Ch 8 Study Guide, EHS Quizzes 8-10, Ch 10 Study Guide, Chapter 9 Study Guide

Internal radiation

-mainly from radioactive potassium-40 & carbon-14 inside our bodies naturally -e.g. the food consumed in one year results in a total exposure of ~ 40 mrem -You can get 0.5 mrem from eating one-half pound of Brazil nuts (high in potassium-40) -Average human contains about 30 milligrams of potassium-40 & 10 nanograms of carbon-14 -Energy of beta particles produced by K-40 is ~ 10 X more powerful than the beta particles from 14C decay -The decay of a 14C atom inside our DNA happens about 50X per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen

Personal Electronic Dosimeter

-measure dose rate and total dose absorbed -Can be set to alert wearer if a dose limit has been exceeded -used by first responders to potential radiation contamination

What are anthropogenic sources of ionizing radiation? Know details associated with each.

-medical tests and therapies -Consumer products -Radioactive substances used in industry -Nuclear power generators -radioactivity from the production and detonation of nuclear weapons -decommissioned and abandoned nuclear weapons facilities and storage of nuclear wastes can be a source

Radiation from geologic formations that contain radioactive elements

-naturally occuring radioelements such as uranium or radon gas decay and emit radiation

What are the four categories that the electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into?

-non-thermal, thermal, optical, broken bonds are the four main energy categories that explain their effects

Nonmelanoma vs Malignant Melanoma

-nonmelanoma skin cancers (squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma) account for 40% of all cancers in US -malignant melanoma is associated with UV exposure and sunburns particularly during childhood, makes up 3% of skin cancer cases and causes >75% of skin cancer deaths

What is a temperature inversion and what conditions may allow it?

-normally, air temperature in the troposphere becomes cooler with greater altitude (warm air rises, expands & cools), but if air temperature increases with height, warm air is on top of cooler air, it's a temperature inversion -Can occur if clear (not cloudy) allowing the ground to cool rapidly at night, especially during the long nights of winter -If winds are calm, warm air that rose will not mix with the bottom cool air -If this occurs in a valley, then it can help keep the warm air suspended over the cool air -Daylight can weaken the inversion, but high pressure over the area can allow an inversion to persist for days Lack of air mixing can allow the accumulation of air pollutants

What is a dose equivalent?

-obtained by weighting the absorbed dose in an organ or tissue by a radiation weighting factor that reflects the biological effectiveness of the charged particles that produce ionization within the tissue

Describe high level waste (nuclear) and the source.

-produced by nuclear reactors, spent fuel is very radioactive emitting millions of rems & often thermally hot -Accounts for > 95% of radioactivity produced by process of nuclear electricity generation - ~ ¼ of nuclear fuel in reactor must be replaced every year -HLW worldwide is increasing by ~ 12,000 metric tons every year -A typical nuclear power plant produces about 20 tons of spent nuclear fuel every year

What is exposure (in relation to radiation)?

-quantity used to indicate the amount of ionization in air produced by X- or gamma-ray radiation

What is an absorbed dose?

-radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of an organ or tissue -Used in studies of the damage to a particular organ or tissue

Cosmic radiation

-radiation from space -Primary cosmic rays originate from outer space (e.g., the earth's galaxy and the sun) and interact with the earth's atmosphere to produce secondary cosmic rays -Cosmic rays have the ability to penetrate and cross the human body easily -Greater exposure at higher altitudes (ex. 1 coast-to-coast flight = 1 year next to a normally operating nuclear power plant, 1 mrem dose equivalent -900 mrems annual dose received from cosmic radiation by airline crews regularly flying the New York to Tokyo route

What are sources of higher frequency levels of non-ionizing radiation?

-radiofrequency and microwave radiation: causes heating of the body -Cell phones

What are common half-life's of lighter radioactive isotopes an d heavier elements?

-splitting of relatively heavy uranium atoms creates lighter radioactive isotopes -e.g. Strontium-90, Cesium-137 with half-lives of ~ 30 years -Some uranium atoms capture neutrons from fissioning uranium atoms to form heavier elements like Plutonium-239 with a half-life of 24,000 years

What are the effects of exposure to UV radiation?

