Ch 17 Summary: Final

General will

-Defined as the will of a majority of voting citizens -The concept in political philosophy referring to the desire/interest of ppl as a whole -Identical to the rule of law -To obey it is to be free. -As embraced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who championed the concept, it is identical to the rule of law, and to obey it is to be free.

Salon

-___________ of women gave them access to useful social and political contacts and a receptive enviro to circulate ideas *Gathering place for discussion of ideas assc with French Enlightenment *Madame Marie Therese Geoffrin's ___= 1 of the most important. -those of Maire-Therese Geoffin (1699-1777), Julie del espinasse and Claudine de Tencin -Association w/ a fashionable ____ brought philosophers rose ed social status and added luster and respectability to their ideas -Philosophes liked being center of attention -Presence boosts sales of their works -Women who organized these = connected to political ppl who could protect philosophes and secure royal pensions for them -gave philosophes access to useful social and political contacts, and a receptive environment in which to circulate their ideas. -Brought philosophes increased social status and added luster and a sense of respectability to their ideas. -The women who organized these were often well-connected to political figures who would help protect the philosophes, as well as secure royal pensions for them.

miracles

David Hume doubted the existence of _____

Enlightenment

Factors that fostered the ideals of the ______________: 1. the stability and commercial prosperity of Great Britain after 1688 2. the need for administrative and economic reform in France after the wars of Louis XIV 3. the solidation of the print culture 4. the Newtonian worldview - the philosophes acknowledge the importance of the Scientific Revolution to the development of ideas on how to improve society.

physiocrats

French economic reformers were known as ______

blank page

Locke believed that human being a tabula rasa or: ______

deism

Many philosephs believed in a "rational" version of religion known as ____

c

Moses Mendelssohn argued for: a. The equality of men and women b. The need for Jews to stay out of Xtian society c. R toleration d. The equality of all races e. The hierarchy of all races

Baron De Montesquieu

N/A

c

The most important intellectual forerunners of the Enlightenment included: a. Bacon and Galileo b. Newton and Galileo c. Newton and Locke d. Descartes and Bacon e. Copernicus and Galileo

e

The philosephs drew the bulk of their readership form: a. Uni- students and instructors b. The landed elites c. The aristocracy d. The artisanal classes e. The prosperous commercial and professional urban classes

b

The physiocrats believed: a. The first priority of the doctor was to do no harm b. The primary role of the gov was to protect privy property rights c. Society = a living organism d. Physics revealed rules for ethical conducts e. Physics proved that god did not exist

a

Voltaire's exile to England convinced him that: a. English society and gov had much to admire b. Eng gov = inferior to French gov c. He had to be much more careful of his crit of the status quo d. All monarchies = corrupt e. He would never return to France

Mary Wollstonecraft

~~A pioneering British feminist ~~Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) ~~In this work, she attacked policies of the French Revolution that were unfavorable to women ~~Had been inspired by the writings of Rousseau ~~She was vehemently opposed to Rousseau's concept of separate spheres for men and women -Wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" - died of puerperal fever (Blood Poisoning) - accused Rousseau and others like him for trying to narrows women's vision and limit their experience. -Argued that to confine women to separate domestic sphere was to make them sensual slaves of men -In this separate sphere they were victims of male tyranny -Obedience = blind -They could never achieve own moral/intellectual identity -Denying good edu to women would impede progress of all humanity -Demanding for women liberties that the male writers of the Enlightenment wanted -Placed herself among philosophers -Broadened agenda of Enlightenment to include rights of women and men -British feminist of the eighteenth century who argued for women's equality with men, even in voting, in her 1792 "Vindication of the Rights of Women." -Argued that to confine women because of physiology (bodily features) was to make them the sensual slaves to men, as well as victims to male tyranny. -Because of this, women may never achieve their own moral and intellectual identity. -Denying good education to women would impede the progress of all humanity, she argued.

