Ch. 23 Euro

Carlo-Alberto

(1831-1849) Piedmont-Sardinia's king; had stood alone among Italian rulers in opposing Austrian domination of the Italian peninsula in 1848 & 1849; severely defeated by the Austrians, he was forced to abdicate; with his death in exile, this man became a saint martyred for the cause of unification; succeeded by Victor Emmanuel II

Anton von Werner

(1843-1915) painted the scene where the German states are united; shows the Hall of Mirrors figured as prominently in the tableau as the princes & aristocrats who cheer the new emperor; King Wilhelm I of Prussia is on the dais, flanked by his son, Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm & Friedrich I; Bismarck is seen in white; showed that this was Bismarck's event

Wrangel

(1847-1920) recounted in his memoirs a story from his childhood in the 1850s, when he was about 10 years old, that exemplifies the growing social awareness of the problem; talks about Uncle Tom and how his sister Bunny says "we have slaves too"

Lucy Luck

(1848-1922) an Englishwoman; began her working career in a silk mill at the age of 8; by law allowed to work only half a day, the child returned to her foster home at the end of her shift to labor late into the night plaiting straw for baskets; in her reminiscences, she looked back over her life: "I have been at work for 47 years & have never missed one season, although I have a large family of 7 surviving children"; married at the age of 18; learned that on her own she could not survive without a man's income or without resorting to the "bad life" of crime & prostitution; in the marriage, the couple could not survive without Lucy's wages

Charge of the Light Brigade (Battle of Balaklava)

600 troops of the British _______ were ordered into battle by incompetent & confused commanders; the British soldiers charged down a narrow valley flanked by Russian guns on the heights on both sides & into the teeth of another battery at the head of the valley; the battlefield became known as the Valley of Death; commemorated in Kipling's poem; nearly 2/3s of the soldiers died; shows how Romanticized the Crimean War became

mir

Alexander II compromised between landlord & serf by allotting land to freed peasants, while requiring from the former serfs redemption payments that were spread out over a period of 49 years; the peasant paid the state in installments; the state reimbursed the landowner in lump sums; to guarantee repayment, the land was not granted directly to individual peasants but to the village commune (known as this); was responsible for collecting redemption payments; prevented mobility;

City Beautiful movement

American city planners of this movement were also influenced by the "Haussmannization" of Paris;

battles of Magenta & Solferino

Austria declared war on Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859, but was easily defeated by French forces in these battles

Realpolitik

Bismarck emerged as the supreme practitioner of this; the ruthless pursuit by any means, including illegal & violent ones, to advance the interests of his country; meant that statesmen had to think in terms of military capability, technological dominance & the acceptable use of force; without a traditional morality of right & wrong, the leaders recognized that there could be no arbiter outside the interests of the nation state; a characteristic of the new age of gamesmanship in statecraft; very Machiavellian - doing whatever to attain your goal

Seven Weeks' War

Bismarck provoked a crisis between Austria & Prussia over management of the duchies of Schleswig & Holstein; counting on the neutrality of France & Great Britain, with the support of Piedmont-Sardinia & good relations with Russia, Bismarck led Prussia into war with Austria in June 1866; the war took its names from its short duration; Austrian forces proved to be no match for the better-equipped & better-trained Prussian army; Bismarck dictated the terms of the peace, which demonstrated that he had no desire to cripple Austria, only to exclude it from a united Germany in which Prussia would be the dominant force; Bismarck's biggest obstacle to German unification laid to rest with Austria's defeat; Pundits in Paris were fond of saying that the Austrian loss really marked the defeat of France; France's position within Europe was threatened;

Franco-Prussian War

Bismarck recognized that war with France could be the dramatic event needed to forge cooperation & unity among all German states - the issue of succession to the Spanish throne gave him the opportunity he sought: Bismarck created the impression that the French ambassador had insulted the Prussian king, then leaked news of the incident to the press in both countries; enrages & inflamed French & Prussian publics both demanded war; France declared war on Prussia in July 1870; the southern German princes immediately sided with the Prussian king; for years before hostilities broke out, the Prussians had been preparing for war - they had been sending Prussian army officers disguised as landscape painters into France to study the terrain of battle; French troops carried maps of Germany but were ignorant of the geography of their own country, where the battles were waged; the Germans had learned new deployment strategies from studying the use of railroads in the American Civil War of 1861-1865; the French had not coordinated deployment with the railroad; although French troops had the latest equipment, they were sent into battle without instructions on how to use it; the Prussian-led army was superior, outnumbering French troops 450,000 to 260,000; the French clearly lost; the path was now clear for the declaration of the German Empire in January 1871; France's humiliating defeat brought to an end the experiment in liberal empire; with the emperor's defeat, the Second Empire collapsed; final step in creating a united Germany; Prussia gained Alsace & Lorraine after this war

Reichstag

Bismarck used the bureaucracy as a mainstay of the emperor; he created a new legislative assembly known as this; was to be elected by means of universal male suffrage (a concession to the liberals); not sovereign & the chancellor was accountable only to the emperor (conservative); Bismarck's aim: "to destroy parliamentarianism by parliamentarianism" - hoped that a weak ______ would undermine parliamentary institutions better than any dictatorial ruler; has very little power

