Ch.9- Gender and Work

S&P fortune 500 company & glass ceiling study

- 44.3% of total employees= women - 25% of female employees= exec. managers - less than 5% of female employees= CEO's

What are some family issues that women face when attempting to work?

- Maintaining the family - Combining work and family - physical and mental health - compensation - second shift

In the fictitious occupation study black children (6-7 y/o) were shown pictures of people with jobs that were black only, white only, or both. the children then rated the status of the job. What were the results?

- jobs shown as only being done by whites rated higher status than jobs done by blacks - jobs with mixed race workers were rated in between - shows that black children have learned to associate black adults w/ low status jobs

What contributes to the motherhood penalty?

1) taking time off after birth 2) cutting education short 3) jobs w/ more flexible hours 4) working less hours cause of caregiver responsibilities 5) not working overtime= less well paid= less advancement in org

What were the results of the LGBTQ employee study?

1. 50% hide their identity/ orientation 2. 33% feel compelled to lie about personal life 3. 70% of non-LGBTQ employees found it inappropriate to discuss sex/ gender identity 4. 9% LGBTQ have left a job due to an unaccepting climate

What was shown in the science faculty job app study (males/ females have to decide who to hire to a science faculty position) ?

1. Equally qualified men were rated as more competent and hirable. They were also offered a higher starting salary & more career mentoring.

What are the 3 main reasons women settle for salaries w/o negotiating

1. Grateful for the job 2. Afraid to lose what they were offered 3. Don't know what to ask for

A study on if people are biased in their evaluations of female leaders found what?

1. No gender difference in evaluations of leaders in most situations depending on the leadership style being assessed. Some instances where women received lower evals included... 2. using an autocratic/ dictatorial style over a democratic/ nurturant style= women rated lower

What are some examples of legislature passed to reduce employment discrimination?

1. Title VII of Civil Rights Act- 1964 2. EEOC (pregnancy & gender identity & sexual orientation are included in the DEFINITION of what to protect but not by federal courts) 3. Fair pay act - 2009 4. Equal pay act- 1963

In the job ad experiment women and men were shown job ads that explicitly encouraged salary negotiation vs. one that was ambiguous about it. What were the results (gender similarities/ differences)?

1. Women apply to ambiguous ads less & initiated less wage negotiations 2. Women apply to negotiable ads more, and show and increase amount of wage negotiations (so much so that it eliminates the gender difference)

What are 2 trends of working couples in the 21st century?

1. increased diversity in families 2. increased diversity in the nature of work

Employment often improves the health of unmarried/ married women who hold positive attitudes towards being employed. Who is this usually not true for?

1. low income women 2. women in a hostile work environment

What were the results of the entitlement and letter circling study in which women & men had to perform an easy task (circling the letter e in sentences) then assess how much their time was worth?

1. men reported deserving higher wages more & paid themselves higher bonuses 2. women did more work w/ greater accuracy

In regards to FMLA, what 2 things can cause a woman to experience depression after return to work following childbirth?

1. short leave 2. other neg. life factors (such as a bad marriage)

What are some reasons women feel less entitled to higher wages than men? As a result, others believe that women will settle for less pay simply cause many do

1. their pay= reasonable to those w/ whom they compare themselves (other women) 2. their pay= reasonable to past pay at other places 3. their pay= reasonable to what is realistically attainable given restricted job opportunities

Approximately what % of couples have egalitarian partnerships w/ equal shares of work?

1/3rd

In regards to the second shift: when counting work as work done for pay AND work done around the house, how much more work do women do than men?

15 hours

When are women in their prime?

20's-30's

At what age does the wage gap typically become noticeably significant?

35

___% of the labor force today is comprised of women, as compared to 29% in 1948

47%

__% of the wage gap is due to occupational segregation. For instance, financial managers are comprised of an almost equal number of men and women, yet women make 65 cents to the average male's dollar.

51%

In 1960, American women earned about __ cents for every dollar American men earned. Today, women earn about __ cents for every dollar men earn. Gap gets larger over the course of women's careers.

61; 80

The majority of women aged 25-54 hold jobs. Among white women the percentage is ___ and amongst black women it is ____.

71% ; 69%

Most occupations are segregated, w/ more than ___% of workers from one gender. The stereotyping of occupations limits people's thinking about work options.

90%

Workplace climate has been a huge area of emphasis in recent years. As a result __% of fortune 500 countries include sex in discrimination policies and __% protect gender identity. Many employers have even extended benefits to member of sexual/ gender minority groups.