-temporary: burns, temporary blinding -long-term consequences: photoaging of skin (leathery appearance, brown spots), nonmelanoma skin cancer, malignant melanoma, retinal damage, lens opacities

What is the difference between short and long wavelength?

-the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy, this makes up non-ionizing radiation -the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy, this makes up ionizing radiation

What is radioactivity

-the spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an unstable atom -the radioactive atom decays into an atom of a different element that might or might not be radioactive -Some types of radiation associated with radioactivity are alpha and beta particles, gamma and X rays, and neutrons

What is radioactive decay?

-when an unstable atom undergoes radioactive decay to become stable -it emits radiation

Which is a measure of dose equivalent, the biological risk associated with an exposure? 1 Curie (Ci) 1 Becquerel (Bq) 1 rad (radiation absorbed dose) 1 Rem = rad x Quality factor radionuclide

1 Rem = rad x Quality factor

After intake, which is the correct sequence of events in the water treatment plant process? a. Flocculation, Coagulation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Disinfection b. Sedimentation, Filtration, Coagulation, Flocculation, Disinfection c. Filtration, Disinfection, Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation d. Coagulation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Flocculation, Disinfection e. Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Disinfection

Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Disinfection

Which is not true about radon? Radon is naturally occuring. Radon is a gas. Radon primarily originates from the burning of fossil fuels. Radon is released by the decay of radium in the environment.

Radon primarily originates from the burning of fossil fuels.

Which is not true of radon testing? The Office of the Surgeon General recommends all homes to be tested for radon. The only way to know if a particular home does not have a high level of radon is to test for it. If a radon test shows 4 or more picocuries, then action should be taken to reduce the level of radon. The easiest time to test for radon in the home is when the doors and windows are all open.

The easiest time to test for radon in the home is when the doors and windows are all open.

Every glass of water we drink has already passed through fish, trees, bacteria, soil, clouds and many other organisms including people. T/F?

True

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol, was an agreement among nations to phase out production of the gases that destroy the ozone layer of the atmosphere. T/F?

True

In the upper atmosphere, ozone is like sunscreen and protects the surface of the Earth from harmful ultra-violet rays from the sun. T/F?

True

Less than 1% of the Earth's water is accessible and available for human consumption. T/F?

True

Which is not true of radon? a. It is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas formed by natural decay of uranium b. It is normally found at very low levels in outdoor air and in drinking water from rivers c. It is found in higher levels in the air in buildings, especially basements d. radon decay progeny give off alpha particles that can damage DNA in the lungs e. only 1 out of every 15,000 homes in U.S. may have an elevated radon level

a. only 1 out of every 15,000 homes in U.S. may have an elevated radon level

Which is not true of Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS)? a. Exposure to ETS can cause asthma in children who have not previously exhibited symptoms b. Public places, such as school or day care, are responsible for 90% of children's exposure to ETS c. Exposure to ETS increases the risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome d. Risk for middle ear infections increases in children who regularly breathe ETS e. EPA estimates ETS causes about 3,000 lung cancer deaths per year in nonsmokers

b. Public places, such as school or day care, are responsible for 90% of children's exposure to ETS

Which is not true of temperature inversions? a. A temperature inversion has warm air is on top of cooler air b. A temperature inversion is more likely when the ground cools rapidly on a clear night c. A temperature inversion is more likely to occur in the summer time. d. The lack of air mixing during a temperature inversion can allow the accumulation of air pollutants e High pressure can help maintain a temperature inversion for days

c. A temperature inversion is more likely to occur in the summer time.

Which is not true of Acid Rain? a. Acid rain refers to a mixture of wet and dry deposition containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids b. In the U.S. about 2/3 of all SO2 and about 1/4 of all NOx come from electric power generation that burn fossil fuels, like coal c. Acid rain causes both the pH of water and the level of aluminum in water to go down d. At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch and mayflies (food for fish) die e. Plants lose nutrients from their leaves or needles by acidic fog

c. Acid rain causes both the pH of water and the level of aluminum in water to go down