Sevastopol

Britain & French troops landed in the Russian peninsula extending into the Black Sea (Crimea) in September 1854 with the intention of capturing this base; Russia's heavily fortified chief naval base on the Black Sea; fell after 322 days of battle, on September 11, 1855; the defeated Russians abandoned this area, blew up their forts & sank their own ships

Victor Emmanuel II

Carlo-Alberto's son & successor in 1849; 1848-1861 was king of Piedmont-Sardinia; made Cavour his first minister; Garibaldi's yielding of his own conquered territories made possible the declaration of a united Italy under this king; reigned as king of Italy from 1861-1878; devoted much of his foreign policy in the 1860s to attempt to acquire Venetia (still under Austrian rule) & Rome (still ruled by Pope Pius IX)

Il Risorgimento

Cavour achieved power by founding his own newspaper, known as this

Treaty of Plombieres

Cavour shrewdly secured the French pledge of support for Piedmont-Sardinia, including military aid if necessary, against Austria in this; signed by Napoleon III in 1858; quickly followed by an arranged provocation against the Habsburg monarchy

Suez Canal

French construction of this canal created tensions with Great Britain, protective of its own dominance in the Mediterranean & the Near East; between the Red Sea & the Mediterranean

Voltaire

French philosopher of the Enlightenment; "God gave the English the seas, the French the land, & the Germans the clouds" - fragmented & without a state, Germans could claim a rich culture of philosophy, music & literature in the previous century

the Thousand

Garibaldi's army of Red Shirts; he liberated Sicily & crossed to the Italian mainland to expel Francis II from Naples with this army

Liberal Party

Gladstone's term as prime minister made the British government become very liberal; an attack on privilege; sought to remove restraints on individual freedom & to foster opportunity & talent; sought to protect democracy through education - voting men must be educated; "we must educate our masters"; governed in the interests of the bourgeoisie & with the belief that what was good for capitalism was good for society; tariffs were therefore kept low or eliminated to promote British commerce;

(Rebuilding of) Paris

Napoleon III found this city stinking & left it sweet; before midcentury, this was one of the most unsanitary, crime-ridden, & politically volatile capitals in Europe; within 15 years it had been transformed into a city of light, wide boulevards & avenues, monumental vistas, parks & gardens; the real credit for carrying through the municipal improvements should be attributed to Baron Georges Haussmann; the new housing that Haussmann made way for was too expensive for workers, who were pushed out of Paris into the suburbs; the boundaries of the city expanded; as workers from all over France migrated to the capital in search of jobs the population nearly doubled, increasing by just under one million in the 1850s & 1860s; was being physically dismantled while a new, more conservative political entity rose in its place as the middle classes took over the hart of the city; wider streets facilitated the movement of troops, which could more easily crush revolutionary disturbances; Napoleon III wanted Paris to be the center of Western culture & the envy of the world; its wide, straight avenues served as the model for other French cities; the new city became an international model copied in Mexico City, Brussels, Madrid, Rome, Stockholm & Barcelona between 1870-1900; this would make France the center of culture; became the city of lights; Napoleon III remodeled it to make sure that he could control it in the case of a revolt

First Earl of Beaconsfield

Queen Victoria named Disraeli this for his strong foreign policy & social reforms

Zollverein

Prussia systematically undermined Austrian power by welding the trade agreements of this as a tool to exclude Austria from German economic affairs

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian statesman; saw his task of uniting Germany in terms of the female metaphor of birth; crafted a united Germany; understood that symbols forge unity; he & Cavour considered themselves realists who shared a recognition of diplomacy as an instrument of domestic policy; aware that he was playing a game of high risks & high stakes; his vision was limited to the pursuit of preserving the power of Prussia; for him the empire was not an end in itself but a means of guaranteeing Prussian strength; a supreme practitioner of Realpolitik; a Junker from east of the Elbe River; entered politics in 1847; in the United Diet of Prussia, made his reputation as a reactionary when he rose to speak in favor of hunting privileges for the nobility: "I am a Junker & I want to enjoy the advantages of it"; saw that the old elites must be allied with the national movement in order to survive; learned how to exploit the common ground that the Liberals & Junkers shared in their interest for political unification; in 1862, this man became minister-president of the Prussian cabinet as well as foreign minister; overrode the Diet by reorganizing the Prussian army without a formally approved budget; in 1864 he constructed an alliance with Austria for the purpose of invading Schleswig; provoked the Seven Weeks' War; understood that Europe was not the same place that it had been a decade or 2 earlier "Anyone who speaks of Europe is wrong - it is nothing but a set of national expressions" - this understanding was the key to this success; his aim: "to destroy parliamentarianism by parliamentarianism" - hoped that a weak Reichstag would undermine parliamentary institutions better than any dictatorial ruler; "politics ruins the character"; very conservative; always had more than 1 arrow in his quiver; saw himself on a tightrope, but one he felt prepared to walk; creates universal manhood suffrage in Germany

