Ch10 Development II

Stage 3 (of conventional level)

"good child orientation" primary moral concern is with being nice and gaining approval. -people are judged by their intentions and motives.

Stage 2 (of preconventional level)

"instrumental-exchange orientation": children become aware of another's perspective. -morality still based on reciprocality (equal exchange of favors)

Stage 4 (of conventional level)

"law and order orientation" individuals take into account a larger perspective-societal laws. -individuals understand if everyone violated laws, even with good intentions, there would be chaos. -According to Kohlberg, Stage 4 is highest level attained by most adolescents and adults

Stage 1 (of preconventional level)

"punishment and obedience orientation": obedience to authority and avoidance of punishment. -difficulty considering another's point of view. ignore people's intentions in their moral judgments. example: 5 year old will say that accidentally breaking 15 cups deserves more punishment than intentionally breaking 1 cup.

Stage 5 (of postconventional level)

"social contract orientation" individuals appreciate underlying purposes served by laws. -When laws are consistent with interests of majority, they are obeyed because of the "social contract" -However, laws can be morally disobeyed if they fail to express the will of the majority or maximize social welfare. Example: if someone said the husband should steal the drug bc his wife's right to life was more important than the druggist's property rights, this would be a Stage 5 type of moral reasoning.

Stage 6 (of postconventional level)

"universal-ethics orientation" - "right" is determined by universal ethical principles that all religions or moral authorities might view as compelling or fair, such as freedom, human dignity, equality. -few individuals achieve Stage 6 (about 1 or 2% tested worldwide)

Stage 1 (Psychosocial stages)

(0-1 years): trust versus mistrust. -Infants learn to trust that their needs will be met by the mother; if not, mistrust develops

Stage 2 (Psychosocial stages)

(1-3 years): Autonomy versus shame and doubt. Toddlers learn to exercise will, to make choices, to control themselves; if not, they become uncertain and doubt they can do things by themselves.

Stage 5 (Psychosocial stages)

(12-20 years): Identity versus role confusion. Adolescents develop a sense of self and their role in society or they face identity and role confusion.

Stage 6 (Psychosocial stages)

(20-30 years): Intimacy versus isolation. Young adults form intimate connections with others; if not, they may experience feelings of isolation.

Stage 3 (Psychosocial stages)

(3-6 years): Initiative versus guilt. Preschool children learn to initiate activities and enjoy their accomplishments; if not, they feel guilty for their attempts at independence.

Stage 7 (Psychosocial stages)

(30-65) years): Generativity versus stagnation. Middle-aged adults develop concern for establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation; if not, they experience stagnation (a sense of lifelessness)

Stage 4 (Psychosocial stages)

(6-12 years): Industry versus inferiority. Elementary school age children develop a sense of industry or competence and learn productive skills their culture requires; if not, they feel inferior.

Stage 8 (Psychosocial stages)

(65+ years): Ego integrity vs despair. Older people enter a period of reflection and life review. They either achieve a sense of integrity for the lives they've lived and accept death, or yield to despair that their lives cannot be relived.

Alfred Kinsey

-major contributor to sex research. interviewed over 18,000 participants asking detailed questions about their sexual activities and preferences. -Kinsey's data was criticized bc most research participants were young, single, urban, white, and middle class. -His data is still frequently used as a baseline for modern research.

Researchers have found that masculine and androgynous individuals generally have higher ...

-self-esteem -academic scores -creativity -social competence -motivation to achieve -overall mental health

Five sequential stages when facing death:

1. denial of the terminal condition. 2. anger ("why me?") 3. bargaining ("God if you let me live, I'll dedicate my life to you") 4. depression 5. acceptance

Genetic factors account for about ___% of aggressive behavior

50

AIDS

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV's) destroy the immune system's ability to fight disease, leaving the body vulnerable to a variety of opportunistic infections and cancers.

The Three regions of the brain closely related to the expression and control of aggression:

Amygdala Prefrontal Cortex Hypothalamus

Midlife crisis

Another myth--severe reaction or crisis at 35 -40 years of age is quite rare and not typical of what most people experience.

"full-blown" AIDS includes anyone infected with HIV who also has a...

CD4 count of 200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood or less. (HIV virus destroys CD4 lymphocytes, also called T-cells, which coordinate the immune system's response to disease).

Major Criticism of Kohlberg's Theory: Cultural differences

Cross-cultural comparisons of responses to Heinz's moral dilemma (the drug stealing thing) show that Europeans and Americans tend to consider whether they like or identify with the victim in questions of morality. In contrast, Hindu Indians consider social responsibility and personal concerns two separate issues.

Effect of Tobacco on sexual activity

Decreases blood flow to genitals, which reduces the frequency and duration of erections and vaginal lubrication

Difference between hormone production in females and males

During puberty, the female's hypothalamus directs her pituitary gland to release hormones in a cyclic fashion (menstrual cycle). Male's hypothalamus directs a relatively steady production of sex hormones.

Psychosocial Stages

Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved

Identity crisis

Erikson's term for an adolescent's search for self, which requires intense self-reflection and questioning

Differences in cognitive abilities

Females tend to score higher on tests of verbal skill. Males score higher on math and visuospatial tests

Sexual response cycle

Four-stage bodily response to sexual arousal. 1. excitement: increased levels of arousal and increased engorgement of genitals. 2. plateau: leveling off in a state of high arousal 3. orgasm: pleasurable sensations peak and orgasm occurs 4. resolution: body returns to unaroused state

Life spain marital satisfaction

Highest levels of marital satisfaction and lowest levels of marital conflict occur before children are born and after they leave home.

Corpus callosum differences in females and males

Larger in adult women and shaped differently in women than in men. This difference may explain why men tend to rely on one hemisphere or the other in performing tasks, while women generally use both hemis at once.

