CH 4 Cell Structure

Microscopy

Cells vary in size, with a few exceptions - for cells we cannot see use a microscope

Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 1

Chart 1

Visual

Connection

Microscope

Is an instrument that magnifies an object

Ribosomes

are cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When we view them through an electron microscope, ribosomes appear either as clusters (polyribosomes) or single, tiny dots that float freely in the cytoplasm. They may be attached to the plasma membrane's cytoplasmic side or the endoplasmic reticulum's cytoplasmic side and the nuclear envelope's outer membrane

The word organelle means

little organ

Micrograph

photograph of the view through a microscope

4.2 Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All prokaryotes have plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA that is not membrane-bound. Most have peptidoglycan cell walls and many have polysaccharide capsules. Prokaryotic cells range in diameter from 0.1 to 5.0 μm. As a cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. If the cell grows too large, the plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume.

plasma membrane (cell membrane)

Regulates what enters and leaves the cell and separates the internal environment of the cell from the external environment

Tissues

Several cells of one kind that interconnect with each other & perform a shared function form tissues These tissues combine to form an organ (stomach, heart, brain) And several organs comprise an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system)

Micro

Small

Prokaryotic Cells

Small, simple, no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles, single loop of DNA (nucleosome), no cellulose, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall (made of carbs), somtimes have cilia or flagella (movement).

Microtubules

Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure As their name implies, microtubules are small hollow tubes. Polymerized dimers of α-tubulin and β-tubulin, two globular proteins, comprise the microtubule's walls (Figure 4.25). With a diameter of about 25 nm, microtubules are cytoskeletons' widest components. They help the cell resist compression, provide a track along which vesicles move through the cell, and pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell. Like microfilaments, microtubules can disassemble and reform quickly.

Microbiologist

Studies microscopic organisms

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface (Figure 4.18). SER functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; and storing calcium ions. In muscle cells, a specialized SER, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, is responsible for storing calcium ions that are needed to trigger the muscle cells' coordinated contractions.

4.5 The Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton has three different protein element types. From narrowest to widest, they are the microfilaments (actin filaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Biologists often associate microfilaments with myosin. They provide rigidity and shape to the cell and facilitate cellular movements. Intermediate filaments bear tension and anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place. Microtubules help the cell resist compression, serve as tracks for motor proteins that move vesicles through the cell, and pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell. They are also the structural element of centrioles, flagella, and cilia.

The Endomembrane System and Proteins

The endomembrane system (endo = "within") is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 4.18) in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, which we have already mentioned, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover shortly. Although not technically within the cell, the plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles. The endomembrane system does not include either mitochondria or chloroplast membranes.

Because a membrane surrounds eukaryotic cell's nucleus it has

"A True Nucleus"

cell theory

(biology) the theory that cells form the fundamental structural and functional units of all living organisms

Microtubules are also the structural elements of flagella, cilia, and centrioles

(the latter are the centrosome's two perpendicular bodies). In animal cells, the centrosome is the microtubule-organizing center. In eukaryotic cells, flagella and cilia are quite different structurally from their counterparts in prokaryotes.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

1. Plasma Membrane 2. Cytoplasm 3. DNA 4. Ribosomes

Sphere volume

4/3πr³

Surface area of a sphere

4πr²

4.1 Studying Cells

A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so tiny that we cannot see them with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes. The unified cell theory states that one or more cells comprise all organisms, the cell is the basic unit of life, and new cells arise from existing cells.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 4.18) is a series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules that collectively modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids. However, these two functions take place in separate areas of the ER: the rough ER and the smooth ER, respectively. We call the ER tubules' hollow portion the lumen or cisternal space. The ER's membrane, which is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope.

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

Cytotechnologist

A laboratory specialist who prepares and examines tissue cells to study cell formation

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.

Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have

A membrane bound nucleus Numerous membrane-bound organelles (such as the endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Chloroplasts Mitochondria Several rod shaped chromosomes.

4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins

The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, the ER, and Golgi apparatus, as well as the plasma membrane. These cellular components work together to modify, package, tag, and transport proteins and lipids that form the membranes. The RER modifies proteins and synthesizes phospholipids in cell membranes. The SER synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones; engages in the detoxification of medications and poisons; and stores calcium ions. Sorting, tagging, packaging, and distributing lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus. Budding RER and Golgi membranes create lysosomes. Lysosomes digest macromolecules, recycle worn-out organelles, and destroy pathogens.

