occur, the exteriors of the structures melt in the rainy season. Workers included masons who mixed tons of mud, sand, rice-husks, and water and formed the bricks that shape the current structure. During the annual festival of the Crepissage de la Grand Mosquée, the entire city contributes to the re-plastering of the mosque's exterior by kneading into it a mud plaster made from a mixture of butter and fine clay from the alluvial soil of the nearby Niger and Bani Rivers. This building was created using adobe, or a mixture of dirt, water, straw, and clay which when hardened forms a building material. The advantages of adobe is that it creates buildings with great insulation, especially important to keep in cool air from the shade and keep out the harsh sun. At the top of the pillars are conical extensions with ostrich eggs placed at the very top—symbol of fertility and purity in the Malian region. The prayer hall is one of the most well known rooms in the mosque. It is large enough to contain 3000 people and contains 90 wooden rectangular pillars. The mosque's qibla which is by the minarets points towards Mecca as many mosques do. Upon each minaret are ostrich eggs which symbolize fertility of the land and the people. The eastern wall contains two tombs, one of an important imam and an unknown tomb. The eastern wall also now serves as a weekly market. There is also a courtyard on the inside which is split into 3; the west most being designated for women. The Great Mosque became one of the most important buildings in town primarily because it became a political symbol for local residents and for colonial powers like the French who took control of Mali in 1892. Over the centuries, the Great Mosque has become the epicenter of the religious and cultural life of Mali, and the community of Djenné. The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas.

Aka elephant mask. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grassfields region). C. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, woven raffia, cloth, and beads.

This mask is made into the shape of an elephant. The stiff, circular ears of the mask wave back and forth during the swift movements of the dance. A human mouth and eyes are stitched onto the mask above the long trunk in padded cloth. The shape is simple, with two circles on each ear, and a long elongated trunk. The artist uses green white and orange beads, lending a vibrant color and intricate texture. There is a strong sense of movement within the piece. This was created out of wood, and beadwork. Beadwork was very popular with this tribe. These masks were composed of cloth to which various colored beads have been sewn, and wearing its own complimentary hat. The mask has large disk shaped ears with bright red, yellow, and blue beads. The cloth foundation is primarily deep navy blue. It was decorated with colored beads and bright colors that represent the importance of the mask to the Bamileke people. The materials found in this elephant mask and hat express the king's wealth. The mask itself is composed of a palm leaf fiber textile with glass beads adorning the long cloth panels that make up the mask's trunk. These beads, imported in limited quantities, were widely used among the Bamileke people as currency. Additionally, during this dance a leopard's skin would've been worn to represent how a leopard can transition between an animal and a human. The attendants wearing this wore it with a red feathered headdress, a leopard skin pelt, and a full body costume. The leopard and elephant were both powers of wealth and divine power for the fon. The fon was a divine king who could transform into an elephant. The dance is meant to honor the king and symbolize bringing about social harmony. Leopards and elephants symbolized royal power. These masks have very little known about them as their status symbols are through the Kuosi society, which was extremely secretive. The extreme size of the Elephant is a symbol of strength. So too was its role in the society of the Kousi. It was also symbolic of the Fon, the elected king of the society. The fon was a divinely mandated ruler, and as such one of his powers was the ability to change into an elephant.The Fon supported by non-secreted societies was believed to have supernatural powers that allowed him to change from man into animal, namely elephant, lizard or buffalo. The name given to masks like this, mbap mteng, means "animal with huge ears." The Kuosi was an exclusive male secret society, who wore such elephant masks for ritual dances and funerary ceremonies. This mask would've been worn by warriors, officials, title holders, and people who hold a large amount of power which was done to express the great power of the king and his authority over them.

Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Cote d'Ivoire). Late 19th to early 20th century C.E. Wood and pigment.