Which is not true of water usage? a. For a person to be healthy, their minimum daily water needs for food production is about 2500 liters b. The world is using 54% of all the accessible freshwater c. Most water is used by humans for domestic and industrial uses d. Over 1.4 billion people live in river basins where the use of water exceeds minimum recharge levels e. Water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50% by 2025 in developing nations

c. Most water is used by humans for domestic and industrial uses

Which is not true of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases? a. Acute exposure of several days to high level air pollution or long term exposure to low-level air pollution may increase the risk of severe COPD b. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the large airways inside the lungs c. The symptoms of bronchitis can usually be relieved or improved with treatment d. Emphysema develops when bronchi in the lungs are destroyed e. Shortness of breath is the major symptom of emphysema

d. Emphysema develops when bronchi in the lungs are destroyed (actually alveoli)

Rem/ Sievert

-(Roentgen equivalent in man) -A measure of radiation dose related to biological effect (dose equivalent) -A measure of dose deposited in body tissue, averaged over the mass of the tissue of interest

What is the average annual effective dose equivalent in the U.S.?

-3.6 mSv

What is the composition of the atmosphere?

-78.08% nitrogen -20.95% oxygen -1.247% water vapor -0.93% argon -traces of hydrogen and helium

At what rem dose are radiation effects usually not detectable? Why are there limited effects?

-< 25 rem dose -undetected because body can replace damaged or dead cells caused by doses in small amounts over long periods of time (chronic exposure)

Curie (Ci)/ Becquerel (Bq)

-A unit of measure used to describe the amount of radioactivity in a sample of material, -1Ci=37 million disintegrations/nucleus breakdowns per second, -Example: Uranium-238 has 0.00015 curies of radioactivity per pound, while Cobalt-60 has nearly 518,000 curies per pound (a small amount of radioactive material can emit a large amount of radiation)

Fukushima, Japan (2011)

-After an earthquake and tsunami, equipment failures and core meltdowns resulted in releasing radioisotopes, much into the Pacific Ocean -Cesium with longer half-life (2 years for Cs-134, 30 years for Cs-137) are potentially more dangerous than Iodine-131(half-life of 8 days) because persistence in the environment & bioaccumulation is greater

How do the following types of particle radiation differ? -Alpha -Beta -Neutron

-Alpha: 2 protons and 2 neutrons and they're stopped by paper, but they can still enter body through other routes -Beta particle: an electron emitted from a radioactive atom, relatively fast, and can penetrate hand but not aluminum or clothing -neutron: no charge, associated with nuclear fission, may be stopped by many feet of cement or water

At what acute rem dose is death likely to occur to ~50% exposed?

-An acute, 500 rem dose causes death in a few weeks to ~ 50% of those exposed -high levels capable of producing fatal injuries

Beta particle

-An electron that is emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom -relatively fast movement (can move a few meters in air) -can penetrate a hand but stopped by a layer of clothing or aluminum -may substitute for normal body constituents causing mutations & cancer -i.e. Strontium-90 in bone (replaces stable Strontium), Iodine-131 in thyroid (replaces stable Iodine)

What is the difference between an atomic bomb and a hydrogen bomb?

-Atomic Bomb: explosive output from only fission reactions -Hydrogen Bomb: explosive output mostly from fusion reactions

What is a dirty bomb?

-Conventional explosives attached to radioactive materials -Used to contaminate an area with radiation -Unlikely to cause many fatalities -a "weapon of mass disruption" to cause mass panic & terror

Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania (1979)

-Core meltdown and steam released ~ 2.5 million curies of radioactive gases -Avg radiation dose to people living within 10 miles of the plant was 8 mrem with no exposure >100 mrem -consequence was that no new nuclear power plants have been built in the United States since 1979

What are the sources of natural ionizing radiation? Know details associated with each.

-Cosmic rays: radiation from space -Terrestrial gamma rays: gamma rays formed in the atmosphere like lightning -Radiation from geologic formations that contain radioactive elements (radioelements) such as uranium, from which radon gas is formed as a decay product -Radionuclides present naturally in our bodies: mainly radioactive potassium-40 and carbon-14

Identify/define these forms of measuring radioactivity: Curie (Becquerel) Rad (Gray) Roentgen (coulomb/kg) Rem (Sievert)

-Curie: unit of measure used to describe the amount of radioactivity in a sample of material -Rad: Radiation absorbed dose -Roentgen: unit of exposure from X- or gamma rays -Rem: measure of dose equivalent

Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986)

-Explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contaminants (ex: Cesium-137 and iodine-131) into the air spreading over much of Western USSR & Europe -Killed 31, and 209 suffered acute radiation sickness -5,000 cases of thyroid cancer; 15,000 more expected over next 50 years

What are examples of non-ionizing radiation?

-Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation (ex. high tension power lines) -AM, FM, VHF-TV radio waves -Microwave radiation -Infrared radiation- (IRA, IRB, IRC) the source of heat in heat lamps used for keeping food warm -Visible light radiation -Ultraviolet radiation (UVA, UVB, UVC)

Nuclear Fallout

-Fallout U.S. Nevada Test Site from 1951 to 1962 resulted in increases of Iodine-131 in the thyroid and a significant excess of leukemia deaths among children living in Utah between 1959 -1967 -Testing ended in 1992 with over 300 million curies of radiation remaining at the test site

What do the following measure and how are they used? Geiger Muller tube Personal Electronic Dosimeter Thermo Luminescent Dosimeter

-Geiger Muller tube measures radioactive particles or photons when they enter its chamber (Roentgens per hour) -Personal electronic dosimeter measures dose rate and total dose absorbed when worn often by first responders -Thermo Luminescent Dosimeter is worn by exposed workers on the body and has crystals that emit light corresponding to dose received

Troposphere

-Lowest layer -4 miles thick at poles, 12 miles thick at equator -where most weather occurs -temperature decreases with height

Neutron Particle

-No charge -associated with nuclear fission -highly penetrating and may be stopped by many feet of cement or water

How does a nuclear fission reactor produce electricity?

-Nuclear fission reaction creates heat, which can be transferred to water & the steam used to turn turbines to generate electricity

What are sources of extremely low frequency radiation?

-Originates from electric power poles, wiring in the walls of buildings, and some electrical appliances -Does not appear to produce many discernible short-term health effects -Electricity that flows through transmission lines may produce electromagnetic fields (EMFs) -research is inconsistent, not definitive, with respect to EMF exposure and cancer

Rad/ Gray

-Radiation absorbed dose

What limits are set by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission for nuclear power plant workers?

-Sets limits on worker doses to no more than 50 mSv or 5 rem (5,000 mrem) per year & -Requires occupational doses be kept ALARA "as low as reasonably achievable" (the guiding principle of all radiation work) -All U.S. nuclear power plant workers are measured for radiation exposure

Explain how the term stochastic relates to radiation exposure.

-Stochastic is chronic exposure (non-stochastic is acute) -carries increased probability of the occurrence of an adverse health event -Associated with low levels of exposure to radiation over long time periods (chronic) -Carcinogenesis and genetic damage such as changes in DNA are possible stochastic effects of radiation exposure

Alpha Particle

-Subatomic particle made up of the nucleus of a helium atom that is ejected from a radioactive atom -relatively massive: 2 protons + 2 neutrons -slow travels short distance -stopped by paper -enters body through food, wounds, inhalation and may act as carcinogens or cause other adverse effects -Source:from high atomic weight isotopes like uranium, radium, and radon decay products

Roentgen/ Coulomb/kg

-The unit of exposure from X- or gamma rays

Describe the events and results of the following nuclear power accidents: Three Mile Island Chernobyl Fukushima

-Three Mile Island, PA: core meltdown and steam released ~ 2.5 million curies of radioactive gases -Chernobyl, Ukraine: Explosion & fire released large quantities of radioactive contaminants into air spreading over much of Western USSR & Europe -Fukushima, Japan: After an earthquake and tsunami, equipment failures and core meltdowns resulted in releasing radioisotopes, much into the Pacific Ocean

What is a half-life

-Time it takes their level of radioactivity to decrease by one-half -brief to millions of years

What is the UV index?