Chromatin/Chromosomes

The form of DNA coiled and packed in the nucleus (becomes individual chromosomes when it condenses before cell division)

ATP powers actin to assemble its filamentous form, which serves as a track for the movement of a motor protein we call myosin.

This enables actin to engage in cellular events requiring motion, such as cell division in eukaryotic cells and cytoplasmic streaming, which is the cell cytoplasm's circular movement in plant cells. Actin and myosin are plentiful in muscle cells. When your actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, your muscles contract. Microfilaments also provide some rigidity and shape to the cell. They can depolymerize (disassemble) and reform quickly, thus enabling a cell to change its shape and move. White blood cells (your body's infection- fighting cells) make good use of this ability. They can move to an infection site and phagocytize the pathogen.

Intermediate Filaments

Threadlike proteins in the cell's cytoskeleton that are roughly twice as thick as microfilaments Several strands of fibrous proteins that are wound together comprise intermediate filaments (Figure 4.24). Cytoskeleton elements get their name from the fact that their diameter, 8 to 10 nm, is between those of microfilaments and microtubules.

Scope

To look at

Organism

Wheater comprised of one cell (like bacteria) or many cells (like a human) we call it an organism. Thus cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms

Central Vacuole

A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development. Previously, we mentioned vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. If you look at Figure 4.8b, you will see that plant cells each have a large central vacuole that occupies most of the cell's area. The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell's concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. Have you ever noticed that if you forget to water a plant for a few days, it wilts? That's because as the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the plant's cell walls results in the wilted appearance. The central vacuole also supports the cell's expansion. When the central vacuole holds more water, the cell becomes larger without having to invest considerable energy in synthesizing new cytoplasm.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only components left? No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a network of protein fibers that help maintain the cell's shape, secure some organelles in specific positions, allow cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enable cells within multicellular organisms to move. Collectively, scientists call this network of protein fibers the cytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules (Figure 4.22). Here, we will examine each.

Rough ER

A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins. Scientists have named the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) as such because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance when viewing it through an electron microscope Ribosomes transfer their newly synthesized proteins into the RER's lumen where they undergo structural modifications, such as folding or acquiring side chains. These modified proteins incorporate into cellular membranes—the ER or the ER's or other organelles' membranes. The proteins can also secrete from the cell (such as protein hormones, enzymes). The RER also makes phospholipids for cellular membranes. If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will reach their destinations via transport vesicles that bud from the RER's membrane (Figure 4.18). Since the RER is engaged in modifying proteins (such as enzymes, for example) that secrete from the cell, you would be correct in assuming that the RER is abundant in cells that secrete proteins. This is the case with liver cells, for example.

Nucleoid

A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated.

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Peptidoglycan

A protein-carbohydrate compound that makes the cell walls of bacteria rigid

Cell Wall

A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms. If you examine Figure 4.8, the plant cell diagram, you will see a structure external to the plasma membrane. This is the cell wall, a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Fungal and some protistan cells also have cell walls. While the prokaryotic cell walls' chief component is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule in the plant (and some protists') cell wall is cellulose (Figure 4.16), a polysaccharide comprised of glucose units. Have you ever noticed that when you bite into a raw vegetable, like celery, it crunches? That's because you are tearing the celery cells' rigid cell walls with your teeth.

Centrosome

A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop. The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other (Figure 4.15). Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules The centrosome (the organelle where all microtubules originate) replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles appear to have some role in pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the centriole's exact function in cell division isn't clear, because cells that have had the centrosome removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrosomes, are capable of cell division.

The Golgi Apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell We have already mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER and transport their contents elsewhere, but where do the vesicles go? Before reaching their final destination, the lipids or proteins within the transport vesicles still need sorting, packaging, and tagging so that they end up in the right place. Sorting, tagging, packaging, and distributing lipids and proteins takes place in the Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body), a series of flattened membranes

Endosymbiosis

A theorized process in which early eukaryotic cells were formed from simpler prokaryotes.

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

electron microscope (EM)

An instrument that focuses an electron beam through, or onto the surface of, a specimen. An electron microscope achieves a hundredfold greater resolution than a light microscope.

Lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes In addition to their role as the digestive component and organelle-recycling facility of animal cells, lysosomes are part of the endomembrane system. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy pathogens (disease-causing organisms) that might enter the cell. A good example of this occurs in macrophages, a group of white blood cells which are part of your body's immune system. In a process that scientists call phagocytosis or endocytosis, a section of the macrophage's plasma membrane invaginates (folds in) and engulfs a pathogen. The invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, then pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome's hydrolytic enzymes then destroy the pathogen

Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 2

Chart 2

Peroxisomes

Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. (Many of these oxidation reactions release hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which would be damaging to cells; however, when these reactions are confined to peroxisomes, enzymes safely break down the H2O2 into oxygen and water.) For example, peroxisomes in liver cells detoxify alcohol. Glyoxysomes, which are specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for converting stored fats into sugars. Plant cells contain many different types of peroxisomes that play a role in metabolism, pathogene defense, and stress response, to mention a few.

nuclear envelope

Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.

Microvilli

Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorbtion, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney

Intercellular Junctions

Intercellular junctions are strucutres between cells that allow neighboring cells to form strong connections with each other, prevent passage of materials, or establish rapid communication between adjacent cells. The three types of intercellular contact in animal cells are: desmosomes, gap junctions, and tight junctions. Cells can also communicate with each other via direct contact, or intercellular junctions. There are differences in the ways that plant and animal and fungal cells communicate. Plasmodesmata are junctions between plant cells; whereas, animal cell contacts include tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.

A Cell

Is the smallest unit of a living thing.

Eukaryotic Cells

Larger, complex, with nucleus, membrane bound organelles, DNA tightly wrapped around histone proteins in chromosomes, cellulose in plant cell walls.

Gap Junctions

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels between adjacent cells that allow for transporting ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable cells to communicate (Figure 4.31). Structurally, however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata differ. Gap junctions develop when a set of six proteins (connexins) in the plasma membrane arrange themselves in an elongated donut-like configuration - a connexon. When the connexon's pores ("doughnut holes") in adjacent animal cells align, a channel between the two cells forms. Gap junctions are particularly important in cardiac muscle. The electrical signal for the muscle to contract passes efficiently through gap junctions, allowing the heart muscle cells to contract in tandem.

Cells have protein receptors on their plasma membranes' extracellular surfaces.

When a molecule within the matrix binds to the receptor, it changes the receptor's molecular structure. The receptor, in turn, changes the microfilaments' conformation positioned just inside the plasma membrane. These conformational changes induce chemical signals inside the cell that reach the nucleus and turn "on" or "off" the transcription of specific DNA sections, which affects the associated protein production, thus changing the activities within the cell. Blood clotting provides an example of the extracellular matrix's role in cell communication. When the cells lining a blood vessel are damaged, they display a protein receptor, which we call tissue factor. When tissue factor binds with another factor in the extracellular matrix, it causes platelets to adhere to the damaged blood vessel's wall, stimulates the adjacent smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel to contract (thus constricting the blood vessel), and initiates a series of steps that stimulate the platelets to produce clotting factors.

Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities

You already know that tissue is a group of similar cells working together. As you might expect, if cells are to work together, they must communicate with each other, just as you need to communicate with others if you work on a group project. Let's take a look at how cells communicate with each other.

Eukaryotic Cells Have

a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow different functions to be compartmentalized in different areas of the cell. Before turning to organelles, let's first examine two important components of the cell: the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm.

Geneticist

a specialist in the field of genetics

The most effective action

anyone can take to prevent the spread of contagious illnesses is to wash his or her hands. Why? Because microbes (organisms so tiny that they can only be seen with microscopes) are ubiquitous. They live on doorknobs, money, your hands, and many other surfaces. If someone sneezes into his hand and touches a doorknob, and afterwards you touch that same doorknob, the microbes from the sneezer's mucus are now on your hands. If you touch your hands to your mouth, nose, or eyes, those microbes can enter your body and could make you sick. However, not all microbes (also called microorganisms) cause disease; most are actually beneficial. You have microbes in your gut that make vitamin K. Other microorganisms are used to ferment beer and wine. Microbiologists are scientists who study microbes. Microbiologists can pursue a number of careers. Not only do they work in the food industry, they are also employed in the veterinary and medical fields. They can work in the pharmaceutical sector, serving key roles in research and development by identifying new antibiotic sources that can treat bacterial infections. Environmental microbiologists may look for new ways to use specially selected or genetically engineered microbes to remove pollutants from soil or groundwater, as well as hazardous elements from contaminated sites. We call using these microbes bioremediation technologies. Microbiologists can also work in the bioinformatics field, providing specialized knowledge and insight for designing, developing, and specificity of computer models of, for example, bacterial epidemics.