Deism

~~A set of combined ideas of religion and reason -Characteristics: -based on reason -lead to moral behavior -deduced from evidence from empirical evidence -didnt restrict freedom of thought -mostly strly anti-clerical -God - a divine watch maker -The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws -Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life. Was a combination of religion and reason -Influenced by the Newtonian worldview -2 major points: -belief in the existence of God -belief in a life after death

philosophes

~~AKA writers and critics associated with the Enlightenment ~~Critical of many religious institutions ~~Typically anticlerical ~~Most believed that religion and reason could be combined into a set of ideas called deism -These men looked to reform the political features of their countries. -However, those in France were largely divided over how to solve their country's problems. -Despite help from the salon hostesses, these men were not strong feminists. -They did urge broader education for women, and criticized the education women did receive as overly religious and tended to reject the ascetic views of sexual relations. -But generally, they displayed traditional views toward women and made no radical changes in their social condition. -Most looked to the existing monarchies as their preferred type of government, and did not try to limit the monarchs' power. -They did not oppose power if they could gain from it.

Separation of powers

~~Baron de Montesquieu developed theories about this ~~Believed that any two of the three branches of government would have ability to check and balance the power of each other ~~Also believed that the best government for a particular country depended on many factors peculiar to that country -Proposed as an effective method of governing by Montesquieu, in which he looked to Britain as an example. -Executive power = king, judicial power = manorial courts, legislative power = parliament. -Checks and balances of branches to assure each branch has an equal amount of power. -However, his perception of British constitution was incorrect because he failed to see that patronage and electoral corruption allowed aristocrats to dominate in government. -He was also unaware of the emerging cabinet system, which was making the executive power a puppet of Parliament.

Baron de Montesquieu

~~French philosophe ~~Author of Spirit of Laws (1748) ~~Admired English political institutions ~~Used their different branches of governmental authority to arrive at his theories regarding separation of powers ~~Believed that any two of the three branches of government would have ability to check and balance the power of each other ~~Also believed that the best government for a particular country depended on many factors peculiar to that country -Lawyer and philosophe -Noble of the robe -Saw need for reform -Member of a provincial parlement -Member of Bordeaux Academy of Science -Presented papers on science topics -1721 "The Persian Letters" - to satinize contemporary institutions -Crit cruelty and irrationality of " " -Visited England 10 years after his book -Like Voltaire, = admired Eng institutions -Most influential work: "Saint of the Laws" (1748) -Shows internal tensions of Enlightenment -Used ex of Brit constitution as the wisest model for regulating power in the gov -Pursued empirical method in it -Took ex tr political exp of modern and ancient nations -Applied to people at all times and places -Good political life depended on relationship and many ect variable -ex = best form of gov = depends on county's size, pop, social and R customs, economic structure, trade and climate -Favored a monarchical gov for France limited by various smaller institutions -Such as towns, ect corporate bodies that liked liberties monarch had to respect -Corporate bodies maybe rep segments of the gen pop and mos general public opinion -Urged French to adopt a political system similar to great Britain in book: "Saint of the Laws" -Advocated for theory known as 'The separation of Powers" with the power in gov being divided b/n the exclusive king, judicial, and legislative branches (in the Parliament) -model of gov w/ authorities wisely separated among different branches taken from contemporians G. g Britain -Two branches could check and balance each other -France regarded aristocratic courts/ parlements as a new intermediary association -Role = to limit power of monarchy -Therefore preserve the liberty of its ppls -Political Conservative -Hoped to achieve reform -Believed the oppressive and inefficient absolution of monarchy accounted for the degradation of French life -Perception of 18c Brit constitution = wrong because failed to see how patronage and electoral corruption allowed lots of powerful aristocrats to dominate gov -Unaware of emerging cabinet system -Slowly making the executive power a pet of Parliament -It believed oppressive absolutism of France accounted for degradation of French life -Favored revival of aristocracy -Believed woman not equal nat inferior to men and should have in society -Retained trad view of male dominance in home -Supported womens right to divorce, favored chastity -Believed monarchs should have limits on power and separate legislative formulate laws -ideas had profound effect on constitutional reform of liberal democracies for >2c

Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet)

~~French philosophe ~~Used that phrase "Crush the Infamous Thing," to describe his attitude towards religion and the Roman Catholic Church *Master @ satire, a genre *Late 1720 went into exile in Eng *Intro'd 2 virtues of the Eng -Esp R liberty *Therefore he wrote Letters on the Eng *Criticized abuses of French society compared w/ Eng *Famous 4 genre of lie "satire" -French Philosophe (1694-1778) who more than others epitomized the enlightenment. -His prolific writings championed individual freedom and attacked any institution sponsoring intolerant or oppressive policies. -attacked the French monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church - His battle cry against the Church, which he held responsible for fanaticism, intolerance and incalculable human suffering, was "Ecrasez l'infame", "Crush the infamous thing!" -After being exiled from France (b/c he offended French Monarch), he escaped to England. -There, he became impressed by the English will of freedom, as well as its prosperity in the areas of science and economics. - His notable texts include "Candide" and "Letters on the English". His "Elements of the Philosophy Newton" further popularized the Newtonian thought.