Effect of Cocaine and amphetamines on sexual activity

Moderate to high doses and chronic use result in inhibition of orgasm and decrease in erection and lubrication

Effect of Alcohol on sexual activity

Moderate to high doses inhibit arousal. Chronic abuse causes damage to testes, ovaries, and the circulatory and nervous systems.

"storm and stress"

Research shows that "storm and stress" (emotional turbulence and psychological strain during adolescence) is largely a myth. Adolescence is no stormier than any other life transition.

Major Criticism of Kohlberg's Theory: Possible gender bias

Researcher Carol Gilligan has criticized Kohlberg's model bc on his scale women often tend to be classified at a lower level of moral reasoning than men. -Kohlberg's theory emphasizes values more often held by men such as rationality and independence, and supposedly ignores common female values such as concern for others and belonging.

Major Criticism of Kohlberg's Theory: Moral reasoning versus behavior

Some studies show a positive correlation between higher stages of reasoning and higher levels of moral behavior. However, some found that situational factors are better predictors of moral behavior. Example: Research participants are more likely to steal when they are told the money comes from a large company rather than from individuals.

Kohlberg's stages for moral development: Postconventional level

Stage 5 and 6: adulthood -Individuals develop personal standards for right and wrong. Define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. Example: 20 year old who judges the "discovery" and settlement of N. America by Europeans as immoral because it involved theft of land from native peoples is thinking postconventional terms.

Kohlberg's stages for moral development: Preconventional level

Stages 1 and 2: birth to adolescence -moral judgment is self-centered. Morality is based on rewards, punishment, and exchange of favors

Kohlberg's stages for moral development: Conventional level

Stages 3 and 4: adolescence and young adulthood -moral judgment goes from being self centered to other-centered - based on compliance with conventional rules and values of society

disengagement theory

Successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the elderly and society. (largely abandoned theory)

activity theory

Successful aging is fostered by a full and active commitment to life.

Differences in cerebral hemispheres for females and males

The differences may account for reported differences in verbal and spatial skills.

Thanatology

The study of death and dying

socioemotional selectivity theory

a natural decline in social contact occurs as older adults become more selective with their time.

cognitive developmental theory

acknowledges that social learning is part of gender development. But the social learning model sees gender development as a passive process. Cognitive developmentalists think children actively observe, interpret, and judge the world around them.

Death in terms of three basic concepts: nonfunctionality

all living functions, including thought, movement, and vital signs, end at death.

Death in terms of three basic concepts: universality

all living things eventually die

Primary programs

attempt to identify "vulnerable" families and prevent abuse by teaching parenting and marital skills, stress management, and impulse control.

Secondary programs

attempt to rehabilitate families after abuse has occurred. They work to improve social services, establish self-help groups, and provide individual and group psychotherapy for both victims and abusers.

double standard

beliefs, values, and norms that subtly encourage male sexuality and discourage female sexuality

sex

biological maleness and femaleness, including chromosomal sex; also, activities related to sexual behaviors, such as masturbation and intercourse

Effect of barbiturates on sexual activity

cause decreased desire, erectile disorders, and delayed orgasm.

Androgyny

combining characteristics considered typically male (assertive, athletic) with characteristics considered typically female (yielding, nurturant)

social learning theory

emphasizes the power of immediate situation and observable behaviors on gender role development. Suggests that girls learn how to be "feminine" and boys learn how to be "masculine" in 2 ways: 1. receive rewards or punishments for specific gender role behaviors 2. watch and imitate the behavior and attitudes of others-particularly the same-sex parent.

performance anxiety

fear of being judged in connection with sexual activity

transsexualism

having a gender identity opposite to biological sex. -transsexuals feel that they are really members of the opposite sex imprisoned in the wrong body. -has nothing to do with sexual orientation. only gender identity

sexual dysfunction

impairment of the normal physiological processes of arousal and orgasm

One of the clearest identifiers of abuse potential is...

impulsivity. (People who abuse their children, their spouses, or their elderly parents seem to lack impulse control, especially when stressed)

temperament

individual's innate behavioral style and characteristic emotional response

transvestism

individuals (almost exclusively men) who adopt the dress (cross-dressing), and often the behavior, typical of the opposite sex. -primarily for emotional and sexual gratification

sexual prejudice

negative attitudes toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation.

Initial phase of grief

numbness. individuals often seem dazed and may feel little emotion other than numbness or emptiness.

Death in terms of three basic concepts: permanence

once a living thing dies, it cannot be brought back to life

Third phase of grief

organization/despair. Life seems to lose its meaning. Mourner feels listless, apathetic, and submissive.

refractory period

phase following orgasm, during which further orgasm is considered physiologically impossible for men.

gender

psychological and sociocultural meanings added to biological maleness or femaleness

Fourth phase of grief

resolution or reorganization. As time goes on, the survivor gradually begins to accept the loss both intellectually (the loss makes sense) and emotionally (memories are pleasurable as well as painful). This acceptance, along with building a new self-identity, characterizes fourth stage.

gender identity

self-identification as either a man or a woman

Aggressive men have disturbances in their levels of the neurotransmitter _____

serotonin

Low levels of the neurotransmitters _____ and _____ are associated with irritability, hypersensitivity to provocation, and impulsive rage

serotonin and GABA

sexual scripts

socially dictated descriptions of "appropriate" behaviors for sexual interactions

resiliency

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats.

Second phase of grief

yearning. intense longing for the loved one, and pangs of guilt, anger and resentment. May "see" the deceased person, have vivid dreams of the person, or feel the "presence" of the person.

empty nest syndrome

yet another myth--"painful separation and time of depression for parents after last child leaves home". Is an exaggeration.