CHAP 7 PSYCHOLOGY
Example of hindsight bias?
"I knew it all along -- I was right!"
4 things concepts allow us to do?
1) TO GENERALIZE: if we didn't have concepts, each object/event in our world would be unique and brand new to us each time we encountered it 2) TO ASSOCIATE EXPERIENCES AND OBJECTS, ex: basketball, ice hockey, and track are sports. The concept "sport" gives us a way to compare these activities 3) THEY AID MEMORY: making it more efficient so that we do not have to reinvent the wheel each time we come across a piece of info 4) PROVIDE CLUES ABOUT HOW TO REACT TO A PARTICULAR OBJECT OR EXPERIENCE: ex: when we have the experience of trying an exotic new food and feel puzzled as we look at the contents on our plate; if a friend tells you reassuringly, "That's food!" you know that given the concept "food," it's okay to dig in
3 examples of inductive reasoning?
1) drawing conclusions from data collected in an experiment 2) having turned on your cell phone many times w/o having it explode, you have every reason to believe that it will not explode the next time you turn it on (from prior experiences w/ the phone, you have formed the general belief that it is not dangerous) 3) taking a sip of milk from a container and finding that it tastes sour. inductive reasoning is at work when you throw out the whole container even though you haven't tasted every drop
4 characteristics of creative thinkers?
1) flexibility and playful thinking 2) inner motivation 3) willingness to face risk 4) objective evaluation of work
Percentage of heritability for intelligence in an IQ test?
55-75%
Are algorithms or heuristics more reliable/correct all the time? Why?
Algorithms; heuristics are biases in our problem-solving and decision-making that are helpful the majority of times but are NOT always correct; cognitively "efficient" in arriving at conclusions or solutions quickly (but are not correct 100% of times)
Do cultures have the same or vary when it comes to the way they define intelligence? Why? Provide examples?
Cultures VARY Most European Americans think of intelligence in terms of reasoning and thinking skills, but people in Kenya consider responsible participation in family and social life an integral part of intelligence. Uganda = someone who knows what to do and follows through w/ appropriate action; Iatmul people of Papua New Guinea = the ability to remember the names of 10,000 to 20,000 clans Residents of the Caroline Islands incorporate the talent of navigating by the stars into their definition of intelligence. Some cultures don't have a word that refers to intelligence as most Westerners think of it
Variation BETWEEN groups = what kind of differences?
ENVIRONMENTAL
Variation WITHIN a group = what kind of differences?
GENETIC; these differences are much greater than any between-group differences in intelligence
Are we more likely to solve problems by using heuristics or algorithms? Why?
Heuristics; heuristics allow you to be more efficient than algorithms would; they help us to narrow down the possible solutions and to find one that works.
How does heritability change over time and across different groups? Examples?
If a group of individuals live in the same advantageous setting (with good nutrition, supportive parents, excellent schools, stable neighborhoods, and plenty of opportunities), heritability estimates for intelligence might be quite high, as this optimal environment allows genetic characteristics to flourish to their highest potential. However, if a group of individuals lives in a highly variable environment (with some individuals experiencing rich, nurturing environments full of opportunity and others experiencing less supportive contexts), genetic characteristics may be less predictive of differences in intelligence in that group, relative to environmental factors.
How are validity and reliability related? Explain?
If a test is valid, then it must be reliable, but a reliable test doesn't have to be valid. People can respond consistently on a test, but the test might not be measuring what it purports to measure.
Difference between reasoning and decision-making?
Reasoning = uses established RULES to draw conclusions Decision-Making = rules are NOT established, and we may not know the consequences of the decisions. Some of the info might be missing, and we might not trust all of the info we have
Explain why doubts about multiple intelligences persist?
Some psychologists think that the proponents of multiple intelligences have taken the concept of specific intelligences too far; some critics argue that a research base to support the 3 intelligences of Sternberg or the 9 intelligences of Gardner has not yet emerged. People who excel at one type of intellectual task are likely to excel in other; individuals who do well at memorizing lists of digits are also likely to be good at solving verbal problems and spatial layout problems Other critics ask if musical skill reflects a distinct type of intelligence, why not also label the skills of outstanding chess players, prizefighters, painters, and poets as types of intelligence? Controversy still characterizes whether it is more accurate to conceptualize intelligence as a general ability
What was Binet's original IQ test called? Explain how it worked?