Adam Smith

~~His book, Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is considered the most important economic work of the Enlightenment ~~Argued that the best way to encourage economic growth was to allow individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests -Primary developer of classical economic theory -Advocated 4 end 2 mercantile systems -B/c it hindered expansion of wealth and production -Best way 4 eco growth = let individuals pursue own selfish interests -Assc w/ concept : economy needs 2 B freed from restraints -Limited role 4 the gov in economic lyf -Known as Laissez-faire -a physiocrat who believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system -against the mercantile system like that of england's (which includes the navigation acts governing colonial trade, tariffs, trading monopolies, the regulation of labor and manufacture) -said they hindered the expansion of wealth and production. -best way to encourage economic growth = unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interest -challenged the mercantilistic assumption that the earth's resources were limited -said instead that resources of nature (air, earth, etc.) were boundless -regarded as the founder of laissez-faire, and embraced the four-stage theory.

Jean Jacques Rosseau

~~One of his most famous works is The Social Contract ~~The book opens with the famous quote, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains..." ~~This book focuses on Rousseau's political philosophy regarding an ideal government and central to that philosophy is the concept of general will ~~For him, the general will was the will of majority interests over the will on individual interests -(1712-1778 held diff view of exercise and reform from Montesquie's *Believed that the process of civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature *Envisioned a society in which individuals maintained their personal freedoms while participating as loyal mems of the community at large *His concept of the ideal gove = centered on the general will - typically defined as the will of a majority of voting citizens -Defined as the will of a majority of voting citizens -The concept in political philosophy referring to the desire/interest of ppl as a whole -Identical to the rule of law -To obey it is to be free *Believed that the general will (democratic participation) must always be correct *Most famous work = the opening of that book "All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains" -Based on general will -It is the best for the people -Strange isolated genius -Never left comfy with other philosophes, formed few close friends -Life = troubled -Had numerous kids -> left them in founding hospitals -Transcended political thought and values of own time > any other writer of mid c -Seemed impossible to achieve moral, virtuous/sincere live -1750 hrs Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Su's -Said process of civilization and Enlightenment corrupted human nature -1755 Discourse the Origin of Inequality blamed evil in world on even distribution of property -In these two works he challenged social fabric of the day -Q'd concepts of material of material and intellectual progress for the mortality of a society where commerce and industry = most important human activities -Raised Q' "What constitutes the good life?" -Suggested soueta/= > important than individual mems -They R only by virtue of their relationship to the larger community -Independent humans lving alone achieve little -Through relationship to the bigger community the become capable of sig action -What kind of community lets people behave morally? -Explained Euro society not equal community by = aggregate cometing individuals whose goal = presense selfish independence despite all social bonds and obligations -Envisioned a society where ea person could have personal freedom while being loyal to larger community -Freedom = obedience to law (law of general will) -Led him to conclusion that sometimes people must be forced to be free -Favored democracy -Preferred deism as national R -Attacked 18 cult of individualism for fruits of selfishness -Wanted people to be good even if that meant they were to remain poor -Not much of an impact -Other philosophes Q'd his critic of material improvement -Aristocrats and royal ministers = hardly agreed -People busy trying to make/hope for $ to appreciate his crit of commercial values -Later gens = more important -One of most surprising and influential analysis's on position of women -Novel Emile set fortha radical version of the view that men and women should occupy separate spheres -"Emphasized "such as" woman function in" bearing and raising children -Little else for women to do but make themselves pleasuring to men -Portrayed them as weaker and inferior to men -Except in capacity for feeling/giving love -Excluded them from political life -Only men should populate world of citizenship, political action civic future

Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

~~Written by Adam Smith ~~Considered the most important economic work of the Enlightenment ~~Argued that the best way to encourage economic growth was to allow individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests

Spirit of the Laws

~~Written by Baron de Montesquieu -Believed BRITISH had the best government and the best political system depended on various FACTORS about the country. (Size, culture etc). Believed in DIVISION OF POWER in gov't...judicial/executive/legislative.