Crimean War

Russia ordered troops to enter the Danubian Principalities held by the Turks; in October 1853, the Turkish government, counting on support from Great Britain & France, declared war on Russia; battle of Sinope; Great Britain & France feared Russian aggrandizement at Turkish expense & declared war on Russia on March 28 1854; Britain & French troops landed in the Russian peninsula extending into the Black Sea in September 1854 with the intention of capturing Sevastopol; had the highest casualty rate of any European war between 1815 & 1914; 3/4 of a million soldiers died - 4/5 succumbed to disease (especially typhus & cholera); Russians claimed 2/3 of all dead & wounded; 450,000 Russian soldiers died; no one really won this war; Russia ceased playing an active role in European affairs & turned toward expansion in central Asia - its withdrawal opened up the possibility for a move by Prussia in central Europe; the concert of Europe came to an end; the goal was to prevent Russia from expanding

serfdom

Russia still practiced this, but were thinking about abolishing it; abolition of this would permit a well-trained reserve army to exist without fear of rebellion; liberating the __ would create a system of free labor so necessary for industrial development; eliminated in Russia in 1861 & in Poland in 1864; the emancipation of serfs in Russia affected 52 million peasants, more than 20 million of them enserfed to private landowners; the liberated serfs soon realized that the repayment shcedule increased their burdens & responsibilities & resented being forced to pay for land they considered rightfully theirs; old peasant saying "We are yours, but the land is ours"; many peasants received smaller plots of land than they had farmed under serfdom; redemption payments were abolished in 1907

King Francis II

Southern Italians initiated disturbances against the rule of this man in the spring of 1860; expelled from Naples by Garibaldi's Thousand

Peace of Paris of 1856

Russia, now facing the threat of Austrian entry into the war, agreed to preliminary peace terms; (in this treaty) Russia relinquished its claim as protector of Christians in Turkey; the British gained the neutralization of the Black Sea; the mouth of the Danube was returned to Turkish control & an international commission was created to oversee safe navigation on the Danube; the Danubian Principalities were placed under join guarantee of the powers; Russia gave up a small portion of Bessarabia; with this, the hope that goals could be achieved by peaceful means also died

Hall of Mirrors

The German Empire was proclaimed here on January 21, 1871; in Versailles; humiliating for the French for the German Empire to be united there; the choice of this as the meeting place for the German princes was intended as an assertion of German superiority in Europe

Abraham Lincoln

president of the United States during the American Civil War; resolved his crisis through "blood & iron"; mobilized the greater human & industrial resources of the North against the agrarian, slave-owning South; Republican democracy

Trade Union Act

probably the most important conservative legislation was this; permitted picketing & other peaceful labor tactics

plebiscite

a method of direct voting that gives to electors the choice of voting for or against an important public question; Cavour wielded this electoral weapon to unite Tuscany, Parma, & Modena under Piedmont's king

meals

a wife's duty was above all to provide her husband with a hot meal, prepared well & served punctually; these became elaborate occasions of several courses requiring hours of work; women's magazines bombarded a growing readership with menus & recipes for the careful housewife; status was communicated by extravagant preparation of this; meal planning was an art, one whose practice required & assumed the assistance of household servants;

Gladstone

an example of a British statesman; a classical liberal who believed in free enterprise; was opposed to state intervention; good government, according to this man, should remove obstacles to talent, competition & individual initiative but should interfere as little as possible in economy & society; became the leader of the Liberal party; began his parliamentary career at the other end of the political spectrum (a Tory); son of a successful merchant & slave trader; attended Eton & Oxford, where he studied classics & mathematics; discouraged by his father from a career in the Church of England; used his connections to launch a parliamentary career in 1832; in 1846 as a member of the government, this man broke with Tory principle & voted in favor of free trade; affirmed that the best government was the one that governed least; had a capacity for hard work & assiduous application to the task at hand; chopped wood for relaxation; in his spare time he wrote a three-volume study on Homer & the Homeric age; practiced an overt morality, targeting prostitutes in the hope of convincing them to change their lives; considered private philanthropy the best way to correct social problems; many of the significant advances of the British liberal state were achieved during this man's 1st term as prime minister (1868-1874) - he abolished tariffs, cut defense expenditures, lowered taxes & sponsored sound budgets; disestablished the Anglican church in Ireland in 1869; reformed the army so that commissions no longer could be purchased (training & merit would justify future advancements); reformed the civil service system by separating it from political influence & seniority (used merit system & examinations instead); introduced a secret ballot; passed an education act that aimed to make elementary schooling available to everyone; believed that all political questions were moral questions & that fairness & justice could solve political problems; had some enemies of farmer & Church of England; reforms the army after Crimean war; tries to promote free trade

Great Britain

feared Russian expansion as a threat to its trade and holdings in India, had a vested interest in an independent but weak Turkey presiding over the straits; legislation here alternated between a philosophy of freedom & one of protection; had an enormously productive capitalist economy of sustained growth; enjoyed apparent social harmony without revolution & civil war; achieved industrial growth without rending the social fabric; had poverty, disease & famine; one explanation for Britain's relative calm lay in the shared political tradition that emphasized liberty as the birthright of English citizens - parliament was able to adapt to the demands of an industrializing society; the British model combined free enterprise with intervention & regulation; the only country that uses free trade (laissez-faire economy)