Stanford-Binet; the test consisted of 30 items ranging from the ability to touch one's nose or ear on command to the ability to draw designs from memory and to define abstract concepts
Base-Rate Insensitivity/Neglect?
True probability of events or randomness which is ignored when heuristics activate
T or F: Individuals who are highly gifted are typically not gifted in many domains, and research on giftedness is increasingly focused on domain-specific developmental trajectories
True!
Difference between Type 1 vs. Type 2 reasoning/decision-making?
Type 1 = automatic Type 2 = more effortful and controlled
Example of deductive reasoning?
We might start with the general premise that all Texans love the Dallas Cowboys. Thus, if John is a Texan, we logically might surmise that John loves the Dallas Cowboys. The logic of this deductive reasoning requires that the first statement be true If all Texans do not love the Cowboys, John must be a Philadelphia Eagles fan.
Why can heritability only tells us info about a group and not a single individual?
You cannot dissect one's intelligence and determine that they got 75 percent of it from their parents' genes and 25 percent from environmental experiences that you had with your parents, teachers, friends, and others. Heritability has no meaning when applied to a single case
Explain the idea of criterion validity? Use examples.
a psychologist might validate an intelligence test by asking employers of the individuals who took the test how intelligent they are at work. The employers' perceptions would be a criterion for measuring intelligence. When the scores on a measure relate to important outcomes (such as employers' evaluations), we say the test has high criterion validity
Fluid Intelligence?
ability to reason and apply knowledge; efficiency in cognitive processing
strategic/strategies, systematic set of rules followed that guarantee a solution to solve a problem
algorithms
Divergent Thinking?
allowing for a NUMBER of possible solutions to the same problem; creative
What is cognitive psychology?
approaches that sought to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that could not be directly observed
What is fixation? (mental set)
approaching problems from conventional, well-practiced ways (but not always beneficial or correct -- often impedes problem-solving)
General Intelligence?
averaging all cognitive processes/abilities and achievements together into ONE factor -- all skills would be correlated such that strengths in one area are predictive of strengths in others and across all abilities
Example of the prototype model?
birds generally fly and sing, so we know that robins and sparrows are both birds. We recognize exceptions to these properties, however--we know that a penguin is still a bird even though it does not fly or sing.
(2) the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
cognition
Can humans or computers more efficiently apply algorithms?
computers
abstract ideas; collective knowledge of a topic; mental categories of related information that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics (groupings of objects or ideas)
concepts
What is one way we make sense of information in the world?
creating categories
ability to think about something in a novel or unusual way and/or devising unconventional ways to solve problems; these type of thinkers do both types of thinking (divergent and convergent)
creativity
a mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage; individuals with this type of disability have an IQ between 55 and 70; mental deficits result in part from growing up in a below-average intellectual environment
cultural-familial intellectual disability
making a choice from a set of alternatives; based on outcomes and probabilities in an effort to avoid loss (risk aversion) and maximize gains
decision-making
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?
defines intelligence by 3 areas of application: creative, analytical, and practical intelligence
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)? How do you find this?
developed by William Stern; IQ consists of an individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100; meaning of the IQ score is essentially the relationship of a person's mental age to his or her chronological age IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
Many tests of intelligence are designed for individuals from ____________ groups.
diverse
Example of organic intellectual disability? Why?
down syndrome; occurs when an extra chromosome is present in the individual's genetic makeup; most people who suffer from organic retardation have an IQ between 0 and 50
When does divergent thinking occur? Explain this? How does divergent thinking tie into convergent thinking?
during BRAINSTORMING; occurs when a group of people openly throw out a range of possible solutions to a problem, even some that might seem crazy. Having a lot of possible solutions still requires that they come up with the solution that is best, which is where convergent thinking comes in. In convergent thinking, one takes all of those possibilities and finds the right one for the job.