91% ; 61%

Motherhood penalty

A loss in wages associated with becoming a mother. Partly due to behaviors such as taking time off from work after the birth of a child, cutting education short, working jobs with less or more flexible hours. Typically make 5-10% less per child

Who makes wages most similar to white men (highest paid demographic) ?

Asian american women

What did Alice Eagly and Linda Carli find about the glass ceiling modernly?

Barriers for women are more permeable now, but they still exist. The glass labyrinth is a better term because women can get to the top but have to navigate complex/ indirect pathways due to changing definitions of leadership

scarcity hypothesis

Because time is limited, multiple roles are damaging. Assumes that each person has a fixed amount of energy and that any role makes demands on this pool of energy.

double jeopardy

Being marginalized on multiple social categories or the idea that having a low status in one category can cause a low status in another.

Which demographic of women is most likely to be promoted to leadership?

Black females; the only reason is because they are seen as less feminine than other races.

Male occupations: pilot, mechanic, carpenter, welder Female occupations: childcare workers, dental hygienists, RN's What are some examples of 50/50 occupations?

Bus drivers, editors, college/ uni teachers

What does evidence say about social backlash and salary negotiations for women?

Evidence supports this phenomena. Expressing dominance does reduce a woman's perceived hire ability and likeability

Most jobs are held by equal proportions of men and women (T/F)

F

Women today constitute only 31% of the American labor force (T/F)

F (47%)

Expansionist hypothesis

In research on women and multiple roles, the hypothesis that multiple roles are good for mental health, because they provide more opportunities for stimulation, self-esteem, and so on.

fatherhood bonus

Increased wages and career advancement that fathers experience when being a part of a family structure because they are perceived as needing to provide for people and fulfilling their responsibilities as citizens within patriarchy and capitalism.

What did Brenda Major propose about the wage gap?

Inequalities in social structure cause men and women to be held to different standards of comparison. As a result, women only compare their wages to other women (in usually female dominated fields too) due to the proximity effect. This makes them feel less entitled to a higher pay & can also serve as a form of self protection cause they don't want to ask a man who obviously makes more than them, and hurt their own feelings.

Time diaries before and after child birth studies

Men spend less time on housework and childcare and more time on paid work. Women do more of the childcare.

Who does better in graduate school after getting engaged/ married?

Men! They become significantly more productive. Women face invisible support in which they give male partners more support that doesn't get recognized or reciprocated by their partner.

Barriers to women's advancement today are....

More permeable than the rigid, impenetrable barrier suggested by the glass ceiling metaphor. Progress has been slow in women's advancement in corporations.

Classic studies found that women's work was judges as inferior to men's despite being identical (ex. shown same essay w/ a 'male' or 'female' name and ask to rate how good it was). Is this still the case in modern studies?

No! In general meta-analyses now have found very little evidence of men's work being rated higher.

Which gender is more likely to live in poverty in older age?

Older women

Role congruity theory

People tend to perceive an incongruity or incompatibility between leadership behaviors and the female gender role leading to 2 types of prejudice: 1. women seen less favorably as potential leaders 2. leadership behaviors shown by women rated more neg. by subordinates

compensation effects

Positive aspects or rewards from one role compensate or make up for the stresses or costs in another role.

Latina female faculty report feeling

Romanticized. Like everything they do is so "exotic" or "spicy"

Pharmacists, lawyers, computer software engineers, and physicians are examples of jobs that pay the best for women (T/F)

T

The motherhood penalty is greatest for women who have three or more children, especially at a younger age (T/F)

T

Overall, the gender gap in housework and childcare appears to have narrowed substantially over the past few decades (T/F)

T (women do about 1.6 hrs of work a day and men do about 1. Women usually do routine housework though)

What was significant about 1993 in the US?

That is when the FMLA was passed. Prior to that the U.S. was one of 2 industrialized nations w/ no parental leave. key features included: it being gender fair, their job being guaranteed upon return, leave being unpaid (making it hard for some families to take), and establishing minimum standards. Note: the FMLA does not apply to small businesses (less than 50 employees)

Women earn less in every ethnic group. (T/F)

True; size of gap varies across ethnic groups with blacks having the highest gap,

What does it mean to say we live in a "stalled revolution" ?

We live in a time of transition amid a social revolution in which gender roles are in flux. As a result women have been thrown into work but men have not even been nudged into child care. Women today spend as much time w/ their kids as they did in the 1960's

A study on if women can be leaders or not (based on ratings of subjective and objective effectiveness within actual organizations) found what?