(Camillo Benso di) Cavour

an opportunistic politician & a realist; knew that only as a unified nation could Italy lay claim to status as a great power in Europe; saw that a united Italy could be achieved through the manipulation of diplomacy & military victory; understood that international events could be made to serve national ends; premier for Piedmont-Sardinia from 1852-1859 & again in 1860-1861; became first minister under Victor Emmanuel II; undertook liberal administrative reforms like tax reform, stabilization of the currency, improvement of the railway system, the creation of a transatlantic steamship system & the support of private enterprise; involved Piedmont-Sardinia in the Crimean War, thereby securing its status among the European powers; most important was Treaty of Plombieres; his partnership with a stronger power meant sometimes following France's lead - French bullying provoked fits of rage & forced this man to resign from office temporarily in 1859 over a war ended too early by Napoleon III; became alarmed as Garibaldi's popularity as a national hero grew, & because of their competing effort to unite Italy, this man took secret steps to block the advance of the Red Shirts & their leader - seized the initiative & directed the Piedmontese army into the Papal States; understood that the world had changed dramatically in the first half of the 19th century; appreciated the relationship between national & international events & was able to manipulate it for his own ends; he & Bismarck considered themselves realists who shared a recognition of diplomacy as an instrument of domestic policy; founded Il Risorgimento; leaned toward liberal ideas

nation-state

became an all-knowing being whose rights had to be protected, whose destiny had to be assured; symbols took the place of monarchs to communicate a single undivided entity; a female form (Britannia of Great Britain or Marianne of France) could be used to capture the purity, strength, & vulnerability of the new nationalist concept; a creation that minimized or denied real differences in dialect & language, regional loyalties, local traditions & village identities; now power was acknowledged to exist above this; the supreme justification for all actions; were inherently competitive, with conflicting objectives

The Artist's Studio

by Gustave Courbet; Courbet portrayed himself surrounded by the intellectuals & political figures of his day; he may have been painting a landscape, but contemporary political life crowded in; a starving Irish peasant & her child crouch beneath his easel;

strait of the Dardanelles

connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean Sea; Russia hoped to benefit from the Ottoman weakness to gain control of this strait, which would help to be its outlet to the Mediterranean (Russia's southern outlet to the world)

Disraeli

conservative prime minister of England; sponsored the Factory Act of 1875; known primarily as a novelist, social critic & failed financier before he entered the political arena in 1837; his father was a Jewish merchant descended from a family of Spanish refugees in Venice; the senior Disraeli became a British subject in 1801 (3 years before the birth of Benjamin) & had his children baptized in the Anglican church; championed protection & throughout the early 1860s consistently opposed Gladstone's financial system; insisted on the importance of traditional institutions (monarch, House of Lords, Church of England); named the First Earl of Beaconsfield for his strong foreign policy & social reforms; his work in organizing a national party machinery facilitated the adaptation of the parliamentary system to mass politics; his methods of campaigning & building a mass base of support were used by successful politicians; placed value in the ability of the state to correct & protect; candidate for 20th century liberal; because of his interventionist philosophy, he may be compared with Bismarck & Napoleon III

Artisans Dwelling Act

defined minimum housing standards in England

Public Health Act

established a sanitary code

Italy

finally unified in 1861, after Garibaldi yielded his own conquered territories to the Piedmontese ruler; in 1866, when Austria lost a war with Prussia, this nation struck a deal with the victor & gained control of Venetia; when Prussia prevailed against France in 1870, Victor Emmanuel II took over Rome; the boot of Italy was now a single nation; the pope remained in the Vatican; the new national government sought to impose centralization with a heavy hand & had little interest in preserving regional differences & regional cultures; Cavour's liberal constitutional principles, combined with moderately conservative stands on social issues produced alienation, especially in southern Italy, among both the peasantry & nobility

emperor hunt

followed after the Will of People decided to assassinate the tsar; numerous attempts were made on the tsar's life; miraculously Alexander II escaped even the bombing of his own living quarters in the Winter Palace; the tsarist state responded with stricter controls, but repression only fanned the flames of discontent

Chevalier-Cobden Treaty

free-trade agreement between the British & the French in 1860; was a landmark in overseas policy & a commitment to liberal economic policies

Austrian (Habsburg) Empire

frightened by Russia's seizure of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia & Walachia; remained neutral but threatened to enter the war with Great Britain & France on the side of Turkey; this nation's exclusion from Germany forced their government to deal with its own internal problems of imperial organization; in 1867 this empire transformed itself into a dual monarchy of 2 independent & equal states under one ruler, who would be both the emperor of Austria & the king of Hungary

Reform Bill of 1832

gave increased political power to the industrial & manufacturing bourgeoisie who joined a landed aristocracy & merchant class; the property qualification meant that only 20% of the population was able to vote

home

glorified as the locus of shelter & comfort where the harsh outside world could be forgotten; in 1870, an article in a popular Victorian magazine explained that this functioned as a haven; "___ is emphatically man's place of rest, where his wife is his friend who knows his mind, where he may be himself without fear of offending & relax the strain that must be kept out of doors: where he may feel himself safe, understood & at ease"; served as a symbol of status & achievement;in the belief that the more objects that could be displayed the better, the middle-class home of the 3rd quarter of the 19th century was usually overdecorated;

(Count Helmuth) von Moltke

head of the Prussian General Staff; man responsible for reorganizing the Prussian army with Bismarck's support; a man of action, ready to move into the future