Explain how there were originally cultural bias in testing? Use examples.
early tests were culturally biased and favored people who were from urban rather than rural environments, of middle rather than low socioeconomic status, and non-Latino White rather than Africa American Ex: a question on an early test asked what one should do if one finds a 3-year-old child in the street. The correct answer was "call the police." However, children from inner-city families who perceive the police as scary are unlikely to choose this answer. Similarly, children from rural areas might not choose this answer if there is no police force nearby
Explain the prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept/in order to identify and categorize objects, we compare to an averaged (most typical) representation of that category or concept; grouping items by "family resemblance." maintains that people use characteristic properties to create a representation of the average or ideal member--the prototype--for each concept
Crystallized Intelligence?
factual accumulation
(2) involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh, new perspective
fixation
Examples and forms of algorithms?
formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions Ex: we use algorithms in cooking (by following a recipe), and driving (by following directions to an address)
Intellectual disability involves ___________ ___________ rather than a low IQ test score. This change represents progress in understanding the role of adaptive behaviors in determining who requires additional supports and who does not.
functional impairment
individuals who have high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area
gifted
Explain Charles Spearman's theory regarding intelligence
he believed that intelligence captures a common general ability that is reflected in performance on various cognitive tests Ex: schoolchildren who did well in math also did well in reading, and Spearman came up with the idea that intelligence is a general ability, which he called "g". This view suggests that general intelligence underlies performance in a variety of areas, whether it is math, verbal ability, or abstract reasoning. Spearman assumes that the intelligent person is a jack-of-all-cognitive trades
proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by genetic differences; the degree to which genes account for variability in traits; tells us how much of the differences we observe in intelligence is attributable to differences in genes
heritability
shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer; unconscious mental/cognitive short-cuts; predisposed built-in cognitive rules that guide our thinking to be more efficient (faster)
heuristics
a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has low cognitive abilities and has difficulty adapting to everyday life
intellectual disability
ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience ability to learn from experience and use knowledge (not just how much you know); inclusive of BOTH amount of knowledge and ability to use it
intelligence
What are culture-fair tests?
intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased; include questions that are familiar to people from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds; some contain no verbal questions people with more education still score higher than do those with less education.
Why is inductive reasoning important?
it is a way that we form beliefs about the world
Confirmation bias is also called "Myside bias" because?
it is all about collecting up evidence that our views are correct; our decisions can also become further biased bc we tend to seek out and listen to people whose views confirm our own while we avoid those with dissenting views.
What is an individual's mental age? Example?
it is their level of mental development relative to that of others Ex: Binet reasoned that a child of very low mental ability would perform like a normal child of a younger age
8 types of intelligences according to Gardner?
linguistic, logical, musical, spatial, bodily, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential
deductive reasoning?
making SPECIFIC conclusions from a generalization (generalized-->specific); drawing conclusions based on FACTS; using theory to make predictions
What is risk aversion?
making a choice/decision in an effort to avoid loss
how do you figure out your Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?
mental age (as determined by a standardized IQ test) divided by chronological age, mulitplied by 100; it is reliable and valid.
being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities; maintaining an active awareness of the circumstances of one's life; key to critical thinking
mindfulness
automatic activities we perform without thought
mindless behaviors
Do gifted children grow into gifted and highly creative adults? (according to Terman aka the Termites)
most typically become experts in a well-established domain, such as medicine, law, or business; but they did not become major creators or innovators; many become successful doctors, lawyers, professors, and scientists.
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
normal distribution
being receptive to other ways of looking at things; can help to keep individuals from jumping to conclusions; "knowing what it is you do not know is the first step to true wisdom."
open-mindedness
refers to the tissues or organs of the body
organic
caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage; there is some physical damage in organic retardation
organic intellectual disability
Example of confirmation bias and why it is easy to detect the confirmation bias in the way that many people think?
politicians often accept news that supports their views and dismiss evidence that runs counter to those views; avoiding confirmation bias means applying the same rigorous analysis to both sides of an argument
(2) finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available; entails following several steps, overcoming mental obstacles, and developing expertise.
problem-solving
transformation of information or knowledge to arrive at a correct solution; restructuring of information; re-organization from how it was originally encoded
problem-solving
mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions; making assumptions/conclusions about sets of data or information; not 100% correct solutions every time; involved in problem-solving and decision making, also closely tied to critical thinking
reasoning
Availability Heuristic?
refers to a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events. being influenced by whatever information most easily comes to mind; most common or most recent knowledge is most easily activated
the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance; produces the same score over time and repeated testing; consistency; IQ scores show this over time
reliability
Explain the Flynn effect
scores on IQ tests have been rising so fast that a high percentage of people regarded as having average intelligence at the turn of the 20th century would be regarded as having below average intelligence today. Bc the increase has taken place in a relatively short period of time, it cannot be due to heredity but rather may be due to rising levels of education attained by a much greater percentage of the world's population or to other environmental factors, such as the explosion of info to which people are now exposed.