This piece is very symmetric because if you cut a line down the middle, it's the exact same on both sides of the mask. Furthermore, it is geometric because of the shapes that are presented on the mask. The shape of the mask is a perfect oval, the facial features are perfect shapes like half-circles and triangles, there are triangles under the eyes, the eyebrows are crescents, the ears are half-circles, the mouth is an oval, and the pieces on top are geometric shapes. The Mblo masks are always very stylized, and individualized. No mask is the exact same. Each one plays with proportion in new ways. This is made from wood and pigment, and carving was a huge tradition to Baule people. The artist who carved the piece was Owie Kimou and the subject or "sitter," was Moya Yanso. The mask also has scarification patterns at the temple. These details are meant to convey someone who is honorable, respected, and beautiful in Baule society. Half slit eyes and a high forehead represent modesty and wisdom. The mask also contains details that hint to an age of the subject, suggesting that older means more wise. This is not a realistic representation of the woman in the photograph, rather, it suggests an idealized inner state of beauty and morality associated with Moya Yanso. The masks were made for mblo performances. The mblo performances are skits or dances almost like an Opera performance. New ones are created every few generations, and each one is a new story, with new masks to represent different individuals, phenomena, and creatures. The Baule recognize two types of entertainment masks, Goli and Mblo. To perform a Mblo mask, like the one depicted, a masker in a cloth costume conceals his face with a small, wooden mask and dances for an audience accompanied by drummers, singers, dancers, and orators in a series of skits. In the village of Kami, the Mblo parodies and dances are referred to as Gbagba. When not in use, the Gbagba masks were kept out of sight so it is unusual that we get to see a mask displayed in this manner. Mblo performances consist of a succession of dances that escalate in complexity and importance, culminating ultimately in tributes to the community's most distinguished member. Individuals honored in this way are depicted by a mask that is conceived of as their artistic double or namesake. People watching the dance are supposed to be swept away by the beauty of the mask, therefore, many of its designs at the top represent "beautiful" objects in the culture (spoons, horn, birds, combs) The dances are put on in a celebration, whether for a harvest festival, or the celebrate the life of an individual at a funeral. It can be offered as a symbol of beauty and joy for the upcoming year, or to show the story of a person's life, and the beauty an individual lived in.

Bundu mask. Sande Society, Mende peoples (West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia). 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, cloth, and fiber.

Would've been worn on the top of the head. It would've hung down over the face. Men would've carved it, but the ritual was performed by and for women. For young girls' initiation. Taken to a secluded forest and was educated by a secret society. Bodies were anointed with clay to make them dry and pasty and unattractive, to suggest they aren't women yet. Mask suggests an image that young girls strive for. Eyes are closed, petite mouth and ears. Shows what a girl should aspire to. Elaborate hairstyle. High glossy forehead. Rolls of fat under the children. Girls are expected after initiation to bear children. Intended to fatten girls up for pregnancy. Scarification marks (4 lines under eyes). Chrysalis is the name for uninitiated young girls. Mask is intended to instruct girls about womanhood, through dance, telling them spiritual knowledge as well as practical knowledge. Young women think of it as a spirit when it is danced. Would've been housed in an older woman's home. When not performing, it would've been regarded as a piece of wood. The costume worn with the black mask is made of layers of raffia fibers that have also been dyed black. These are attached to the lower portion of the neck as well as to a black cloth shirt or gown worn over the body. The sleeves are sewn shut, and long stockings or men's shoes are worn. No part of the body is left exposed, for revealing the body would expose the human agency behind the mask to the eyes of nonmembers, and would also allow the spirit to enter the human dancer rather than the mask. The mask may appear at other times to bring justice to offenders of Sande law, to perform in respect at the funeral of an important leader of the society, and to participate in ceremonies in which a new mask is initiated into the work of Sande. Nowö is accepted as a living presence. Also in seclusion, during initiation, is the only time a young girl is given really rich foods to eat and can enjoy time off. So it's intended to fatten her up a little bit too.

Veranda post: equestrian figure and female caryatid. Olowe of Ise (Yoruba peoples). Before 1938 C.E.Wood and pigment.

Yoruba art was traditionally solely vertical and rectangular rather than the semi-naturalistic style created by Olowe. As such, the elements of space and line are prominent in this work, as the figures depicted are curved to the sides and are depicted as humans rather than poorly rendered geometric figures. The Veranda Post is a sculpture in the round. Olowe would carve sculptures like this one from a single piece of wood.