France

hoped that by entering into a partnership with the British to defeat the Russians, they would be able to lay claim to great power & status in European international politics; formed a partnership with Piedmont-Sardinia - sometimes bullied them (provoked Cavour to resign from office temporarily in 1859), the need for Piedmont to solicit this nation's support meant enriching this nation with territorial gain in the form of Nice & Savoy; the French model of reform was a technocratic one that emphasized the importance of specialized knowledge to achieve material progress; reform here relied on both autocratic direction & liberal participation; in 1870 this remained a mixture of old & new; still an agricultural nation; foreign trade expanded by 300% (growing faster than that of any other nation in Europe); 6 times as many miles of railroad track came in France at the time Napoleon III went into exile as when he came into power;

Florence Nightingale

valued what she called "my work" above home & family; was a single woman; received the British Empire's Order of Merit for her achievements; Queen Victoria hailed her as "an example to our sex"; widely regarded as the greatest woman of her age; a highly visibly & outspoken reformer; hailed as a national heroine because of her work during the Crimean War, organizing hospital care at Scutari; attacked the mismanagement, corruption & lack of organization characteristic of medical treatment for British soldiers; campaigned for better sanitation, hygiene, ventilation & diet; in 1855 the death rate plummeted from 42% to 2% thanks to her efforts; the London Times declared "There is not one of England's proudest & purest daughters who at the moment stands on as high a pinnacle as ______"; blocked by her family & publicly maligned, this woman struggled against prevailing norms to carve out her occupation; the daughter of a wealthy gentry family & from her father she received a man's classical education; "the Angel of the Crimea"; fiercely resisted the domestic life of a woman; railed at the inequity of married life: "A man gains everything by marriage: he gains a 'helpmate,' but a woman does not"; her memoirs are filled with her "complaints" against the plight of women; because of her wealth, she did not need to work, yet she felt driven to be useful - her choice of nursing much alarmed her family, who considered the occupation to be equal, if not worse than domestic service; shattered the taboos that nurses were either shameless or promiscuous; visited nursing establishments throughout Europe, traveling alone, & studied their methods & techniques; conceived of her own mission to serve God through caring for others; an embodiment of the changing values of her age; in 1860 she established a school to train nurses; spent a good part of the last 45 years of her life in a sickbed suffering from "nervous fever" - during this period she wrote incessantly & continued to lobby for her programs, benefiting from the freedom to think & write provided by her illness; "Lady with the Lamp"

(causes) Crimean War

in 1853, Russia demanded the Turkish government to recognize Russia's right to protect Greek Orthodox believers in the Ottoman Empire - this action was a response to measures taken by the French government during the previous year, when France had gained from the Turkish government rights for Roman Catholic religious orders in certain sanctuaries in the Holy Land; in making claims as protector, Russia demanded that the rights granted to the Roman Catholic orders also be rescinded - the Turkish government refused & the Russian (feeling that their prestige had been damaged) ordered troops to enter the Danubian Principalities held by the Turks; in October 1853, the Turkish government, counting on support from Great Britain & France, declared war on Russia

Schleswig (& Holstein)

in 1864, Bismarck constructed an alliance between Austria & Prussia for the purpose of invading this; a predominantly German-speaking territory controlled by the king of Denmark; hoped for the population to become part of the German Confederation; within 5 days of invasion, Denmark yielded the this duchy as well as ____ to be ruled jointly by Austria & Prussia

railroad (construction)

in France from 1852-1860, the government supported a massive program of this - jobs multiplied & investment increased; agriculture expanded as these lines opened new markets; on the whole, the standard of living increased as wages rose faster than prices

Second Empire

in France under Louis Napoleon in 1852; condemned for its decadence & spectacle; on the surface the world of this glittered; people partied & had great balls; achieved significant successes in a variety of areas; during Napoleon III's reign the French economy prospered & flourished; the discovery of gold in California & Australia fueled a demand for French products in international markets & initiated a period of sustained economic growth that lasted beyond Napoleon III's reign; a new private banking system, founded in 1852 by financiers & political figures, enabled the pooling of investors' resource to finance industrial expansion; stable authoritarian government encouraged increased investment in state public works programs; 1852-1860, the government supported a massive program of railroad constructions - jobs multiplied & investment increased; agriculture expanded as railroad lines opened new markets; on the whole, the standard of living increased as wages rose faster than prices; collapsed when France lost the Franco-Prussian war; the regime's liberal critics in Paris seized the initiative to proclaim France a republic

Great Exhibition of 1851

in London; here, the achievements of modern industry were proudly displayed for all the world to see; engineering & mechanistic marvels dwarfed the thousands of visitors who came to the Crystal Palace to view civilization at its most advanced; modern kitchens with coal-burning stoves were showcased & the artifacts of the ideal home were carefully displayed;

realism

in the arts & literature; a rejection of romantic idealism & subjectivity; the _____ response to the disillusionment with the political failures of the post-1848 era characterized a wide array of artistic & literary endeavors; depicted the challenges of urban & industrial growth by confronting the alienation of modern life; this term was first used in 1850 to describe the painting of Gustave Courbet; images of ordinary people, the working classes & the poor populated this type of art; ____ artists often strove to make a social commentary; addressed an educated elite public but did not flinch before the unrelenting poverty & harshness of contemporary life; the morality of this lay in depicting social evils for what they were, failures of a smug & progressive middle class; looks at things the way that they truly are; portrays how stark things are; push for something more rational