Convergent Thinking?
seeking a SINGLE correct answer; thinking that produces a best solution to a problem; best when a problem has only one right answer
Explain Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory?
several completely independent (uncorrelated) types of cognitive processes and abilities that do not need to correlate; one can excel in some types of intelligence and not in others
Why might using an algorithmic strategy take a long time to solve a simple problem? What's an alternative solution/strategy? (explain through an example)
staring at a rack of letters during a game of Scrabble, you might find yourself moving tiles around and trying all possible combinations to make a high-scoring word. Instead, rely on some rules of thumb about words and language.
the use of concepts to make generalizations about a group of people
stereotype
2 examples of functional fixedness?
tables are to sit at, not stand on if you have ever used a shoe to hammer a nail, you have overcome functional fixedness to solve a problem
Inductive reasoning?
taking several observations together in order to make generalizations and principles (specific-->generalized)
Hindsight Bias?
tendency to report falsely (retroactively) after the fact, that you accurately predicted an outcome. "I knew it all along effect." People tend to view events that have happened as more predictable than they were, and to represent themselves as being more accurate in their predictions than they actually were.
Confirmation Bias?
tendency to search for and use info that supports our ideas rather than refutes them; seeking out, remembering and believing what we already think is true
Loss Aversion?
tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses/costs rather than (compared to) acquiring gains/benefits we dislike the prospect of losing something we have more than we enjoy the prospect of gaining something new, even when the prospect of a gain outweighs the loss
Example of a problem that requires overcoming functional fixedness?
the Maier string problem; the problem is to figure out how to tie two strings together when you must stand in one spot and cannot reach both at the same time. It seems as though you are stuck. However, there is a pair of pliars on a table. Can you solve the problem?
What is analytical intelligence?
the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast
Musical intelligence?
the ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone Occupations: composer, musician
Mathematical intelligence?
the ability to carry out mathematical operations Occupations: scientist, engineer, accountant
What is creative intelligence?
the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine
Existentialist intelligence?
the ability to grapple with the big questions of human existence, such as the meaning of life and death, with special sensitivity to issues of spirituality Occupation: philosopher
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence?
the ability to manipulate objects and to be physically adept Occupations: surgeon, craftsperson, dancer, athlete
Naturalist intelligence?
the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems Occupations: farmer, botanist, ecologist, landscaper
Verbal intelligence?
the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning. Occupations: author, journalist, speaker
Spatial intelligence?
the ability to think three-dimensionally Occupations: architect, artist, sailor
Interpersonal intelligence?
the ability to understand and interact effectively with others Occupations: teacher, mental health professional
Intrapersonal intelligence?
the ability to understand oneself Occupations: theologian, psychologist
What is practical intelligence?
the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
What is one of the most important indicators of validity?
the degree to which it predicts an individual's performance when that performance is assessed by other measures, or criteria, of the attribute
Representativeness Heuristic?
the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information placing something/someone into a category based on how much it sounds like it should fit into that group on the surface (stereotyping)
What are norms?
they are created by giving the test to a large group of individuals representative of the population for whom the test is intended. They tell us which scores are considered high, low, or average.
involves manipulating info mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner
thinking
What is functional fixedness?
thinking only about specific functions of objects; occurs when individuals fail to solve a problem bc they are fixated on a thing's usual functions
What is cognition?
thinking; mental processes associated with knowledge, communication, problem-solving and decision-making; manipulation of knowledge and mental representations; doing something with information after learning and remembering
refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure accuracy in measurement; IQ measures accurately but is dependent upon one's definition of what skills are accepted to be "intelligent"
validity
When do we know deductive reasoning is at work?
when psychologists and other scientists use theories to make predictions and then evaluate their predications by making further observations
In what scenario can a group have no real differences?
when variation within a group SURPASSES between-group differences (which is usually the case for IQ)
