Ch 6

Fill in the blanks to complete the passage about the distinction between latent learning and insight learning.

-The researcher Tolman is associated with latent learning (form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response. It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.) and argued that organisms create cognitive maps, which he described as an internal mental representation of the world. Insight learning, like latent learning, involves learning without reinforcement. In this case, the researcher associated with insight learning is Kohler who studied problem solving using chimpanzees. A way to easily remember insight learning is to think of "aha!" moments.

2. What are the two broad categories of learning? What concept differentiates them? Into which category do sensitization and habituation fit?

Non associative learning involves a reflex and the repetition of the stimulus that elicits that reflex. Associative learning involves making connections between stimuli and behavioral responses

9. The UR and CR are often similar in classical conditioning. How do they differ conceptually? What is the role of the CR?

Once the association between the CS(Pavlov) and the US (food)was made, the CR ( anticipatory salivation) occurred. The CR prepares us for the UR. Ex: homeostasis: body trying to maintain even levels.

24. What evidence supports the claim that preparedness develops for specific association types, not particular types of stimuli?

We are innately prepare to learn certain types of associations and not others. We can learn to associate nausea with taste more readily than with sounds.Conversely, pain from the surface of the body is readily associated with sounds but not taste.

1. What does the text mean by "learning"? How does this differ from how this term is often used in everyday conversation? What are some ways that learning can be expressed?

What does the text mean by "learning

17. How does the concept of prediction error help us to understand acquisition and extinction in classical conditioning? What role does the dopamine system play in this process?

When something good or bad unexpectedly happens, your brain tries to learn to predict that outcome in the future. Monkeys learned to associate a light with a squirt of tasty juice. Dopamine was first secreted in response to the juice itself. But once the association was established, dopamine was secreted only after the light flashed (and not for the juice itself). Dopamine was released before the rewarding stimulus was consumed because the neurons were responding not to pleasure itself but to the prediction of pleasure in the future. And this way, the neurons were learning to predict a future reward

19. Describe the "Little Albert" experiment. Discuss its ethical lapses.

- -Watson and Reiner did nothing to counteract the conditioning known as counterconditioning.An ethical experiment requires that a person leaves the experiment unchanged

Fill in the blanks to complete the passage about neurogenesis.

-Def: the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSC)s, and it occurs in all species of animals. Neurogenesis occurs first in prenatal development and continues past early development. In adult mammals, neurogenesis has been localized to specific areas in the brain. One structure, the hippocampus, has been associated with learning and memory. The other area lines the brain's ventricles.

Unlike classical conditioning, which involves voluntary behavior, operant conditioning involves involuntary behavior.

-False -Operant conditioning occurs when organisms discover the consequences of operating on the environment voluntarily.

Mary loses her cell phone privileges for the evening as a result of being mean to her younger sister. Which of the following types of operant conditioning is her grandma using to discipline her?

-Negative punishment -By removing her phone, Mary's grandma will hopefully incentivize her to stop being mean to her younger sister.

During Juanita's basketball practice, two of her teammates start conversing rather than paying attention to the coach's instruction. As a result, the coach tells the two players to run four laps around the gym. As a result, the likelihood of Juanita conversing with a fellow teammate while the coach is instructing the team decreases. What phenomenon explains Juanita's learning in this scenario?

-Vicarious punishment -Seeing others be punished can influence our own behavior, even if we ourselves are not punished.

5. What is the distinctive element of associative learning? Identify the two forms of associate learning and provide an example of each. Why is one called active and the other passive?

1) Associative learning occurs when a connection, or Association, is made between two events. conditioning is one process that enables us to learn these associations. 2)Operant conditioning is an active form of associative learning and is related to changes in voluntary behavior Ex. Skinner Box: Trained Rat to associate pulling a level with getting food. The way in which we behave is influenced and learned by drawing an association between the way in which we behave and the consequences that our behavior leads to. Classical conditioning is a passive form of associative learning where an involuntary response to a stimulus( reflex) becomes associated with a new stimulus. in contrast to operant conditioning, a stimulus causes the appearance of a behavior. Ex. Connecting fast food with golden arches and getting hungry3)Operant is active because it requires action in learning while Classical is passive because it involves involuntary responses to stimuli

To train animals to perform more complex behavior, trainers often use shaping, which emphasizes the use of successive approximations moving from simpler to more complex behaviors. Aisha wants to use shaping to train her dog, Queen, to wave. Place the following behaviors in the proper order for Queen to be able to eventually wave using successive approximations.

1)Queen touches Aisha's hand near the ground. 2)Queen touches Aisha's hand near chest level. 3)Queen touches Aisha's hand near head level. 4)Queen touches Aisha's hand above head level. 5)Queen raises her paw above head level with Aisha standing five feet away. -By reinforcing a series of behaviors that became more and more similar to the target goal, Aisha is able to use shaping to teach Queen to wave.