Fimbriae

attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes Used for locomotion

Lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell Animal cells have another set of organelles that most plant cells do not: lysosomes. The lysosomes are the cell's "garbage disposal." In plant cells, the digestive processes take place in vacuoles. Enzymes within the lysosomes aid in breaking down proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH than the cytoplasm's. Therefore, the pH within lysosomes is more acidic than the cytoplasm's pH. Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, so again, the advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.

Plasmodesmata

channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells In general, long stretches of the plasma membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot touch one another because the cell wall that surrounds each cell separates them (Figure 4.8). How then, can a plant transfer water and other soil nutrients from its roots, through its stems, and to its leaves? Such transport uses the vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) primarily. There also exist structural modifications, which we call plasmodesmata (singular = plasmodesma). Numerous channels that pass between adjacent plant cells' cell walls connect their cytoplasm, and enable transport of materials from cell to cell, and thus throughout the plant (Figure 4.28).

Robert Hooke

coined the term "cell"

As cells increase in size, their SA:V does this

decreases

Flagella and Cilia

provide locomotion or move substances over the outer surface of the cell The flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and enable an entire cell to move (for example, sperm, Euglena, and some prokaryotes). When present, the cell has just one flagellum or a few flagella. However, when cilia (singular = cilium) are present, many of them extend along the plasma membrane's entire surface. They are short, hair-like structures that move entire cells (such as paramecia) or substances along the cell's outer surface (for example, the cilia of cells lining the Fallopian tubes that move the ovum toward the uterus, or cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that trap particulate matter and move it toward your nostrils.) Despite their differences in length and number, flagella and cilia share a common structural arrangement of microtubules called a "9 + 2 array." This is an appropriate name because a single flagellum or cilium is made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets, surrounding a single microtubule doublet in the center (Figure 4.26).

Vesicles and Vacuoles

membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Other than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction between them. Vesicle membranes can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other membrane systems within the cell. Additionally, some agents such as enzymes within plant vacuoles break down macromolecules. The vacuole's membrane does not fuse with the membranes of other cellular components.

This transmission electron micrograph shows

the rough endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles in a pancreatic cell. (credit: modification of work by Louisa Howard)

Light Microscopes

visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image - avantage for viewing living organisms Individual cells are generally transparent thats why we use special stains

Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells

protects and support cells While cells in most multicellular organisms release materials into the extracellular space, animal cells will be discussed as an example. The primary components of these materials are proteins, and the most abundant protein is collagen. Collagen fibers are interwoven with proteoglycans, which are carbohydrate-containing protein molecules. Collectively, we call these materials the extracellular matrix (Figure 4.27). Not only does the extracellular matrix hold the cells together to form a tissue, but it also allows the cells within the tissue to communicate with each other. How can this happen?

Mitochondria

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. Scientists often call mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) the cell's "powerhouses" or "energy factories" because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy-carrying molecule. ATP represents the cell's short-term stored energy. Cellular respiration is the process of making ATP using the chemical energy in glucose and other nutrients. In mitochondria, this process uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. In fact, the carbon dioxide that you exhale with every breath comes from the cellular reactions that produce carbon dioxide as a byproduct. In keeping with our theme of form following function, it is important to point out that muscle cells have a very high concentration of mitochondria that produce ATP. Your muscle cells need considerable energy to keep your body moving. When your cells don't get enough oxygen, they do not make much ATP. Instead, producing lactic acid accompanies the small amount of ATP they make in the absence of oxygen. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles (Figure 4.14) that have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner layer has folds called cristae. We call the area surrounded by the folds the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.

Desmosomes

Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart Also only in animal cells are desmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells (Figure 4.30). Cadherins, short proteins in the plasma membrane connect to intermediate filaments to create desmosomes. The cadherins connect two adjacent cells and maintain the cells in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues that stretch, like the skin, heart, and muscles.

4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities

Animal cells communicate via their extracellular matrices and are connected to each other via tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Plant cells are connected and communicate with each other via plasmodesmata. When protein receptors on the plasma membrane's surface of an animal cell bind to a substance in the extracellular matrix, a chain of reactions begins that changes activities taking place within the cell. Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells, while gap junctions are channels between adjacent animal cells. However, their structures are quite different. A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent cells, while a desmosome acts like a spot weld.