Sinope

in the beginning stage of the Crimean War; Russia easily prevailed over the Turks here; a 4 hour Battle where a Russian squadron destroyed the Turkish fleet off the coast of this area; 1853

Reform Bill of 1884

in this bill, farm laborers were enfranchised; women were not granted the vote until World War I; doubled the electorate to 80%

(constitution of) North German Confederation

in unifying Germany, Bismarck built on the constitution of this formed in 1867; guaranteed Prussian dominance; not a liberal constitution; the federal structure of this, especially with regard to taxation, also kept the central parliament weak; most liberals supported this; critics believed that true constitutional government had been sacrificed to the demands of empire; one liberal said "unity without freedom is a unity of slaves"

Great Reforms

input by Alexander II; emancipating the serfs, creating local parliamentary bodies, reorganizing the judiciary, modernizing the army; the state encouraged capitalist growth & witnessed the rise of a professional middle class & the formation of an embryonic factory proletariat;

home economics

invented during this period;the domestic sphere could benefit from the application of rational principles of organization; critics argued that designating the home as woman's proper domain stifled individual development

Piedmont-Sardinia

joined the Crimean war (Cavour's idea) on the side of the western European powers in January 1855, hoping to make its name militarily & win recognition for its aim to unite Italy into a single nation; an empty-handed victor in the Crimean War, realized that only the force of the cannon could achieve the unification of Italy; made itself a focal point for unification efforts; had a partnership with France; in the summer of 1859, revolutionary assembles in Tuscany, Modena, Parma & the Romagna voted in favor of union with Piedmontese & by April 1860 these areas were under Victor Emmanuel's rule; doubled in size to become the dominant power on the Italian peninsula; Cavour seized the initiative against the Red Shirts & directed the Piedmontese army into the Papal States; after defeating the pope's troops, Cavour's men crossed into the Neapolitan state & scored important victories against forces loyal to the king of Naples; Cavour proceeded to annex southern Italy for Victor Emmanuel, using plebiscites to seal the procedure

zemstvos

local elected assemblies on the provincial & county levels; in 1864 Alexander II introduced them to govern local affairs; the three classes of landowners, townspeople & peasants elected representatives who were responsible for implementing educational, health & other social welfare reforms;

Napoleon III

made clear his opposition to further Prussian growth & attempted unsuccessfully to contain Prussian ambitions through diplomatic maneuverings (instead France found itself stranded without important European allies); ruled France from 1848-1870; nephew of Napoleon I & was old enough to remember the devastation of his uncle's defeat in 1815; he dedicated his exiled youth to preparing for his family's restoration as rulers of France; by 1848 he understood the importance of shaping public opinion to suit his own ends; wielded the Napoleonic legend to play on the dissatisfaction of millions; understood that to succeed in an electoral system, he had to promise something to everyone; France's 1st president elected by universal manhood suffrage; on December 2, 1851, this man seized power in a coup d'etat & became dictator of France; exactly 1 year later, he proclaimed himself Emperor; supported economic expansion & industrial development; during his reign the French economy prospered & flourished; surrounded himself with advisers who saw in prosperity the answer to all social problems; found Paris stinking & left it sweet; helped rebuild the French capital; transformed Paris into one of the world's most beautiful cities; intended his blueprint for foreign policy to restore France to its pre-1815 status as the greatest European power; involved France in the Crimean War & the war for Italian unification - undertook both wars with the hope of further increasing French economic & diplomatic prominence on the Continent; supported Piedmont-Sardinia to increase French territory (accession of Nice & Savoy) though he claimed that he was "doing something for Italy"; after the Mexican disaster, this emperor undertook the reorganization of the army & a series of liberal reforms (increasing parliamentary participation in affairs of state & granting to trade unions the right of assembly); his policies favored business & initiated a financial revolution of enduring benefits; ran Europe;'s 1st modern political campaign; placed the welfare of France above his failed ambitions; at his funeral, his son led a cheer for France; mix of liberal & conservative views; tries to make France the most powerful in the world

(working) women

many women held jobs outside the home or did piecework to supplement meager family incomes; in 1866, women constituted a significant percentage of the French labor force, including 45% of all textile workers; 2 married Englishwomen in 5 worked in the mills in industrial areas like Lancashire; regarded as immoral; the politics of homemaking defined women as mothers & hence legitimated the poor treatment & poor pay of women as workers

Queen Victoria

most maternal & domestic of queens; hailed Nightingale as "an example to our sex"; longest reigning monarch in Britain; not a supporter of feminism

Karl Marx

observed that history happens the first time as a tragedy & the 2nd time as farce (Napoleon I & Napoleon III)