In the first scenario, your goal is to increase the likelihood that the students taking a course will study. Imagine that you are a professor preparing your intro psych course for the semester. Should you give your students a quiz every other Friday (a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule) or give pop quizzes throughout the semester (a variable-interval schedule)?Given that your goal is to get the students to study the material consistently throughout the semester, which would you choose?

A variable schedule involves a degree of unpredictability, which influences an organism's behavior more strongly than other schedules.

In the second scenario, your goal is to increase the likelihood of somebody playing a slot machine. The machine can be set to pay out a prize after exactly 25 pulls of the arm (fixed-ratio schedule) or to pay out a prize on average every 25 pulls (variable-ratio schedule).If your goal is to get the player to play as often as possible during a one-hour period, which reinforcement schedule would you choose? Fixed or Variable?

A variable-ratio reinforcement schedule will result in a higher rate of responding (more pulls) because the player never knows which pull will earn a prize.

16. What is contiguity? How is contingency different from contiguity? Which is more important for successful classical conditioning?

According to Pavlov, for classical conditioning to be successful, the CS and the US had to be presented close together in time. the proximity in time between these events was the glue that held learning associations together. Contiguity (closeness in time) is not enough and that contingency ( productiveness) is even more important

10. Identify and describe the five fundamental processes associated with learning by classical conditioning.

Acquisition is the active learning some Behavior not previously exhibited Extinction occurs when a conditioned response weakens and disappears because it is not reinforced Generalization is an organism's tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus Discrimination is the learning of differential responding to different stimuli Spontaneous recovery is the increase in the strength of an extinguished conditioned response after an interval of time

11. What is the critical change that happens during acquisition? How can we determine that acquisition has occurred?

After many pairings, learning increases rapidly as the now CS(bell) evokes the CR( salivating to the Bell) more reliably, until it reaches a maximum level when the association is fully learned

Which two of the following factors are needed to increase the chances of an organism being classically conditioned?

Blocking is a conditioning phenomenon in which one CS supersedes another; this process does not increase the chances of an organism being classically conditioned.While both contiguity and contingency are necessary for classical conditioning to be established, contingency is the more important of the two.

18. Describe the phenomenon of blocking. How can it be understood in terms of prediction?

Blocking is adaptive. It may be important to limit associations we might otherwise learn, making sure we are more likely to learn the true calls at once.Blocking reveals that stimuli are learned only if they have additional predictive value, providing evidence that the occurrence of closely timed events is not enough for learning

Based on the understanding of the Premack Principle, which of the following behaviors are likely to be used for reinforcing less-preferred behaviors?

Correct Answer(s) eating dessert going to the movies with friends taking a day off a diet Incorrect Answer(s) daily studying eating veggies running 15 miles for the week

Which of the following behaviors are examples of instinctive drift?

Correct Answer(s) pig dropping coins and pushing them on ground rather than dropping them in a piggy bank dog reverting back to holding onto a frisbee rather than dropping it on command raccoon rubbing two coins together rather than placing them on a tray Incorrect Answers: raccoon placing two coins on a tray rather than rubbing them together, dog dropping a frisbee on command rather than holding onto it

Match each description of neuronal activity during the phases of classical conditioning to the figure that depicts it.

Early in extinction, activity still occurs immediately following the presentation of the light. But this activity lessens with more trials, given that it no longer helps predict when a treat will occur. After several extinction trials, the neuron no longer becomes active.

13. What is extinction? What is spontaneous recovery? What does the possibility of spontaneous recovery tell us about the nature of how learning is changed by extinction?

Extinction-

Fill in the blanks to complete the passage about Hongyao's phobia.

Hongyao has a phobia of wasps. This is likely due to preparedness, or the predisposition to learn some associations more readily than others. In Hongyao's case, it is likely that the sting of a wasp served as the US while seeing and possibly hearing the wasp formed the CS. Now, anytime Hongyao sees or hears a wasp he gets fearful, which is the CR.

15. How can classical conditioning explain cravings?

If smoker has a cup of coffee with his cigarette every morning those 2 things become associated, coffee becomes CS. After the person attempts to quit the coffee triggers a powerful CR (craving)

21. What part of the brain plays a special role in conditioned fear and other conditioned responses to emotionally charged stimuli?

In humans and other animals, the classical conditioning of fear has been found to depend on the amygdala

7. Describe the apparatus and the procedure that Pavlov used in a typical one of his experiments? What hypothesis would an experiment like this have been testing? Describe the logic underlying this test.

Pavlov would attach a device to divert saliva into a measuring instrument, he wanted to test digestion in dogs and what types of food would make the dogs salivate but came to find they not only salivated over food but also items by association. Once the dog associated the bell (CS) with food (UR) they were using basic logic, one thing leads to another.