-To help protect exposed persons from excessive amounts of sunlight, the UV index provides a daily forecast of the expected risk of overexposure to the sun -The index predicts UV intensity levels on a scale of 1 to 11+, where low indicates a minimal risk of overexposure and 11+ means an extreme risk -The index is calculated on a next-day basis for every ZIP code across the United States

Consumer Products with Radioactivity

-Tobacco leaves absorb Lead-210 and Polonium-210 from soil, releasing it in tobacco smoke, average smoker gets 1300 mrem/yr, may cause 2% of tobacco use related lung cancers -Building materials of stone, brick or concrete add 7 mrem/yr -Television/video display watching adds 1 mrem/yr -Luminous watches and dials (tritium) -Airport X-ray systems -Smoke detectors (americium) -Lantern mantles (thorium)

Identify 4 layers of the atmosphere.

-Troposphere -Stratosphere -Mesosphere -Thermosphere

What are the three subdivisions of UV radiation?

-UVR coming from the sun is subdivided into UVA, UVB, and UVC, depending upon the wavelength of the light -UVB is considered most harmful to human health

Stratosphere

-Up to 31 miles -heat is produced in the process of the formation of ozone & this heat is responsible for temperature increase

Thermosphere

-Up to 375 miles -temp increases the higher in the upper atmosphere, gases increasingly thin to space

Mesosphere

-Up to 56 miles -decrease in temperature with height -gases still thick enough to slow down meteors

Uranium

-Uranium deposits increases background radiation levels in some geographic areas -A common element in the earth's crust -Uranium ores uraninite and pitchblende are found in large amounts in North America, Africa, and Australia -Nearly all plants, animals, and aquifers contain tiny amounts of uranium

Thermo Luminescent Dosimeter (TLD)

-a badge, bracelet or ring with crystals that are energized by ionizing radiation, If heated, the amount of light emitted corresponds to the dose received, worn for a given time -Used by workers with potential exposure to ionizing radiation (e.g. nuclear medicine, nuclear power plants, nuclear research facilities)

What is a radioisotope?

-a version of an atom with a different number of neutrons (thus different mass) making the nucleus unstable & capable of radioactive decay to a more stable form

What is the concern with cell phone use?

-a very low-power apparatus that transmits in the radiofrequency range of 900 to 1800 megahertz (MHz) -(2009) there were an estimated 270 million and 4.1 billion cellular telephones in use in the U.S. and worldwide, respectively -Widespread popularity of cell phones means that even small adverse health effects could have substantial implications for population health -Cell phone antenna banks are themselves a source of RF radiation

Medical Sources of Ionizing radiation

-about 40% of radiation exposure has been attributed to medical exposure -Ex. nuclear medicine, radiation therapy, X-rays, mammograms, CT scans

What is electromagnetic radiation?

-all types of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation that fall on the electromagnetic spectrum in which electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously

What is a radionuclide?

-an atom with an unstable nucleus that will undergo radioactive decay -described in terms of half-life -ex. X or Gamma rays; Alpha, Beta or Neutron particles

What are the effects of a nuclear weapon explosion and the nuclear fallout?

-blast destroys buildings and environment -fireball heat briefly tens of millions of degrees destroys with fire or injury -intense light damages eyes -ionizing radiation causes acute poisoning -the dust of the nuclear bomb material results in nuclear fallout -non-ionizing radiation with enough energy to move atoms around or cause them to vibrate like sound waves, visible light, and microwaves

What are the characteristics of gamma ray and x-rays?

-both are ionizing, non-visible radiation -Gamma rays: consist of photons (most highly penetrating type of radiation), energy from photon can cause adverse effects such as cell damage when passing through the body -X-ray: used in medical diagnostics because they are absorbed differentially by bone and soft tissue

Diagnostic test exposure

-chest X-ray 10 mrem -mammogram 70 mrem -adult abdominal CT: 1000 mrems -neonatal abdominal CT: 2000 mrems -Survivors of the atomic bombs had mean dose of 4,000 mrems, around the dose of a series of CT scans, increasing the overall risk of cancer ~ 70 million CT scans performed in U.S. in 2007 may lead to 29,000 future cancers

Radon

-colorless, odorless, radioactive gas formed by natural decay of radioelements (ex.uranium in soil and rock) -normally found at low levels outdoor and in drinking water from rivers and lakes -found at higher levels in building air like basements or groundwater for drinking/bathing -Class A carcinogen -enters body through dust where decay gives off alpha particles that can damage DNA -radon gas decays into solid radioactive polonium-218, polonium-214, and lead-214 -radon is estimated to cause about 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year -avg indoor level 1.3 picocuries per liter, and should be fixed if levels excede 4.0pCi/L -1/15 homes have elevated levels

What is the only way that radioactive wastes become harmless?