Jane Austen

one of Britain's greatest novelists; had to keep a piece of muslin work on her writing table in the family drawing room to cover her papers lest visitors detect evidence of literary activity

modern

people alive during the 3rd quarter of the 19th century called themselves this; they were indeed this since in their values & view of the world they were closer to their 20th century progeny than they were to their 18th century grandparents

public opinion

political realists understood the importance of this; proved unreliable building material for a stable government; the new political leaders appreciated this for what it was - an unreliable guide for policy making, often a dangerous beast that had to be controlled & tamed; a tool for the shaping of consensus, the molding of support;

intelligentsia

radical intellectuals who benefited from the democratization of education & were influenced by the rhetoric of revolution in the West; between 1860 & 1870, they assumed a critical stance in protest against the existing order; many members shared a similar background as the student sons & daughters of petty officials or priests; young women (who often sought the education in Switzerland that was denied to them at home) were especially active in supporting ideas of emancipation; the imperial government considered the Western liberal & socialist ideas of this so threatening that it ordered Russian students studying in Switzerland to return home; many returning students combined forces with radical intellectuals in Russia & decided to "go to the people" - about 2500 educated young men & women traveled from village to village to educate, to help & in some cases, to attempt to radicalize the peasants; the populist crusaders sought to learn from what they considered to be the source of all morality & justice, the Russian peasantry; sons & daughters of upperclass who traveled abroad for education; when they returned, some espoused very radical views & went out among the villages to teach about the reforms; later, Alexander II arrests some of them & starts clenching down on them

Emancipation Proclamation

signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1863; freed 4 million American slaves

Will of the People

some educated men & women who remained in Russia chose violence as the only effective weapon against absolute rule; these terrorists called themselves this; decided on assassination as the best strategy & condemned the tsar to death; this movement succeeded its mission when a terrorist bomb killed Alexander II in St. Petersburg in 1881

Factory Act of 1875

sponsored by Disraeli; set a maximum of 56 hours for the factory work week

Second Reich

successor to the Holy Roman Empire; united the German states into a single nation; took years of wars & a demanding labor of diplomatic maneuverings to come about; a "state of princes"; an empire born of the union of force & military conquest; with the creation of this, the Germans had put their feet on the ground; Wilhelm I is king & Bismarck is the chancellor

Conservative Party

supported state intervention & regulation on behalf of the weak & disadvantaged

Romania

the Danubian Principalities were placed under joint guarantee of the power; in 1861, the principalities were united into this independent nation

Eastern Question

the anticipated disintegration of the Ottoman Empire was termed; created a situation with the 5 Great Powers that led to war

Valley of Death

the battlefield where the Charge of the British Light Brigade took place; in the battle of Balaklava

Russia

the greatest military power in Europe; after 1815, this country honored its commitment to preserving the status quo by acting as police officer for the continent; supported Austria against Hungary & Prussia in 1849 & 1850; hoped to benefit from Ottoman weakness to gain control of the Bosporus & strait of the Dardanelles, which were the only outlets for the Russian fleet to the Mediterranean; hoped to preserve social peace; an unreformed autocracy (tsar held absolute power); the tsar governed through a bureaucracy & a police force; a semifeudal agrarian economy with a class of privileged aristocrats supported by serf labor on their estates; realized that serfdom was uncivilized & morally wrong after the reign of Alexander I; the only serf-holding European nation; had no railroads & was forced to transport military supplies by carts to the Crimea; the abolition of serfdom did not solve the problem of Russian backwardness; agriculture did not become more productive; the emancipation did not result in a content or loyal peasantry; with the abolition of serfdom, a bureaucratic hierarchy & a financial infrastructure were expanded; with the help of foreign (especially French) investment, railway construction increased dramatically from 660 miles of track in 1855 to 14,000 by 1880; became a world grain supplier, with exports increasing threefold; undertook judicial reforms; new provincial courts were opened in 1866; corporal punishment was to be eliminated; still had separate courts for peasants

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management

the most famous of the instruction manuals for domestic women in Britain; the business concept of management could now be applied to the home; "the functions of the mistress of the house resemble those of the general of an army or the manager of a great business concern"; her advice centered on food as the way to a man's heart; a wife's duty was above all to provide her husband with a hot meal, prepared well & served punctually - meals became elaborate occasions;

Risorgimento

the movement to reunite Italy culturally & politically; literally "resurgence"; had its roots in the 18th century;

Bosporus

the narrow strait connecting the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara; Russia hoped to benefit from the Ottoman weakness to gain control of this strait, which would help to be its outlet to the Mediterranean (Russia's southern outlet to the world)

Zurich

the peace after Austria's war with Piedmont-Sardinia & France was signed here; joined Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia; Cavour wielded the electoral weapon of the plebiscite

(Baron Georges) Haussmann

the real credit for carrying through the municipal improvements in Paris should be attributed to this man; Prefect of the Seine from 1853-1870, this man typified the technocrat in power; called "the Attila of the Straight Line" for the ruthless manner in which his protractor cut through the city neighborhoods, destroying all that lay in his pencil's path - poor districts were turned into rubble to make way for the elegant apartment buildings of the Parisian bourgeoisie; creates wide boulevards & gets rid of small streets; built new apartments for bourgeoisie