This figure shows data from a study investigating the effect of feedback on learning. Place the groups in order from those who learned the most to those who learned the least.

The 8-9-year-olds who received negative feedback learned the least compared to all other groups. More importantly, the difference in learning between them and those who received positive feedback within this age group demonstrates the importance of positive over negative feedback for children.

8. What are the characteristics of an unconditioned stimulus (US), a conditioned stimulus (CS), an unconditioned response (UR) and a conditioned response (CR)? How would you identify these stimuli and responses in a particular conditioning situation?

The Office Example:UR - Any response triggered by a stimulus before learning(Dwight accepting and eating the Altoid).//US - Unconditioned stimulus. The trigger for the UR (Jim's verbal offer of an Altoid)//CS - Conditioned stimulus. (The Windows bell) CR Conditioned response (Dwight's hand reaching out in response to the bell. The feeling of dryness in his mouth).

6. Who was Ivan Pavlov? Pavlov called classical conditioning conditioned reflexes, why is his term reasonable?

The conditioned reflexes did not originate from the salivary glands themselves, but we're being learned by the brain through what is now called classical conditioning. The dog's brain was learning that if a specific condition was met (food dish appearing)the food would soon arrive

Identify the true and false statements about Bandura's famous Bobo Doll experiment.

True Statement(s) -Children mimicked aggressive behavior without instruction to do so. -Regardless of personality type, all children in the study mimicked aggressive behavior modeled by the adult. False Statement(s) -The children assessed as having a medium to high propensity for aggressive behavior mimicked the aggressive behavior of the adult. -The children instructed to mimic the behavior of the adult model acted aggressively toward the Bobo doll.

Identify the true and false statements about cultural learning.

True Statements -Passing down information from one generation to the next illustrates cultural transmission. -Religious practices can be seen as an example of cumulative cultural evolution. -Other species like whales, monkeys, and apes demonstrate cultural transmission. False Statement -Teaching one's offspring how to raise livestock on a farm is an example of horizontal transmission. -Cultural transmission only occurs in humans.

20. Describe how fear and other emotions may be understood as conditioned responses. Discuss the role of neutral stimuli being transformed into CSs in this process. What evidence suggests that this may play an important role in PTSD?

Visits to the dentist are a perfect example. You might have learned to fear going to the dentist because you associated the visit what's the pain a filling a cavity. You may then have generalized the sphere two similar circumstances like lab technicians in white coats. people with PTSD look at previously neutral environment stimuli in association with a traumatic experience and it triggers fears

25. Describe some practical applications of conditioned taste aversions.

cancer patients are told to eat a unique food with a unique flavor to avoid taste aversion and further induce weight loss. An example would be a root beer flavored ice cube

23. What are conditioned taste aversions? How do we know that conditioned taste aversions are learned associations and not a specific reaction to the food consumed?

conditioned taste aversion reveal that we are more likely to associate nausea with food than with other environmental stimuli

3. What is habituation? Given an example. How do we know that habituation is not simply due to fatigue?

habituation occurs when we become less responsive with repeated exposure to the regular occurrence of an irrelevant event and thus avoid expending resources. Brain decreases attention to things that are not harmful.

Identify each attribute as belonging to either classical conditioning or operant conditioning.

operant conditioning: Correct label:active form of associative learning Correct label:stimulus follows behavior Correct label:involves changes in voluntary behavior classical conditioning Correct label:passive form of associative learning Correct label:historically described as conditioned reflexes Correct label:stimulus precedes behavior

22. What is meant by preparedness? Why must this have a genetic component. What are some examples of preparedness in humans and other species?

preparedness is the species to species biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations.An example of human preparedness is our tendency to learn specific phobias like spiders and snakes.

4. How does sensitization differ from dishabituation? How does the dual-process theory of non-associative learning explain whether habituation or sensitization will occur?

sensitization is a process by which we pay increasing attention to potentially harmful stimuli in our environment'.Through the phenomenon of dishabituation(when you habituate to say a car alarm then something pulls you back (cell phone ring) to paying attention to it , your brain reorients to the initially startling car alarm to ensure that it has not become important again. If it is not relevant, you quickly habituate again. Habituation=decrease and sensitization=increase in a reflexive behavior in response to repeated exposure to a stimulus. These forms of non-associative learning are simultaneously at work in your brain and are the most basic forms of learning.

12. What does the possibility of spontaneous recovery tell us about the nature of how learning is changed by extinction?

some learning may never be forgotten just suppressed

26. Discuss how classical conditioning forms the basis for many advertisements. Use examples to illustrate your answer. Do you suspect that you would be aware of these influences? The text discusses advertising for cigarettes, do you suppose the Juul and other manufactures of vaping products have used similar techniques to appeal to young people?

the advertising industry takes advantage of the powerful ways in which emotion and classical conditioning can alter behavior