-decay -some isotopes in high-level wastes can take hundreds of thousands of years to be harmless

Geiger Muller tube

-detects when radioactive particles (alpha or beta) or photons (gamma) enters its chamber -Measures exposure dose rate in Roentgens per hour (R/h) -1 R (exposure) = 1 rad (absorbed dose)

What is radiation?

-energy traveling through space

How is most spent nuclear fuel stored for the short and long term?

-for the short term, nuclear fuel must be cooled for at least one year in a water pool, but many go till 5 -for the long term, they are transferred to a dry cask where spent nuclear fuel is surrounded by inert gas inside a cask

Terrestrial gamma rays

-gamma rays from lightning or storms

Describe low level waste (nuclear) and the sources.

-generated from hospitals & industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle includes rags, tools, clothing, filters, & other materials with small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity

What are the two types of radiation and how do they differ?

-ionizing radiation: has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons thus creating positive ions -non-ionizing radiation has only enough energy to vibrate atoms not remove electrons

Dry Cask

-long term storage of spent nuclear fuel -Spent nuclear fuel is surrounded by inert gas inside a cask -Typically a steel cylinder either welded or bolted closed -Provides a leak-tight containment of the spent fuel -Each steel cylinder is surrounded by additional steel, concrete, or other material to provide radiation shielding

The greatest consumer of the world's water is the extraction of water for:

irrigation and agriculture

On July 28, 2006, researchers discovered that on certain days _____ percent of the smog in Los Angeles, California was coming from Asia across the Pacific Ocean.

25%

The brown clouds from air pollution may be masking as much as _____ percent of the greenhouse forcing by not allowing sunlight to reach the surface. If the brown clouds are cleaned up, then global warming may speed up.

50%

The percent of the Earth's total water flow of the free flowing rivers that has been diverted.

60%

In 2006, China's booming economy required new coal-fired power stations coming online at the rate of about ___ per week. In 2006, Beijing, China streets had about _____ new cars added every day

1.0, 1,000

Which is not true of radon? Radon can be found all over the U.S.. Radon can be found in any type of building including homes, offices and schools. Radon is drawn through cracks in buildings due to greater pressure in the soil and less pressure in the building. The greatest exposure risk to radon is at school or the work place.

The greatest exposure risk to radon is at school or the work place. (it's actually the home)

Which is not true of water? The hydrologic cycle ends at the shore line of the oceans The hydrologic cycle has no end

The hydrologic cycle ends at the shore line of the oceans

Which is not true in regard to drinking water contaminants? a. Trihalomethanes are made when chlorine and organic matter come together during disinfection in the water plant, THMs increase cancer risk b. Chlorine (Cl2) is a very effective disinfectant, but excess in drinking water causes eye/nose irritation and stomach discomfort d. Excess fluoride may cause pain and tenderness of the bones e. Excess nitrate causes children to have mottled teeth f. Nitrate may be in runoff from N fertilizer use, animal manures, or sewage leaks

e. Excess nitrate causes children to have mottled teeth

Which is not true of nuclear energy wastes? a. Low Level Waste includes rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials with small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity b. High Level Waste produced by nuclear reactors is very radioactive emitting millions of rems and often thermally hot c. About ¼ of the nuclear fuel is spent and must be replaced every year in a nuclear reactor d. A typical nuclear power plant produces about 20 tons of spent nuclear fuel every year e. Spent nuclear fuel is put directly and immediately from the reactor into dry casks of steel with additional material for radiation shielding

e. Spent nuclear fuel is put directly and immediately from the reactor into dry casks of steel with additional material for radiation shielding

Even high levels of radon in most homes can be lowered to an acceptable level for about the same cost as other common home repairs. T/F?

true

Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking in the U.S. T/F?

true

What is the average individual dose in the U.S. nuclear energy industry?

~ 100 mrem