Pili

Appendages that allow bacteria to attach to each other and to transfer DNA

Cell Size

At 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have diameters ranging from 10 to 100 μm The prokaryotes' small size allows ions and organic

Animal Cells versus Plant Cells

At this point, you know that each eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and in some, vacuoles, but there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells. While both animal and plant cells have microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), animal cells also have centrioles associated with the MTOC: a complex we call the centrosome. Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes; whereas, most plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole; whereas, animal cells do not.

4.3 Eukaryotic Cells

Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning a membrane surrounds its DNA), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalizing functions. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The nucleus's nucleolus is the site of ribosome assembly. We find ribosomes either in the cytoplasm or attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or endoplasmic reticulum. They perform protein synthesis. Mitochondria participate in cellular respiration. They are responsible for the majority of ATP produced in the cell. Peroxisomes hydrolyze fatty acids, amino acids, and some toxins. Vesicles and vacuoles are storage and transport compartments. In plant cells, vacuoles also help break down macromolecules. Animal cells also have a centrosome and lysosomes. The centrosome has two bodies perpendicular to each other, the centrioles, and has an unknown purpose in cell division. Lysosomes are the digestive organelles of animal cells. Plant cells and plant-like cells each have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a central vacuole. The plant cell wall, whose primary component is cellulose, protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives the cell shape. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts. The central vacuole can expand without having to produce more cytoplasm.

Chloroplasts

Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an entirely different function. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to make glucose and oxygen. This is a major difference between plants and animals. Plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like sugars, while animals (heterotrophs) must ingest their food. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast's inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs we call thylakoids (Figure 4.17). Each thylakoid stack is a granum (plural = grana). We call the fluid enclosed by the inner membrane that surrounds the grana the stroma.

Microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell Of the three types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton, microfilaments are the narrowest. They function in cellular movement, have a diameter of about 7 nm, and are comprised of two globular protein intertwined strands, which we call actin (Figure 4.23). For this reason, we also call microfilaments actin filaments.

Tight Junctions

Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells (Figure 4.29). Proteins (predominantly two proteins called claudins and occludins) tightly hold the cells against each other. This tight adherence prevents materials from leaking between the cells; tight junctions are typically found in epithelial tissues that line internal organs and cavities, and comprise most of the skin. For example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining your urinary bladder prevent urine from leaking out into the extracellular space.

We call the Golgi apparatus' the cis face.

The opposite side is the trans face. The transport vesicles that formed from the ER travel to the cis face, fuse with it, and empty their contents into the Golgi apparatus' lumen. As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications that allow them to be sorted. The most frequent modification is adding short sugar molecule chains. These newly modified proteins and lipids then tag with phosphate groups or other small molecules in order to travel to their proper destinations. Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into secretory vesicles that bud from the Golgi's trans face. While some of these vesicles deposit their contents into other cell parts where they will be used, other secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell. In another example of form following function, cells that engage in a great deal of secretory activity (such as salivary gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes or immune system cells that secrete antibodies) have an abundance of Golgi. In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus has the additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are incorporated into the cell wall and some of which other cell parts use.

Intermediate filaments have no role in cell movement.

Their function is purely structural. They bear tension, thus maintaining the cell's shape, and anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place. Figure 4.22 shows how intermediate filaments create a supportive scaffolding inside the cell. The intermediate filaments are the most diverse group of cytoskeletal elements. Several fibrous protein types are in the intermediate filaments. You are probably most familiar with keratin, the fibrous protein that strengthens your hair, nails, and the skin's epidermis.

cardiologist

heart specialist Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. This is primarily due to our sedentary lifestyle and our high trans-fat diets. Heart failure is just one of many disabling heart conditions. Heart failure does not mean that the heart has stopped working. Rather, it means that the heart can't pump with sufficient force to transport oxygenated blood to all the vital organs. Left untreated, heart failure can lead to kidney failure and other organ failure. Cardiac muscle tissue comprises the heart's wall. Heart failure occurs when cardiac muscle cells' endoplasmic reticula do not function properly. As a result, an insufficient number of calcium ions are available to trigger a sufficient contractile force. Cardiologists (cardi- = "heart"; -ologist = "one who studies") are doctors who specialize in treating heart diseases, including heart failure. Cardiologists can diagnose heart failure via a physical examination, results from an electrocardiogram (ECG, a test that measures the heart's electrical activity), a chest X-ray to see whether the heart is enlarged, and other tests. If the cardiologist diagnoses heart failure, he or she will typically prescribe appropriate medications and recommend a reduced table salt intake and a supervised exercise program.