Gustave Courbet

the term realism was first used in 1850 to describe the paintings of this man; painted the Artist's Studio, Burial at Ornans, Stone Breakers; had a desire to reject the conventions prevailing in the art world in favor of portraying reality in its natural & social dimensions

blood and iron

the unification of Germany was not achieved by democratic means - Bismarck used this policy to unite Germany; Bismarck understood the new age & explained in a speech to the Prussian Diet "The great questions of the time are not decided by speeches & majority decisions - that was the error of 1848 & 1849 - but by _________"; the use of military force - the blood is the lives lost & the iron are the railroads

illegitimacy

these rates rose in the 1st half of the 19th century & remained high after 1850 among the working classes; the births were highest in urban areas, where household life assumed its own distinctive pattern among working class families with couples often choosing free union instead of legal marriage

political realists (men)

these were the new political men; were realists in the same tradition as Machiavelli & reflected the new political culture of the 19th century (the good of the people was the primary justification for government); Cavour, Bismarck & Louis Napoleon; understood the importance of public opinion & press; shared a disregard for traditional morality in decision making; were often politically amoral, willing to use whatever methods guaranteed success; forged their own standards by which they judged the correctness of decisions & policies; in order to maintain power, they adapted to circumstance, they did not insist on principle; were risk takers - acted without the safety net of tradition or political legitimacy; were calculators - they weighed levels of risk appropriate for the ends they sought to achieve

railroad journey

this became the metaphor for the new age; the locomotive hurling forward signified the strength, power & progress of materialism; the passenger was strangely dislocated, the landscape between one point & another a blur seen through a carriage window; new points of reference had to be found; new roots had to be put down;

venereal diseases

this dramatically rose in Western nations, belying the image of the devoted couple; by the end of the 19th century, 14-17% of all deaths in France were attributable to sexually transmitted diseases;

Mexico

this government had been chronically unable to pay its foreign debts & France was this nation's largest creditor; Napoleon III hoped that by intervening in Mexican affairs he could strengthen ties with Great Britain & Spain, to whom this nation also owed money; Napoleon III planned to turn this nation into a satellite empire that would be economically profitable to France; the United States (occupied with civil war) did not interfere in 1861 when Napoleon III sent a military expedition to pacify this nation's countryside; the Mexican disaster with Maximilian revealed the weaknesses of Napoleon III's regime & damaged French prestige in the international arena; Napoleon III wanted to make the South (a great cotton producer) its puppet so he aided the South (confederacy) against the Union; the Union blockades the South, so Napoleon III takes over this nation in order to send provisions & military aid to the South

Alexander II

tsar from 1855-1881; son of Nicholas I; wanted to bring the Crimean War to a speedy end; his attempts to negotiate a peace in the spring of 1855 repeatedly failed; viewed Russia's inability to repel an invasion force on its own soil as proof of its backwardness; interpreted rumblings within his own country as the harbinger of future upheavals similar to those that had rocked France & the Austrian empire; explained to the nobility "It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until the serfs begin to liberate themselves from below"; in March 1861 this tsar signed the emancipation edict that liberated the serfs; came to be known as the "Tsar-Liberator"; compromised between landlord & serf by allotting land to freed peasants; the emancipation of serfs was his greatest achievement; had no intention of creating a floating proletariat; he wanted his people closely tied to the land, but free from the servility of feudal obligations; introduced zemstvos; admired the Prussian military model since his childhood; in 1874, he used that model to require that all young men on reaching the age of 20 be eligible for conscription "in defense of the fatherland", 15 years of service were specified but only 6 were served in active duty; in response to attempts on his life, this man put the brakes on reform in the 2nd half of his reign; killed by a terrorist bomb in St. Petersburg in 1881

Nicholas I

tsar when the Crimean War first started; after Sinope, this tsar drew up the terms of a settlement with the Ottoman Empire & submitted it to Great Britain & France for review (started a whole other mess); died in March 1855; succeeded Alexander I; leads Russia into Crimean War & dies

Reform Bill of 1867

under conservative leadership this was introduced; approval of the bill doubled the electorate (now 40%), giving the vote to a new urban population of shopkeepers, clerks & workers; enacted when Disraeli is prime minister; enacted so that the liberals are appeased & will not force him out of office; doubles electorate to 40%

Garibaldi

uprisings in Sicily inspired this man to return from his self-imposed exile to organize his own army of Red Shirts (the Thousand); liberated Sicily & crossed to the Italian mainland to expel Francis II from Naples; turned his attention to the liberation of the Holy City, where a French garrison protected the pope; after his defeat in Rome in 1849, this man had never lost sight of his mission to free all of Italy from foreign rule, even in the 1850s when he had lived on New York's Staten Island as a candle maker & had become a naturalized citizen of the United States; in 1860 this man yielded his own conquered territories to the Piedmontese ruler, making possible the declaration of a united Italy under Victor Emmanuel II

(middle-class) women

were expected to assume primary responsibility for the domestic goals of escape & status; the private world of the home was woman's domain; targeted by popular literature about how to get a man & keep him; manuals cautioned women not to be too clever, since women with opinions were not popular with men; was instructed in the care & education of her children; in health, cleanliness & nutrition; a woman who failed in her duty to maintain a clean & comfortable home threatened the safety of her family

Maximilian

with the backing of Mexican conservatives who oppose Mexican president Benito Juarez, Napoleon III supported this Austrian archduke as emperor of Mexico; well-meaning but inept; after he was crowned in 1863, this new Mexican emperor struggled to rule in an enlightened manner, but he was prevented from the beginning by the lack of popular support; Napoleon III recalled the 34,000 French troops that were keeping this emperor's troubled regime in place; abandoned, this man was captured & executed by a firing squad in the summer of 1867;

sweated labor

working women often chose this, which they could perform in their home because it allowed them to care for their children while being paid by the piece; home workers labored in the needle trades, shoemaking & furniture making in their cramped living quarters under miserable conditions; worked for 1/3 or less of what men earned