When the leadership position was more consistent with the female gender role, then female leaders were more effective.

Which demographic of women is most likely to be seen as role incongruent when they attempt to apply for leadership (i.e. face harassment and discrimination because they aren't seen in a leadership light?

White females

What does evidence say about gender differences/ similarities in entitlement?

Women have a lower sense of entitlement to pay for their work (another possible reason they dont negotiate)

Why are women reluctant to negotiate their salaries?

Women tend to be reticent to negotiate because of the social backlash which possibly alienates the potential boss & coworkers (leading to less job mobility). Conveying communal traits can improve the negotiation process. They also are still offered less than males even after negotiating. Conclusion: Women take feedback to heart more than men. We are scared to say no and over inflate.

What can make the motherhood penalty even more severe?

Working at a lower wage job (you already make less in general and now you're further decreasing your earnings)

Asian female faculty report feeling

a lot of pushback for any comments they make as if it is not okay to be anything but submissive.

What are some reasons that women might be perceived as ineffective leaders for various reasons?

a) Truly lacking in the abilities, personality traits, interpersonal skills. b) Judged or evaluated unfairly regardless of effectiveness

glass ceiling

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder. As a result many reach upper level management, but very few reach the c- suite (aka CEO, CFO, & etc.)

Who makes the highest wage? the lowest?

asian american men; hispanic women

the need for affordable ______ is a critical factor btw employment and female wellbeing

childcare

The motherhood penalty stems from

discrimination in the workplace (need for affordable childcare and etc.)

LGBTQ couples are more (egalitarian/ traditional) than heterosexual couples

egalitarian! They are more attentive to their partners and more sensitive to issues of equality in their relationships.

Many people believe that women have an __________ identity in the sense that they can handle anything that you throw at them. They might be great at making sure everyone else is great, but as a result of these endless obligations they sacrifice their own health

expansionist

Women compare their pay with others in their _________-dominated occupation.

female

For years, newspapers published ads in two sections distinguished by gender. As a result women only saw clerical jobs that were usually low paying. Although this is illegal today, job ads now often include _________ ____________ instead.

gendered wording (leader, competitive, dominance)

How does having a baby affect the division of labor in dual earning couples?

having a baby didn't change how much time wives and husbands spent in their paid jobs (men usually spend 2.5 hrs more than women at work anyways), BUT it did change how housework and childcare were divided 1. women= 4 hrs more on housework 2. women= 8 hours more on childcare

Studies have found that __________ _____________ about gender and leadership are linked to the evaluation of women's and men's work. As a result men get higher salary estimates than women.

implicit stereotypes

Men's contributions to family work have __________ from 1970 to the present, yet the change has been gradual and there is still not gender equity.

increased

The wage gap in the U.S. is (larger/ smaller) than most other developed nations

larger; it also gets larger throughout a woman's career/ as they age. This occurs despite the fact that women are typically better educated.

Occupations predominantly held by women are almost invariably ____ ________. Even when men and women work side by side in similar jobs, the gap persists.

low paying

In male culture what is a sign of equality?

questioning and challenging

There is a ________ gender difference in compensation negotiation w/ men achieving somewhat better economic outcomes. This is reduced when given negotiation experience or information about bargaining range.

small

Black female faculty report feeling

that they receive the most push back for being the most hostile or aggressive regardless of situations.

glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs

second shift

the double burden- work outside the home followed by child care and housework- that many women face and few men share equitably. This can cause marital struggles.

comparable worth

the issue raised when women who hold traditionally female jobs are paid less than men for working at jobs requiring comparable skill. (Ex. librarians and liquor store clerks both hold government jobs. Librarians require degrees, liquor store clerks dont. Librarians= usually female & liquor store clerks= usually male. Before federal/ state legislation, liquor store clerks used to make more?)

What is the most important factor for marital satisfaction in dual earning couples?

the perception of fairness in the division of labor

glass elevator

the promotional ride men take to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs

spillover effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up. Feelings spillover (can be pos or neg)

What did gender bias depend on?

whether the job appeared congruent with the gender role of the applicant or employee and how much information the rater had about the applicant or employee. It increases in male dominated jobs and men tended to have more gender biased ratings.

which group has the largest wage gap? the smallest?

whites; blacks

The higher one goes the fewer women and often, people of color one will find.. Corporations with more __________ at the top perform better.

women

One issues with the emergence of 2nd wave feminisms in the 70s and 80s is ....

women now having to balance working with having a family