CHAP 8 PSYCH // LEARNING
Reinforcment (increase)
Do not refer to good and bad, rather, when a stimulus is added (positive) or taken away (negative) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Occurs when the presentation or addition of a stimulus to a situation increases the likelihood of a behavior. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Refers to the removal of a stimulus to INCREASE behavior. E.g., the beep that sounds until you fasten your seat belt. All reinforcement, including negative, INCREASES behaviors, whereas punishments DECREASE behaviors.
Punishment (decrease)
Any stimulus that DECREASES the frequency of behavior. Can be both positive and negative. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: The addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior. E.g., spanking, receiving a parking ticket NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: Decreases behavior by removing a usually desirable stimulus E.g., revoking TV privileges, taking away phone
Stimulus generalization
Extension of the conditioned association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli. Ex: nauseated by chocolate donuts and by association, glazed donuts.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. AUTOMATIC AND INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE TO A STIMULUS
Edward L. Thorndike
In the late 19th century, Thorndike noted that rewarding consequences can make a spontaneous behavior more likely to occur again.
Latent Learning (Tolman)
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Tolman's rats formed cognitive maps
Fundamental Criteria
Multiple pairings of UCS and neutral stimulus (CS) are usually necessary for an association to occur and for the CS to produce the conditioned response (occasionally conditioning can occur after a single pairing). The UCS and CS must be paired or presented very close together in time in order for an association to form.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The behavior the subject learns to perform when presented with the CS alone.
Learning curve
The plot of the rate at which learning occurs over time.
Stimulus Discrimination
When a Conditioned Response only occurs to the exact stimulus to which the subject was conditioned.
Learning
an enduring change in behavior that occurs with experience
CONDITIONING
the process by which a behavior becomes more likely due to association with events that occur in the organism's environment Two types: classical and operant
Imprinting
the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth We know this from ETHOLOGY, the scientific study of animal behavior and KONRAD LORENZ Imprinting provides clear evidence of a SENSITIVITY PERIOD in learning: A period when a particular type of learning occurs very readily is the animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. A previously neutral stimulus that the subject has learned to associate with the UCS.
Skinner Box
A simple chamber in which a small animal can move around, with a food dispenser, and a response lever to trigger food delivery. Used to test B.F. Skinner's principles of operant conditioning
BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINT MODEL
A view on learning which proposes that some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others.
Synaptic Connections and Learning
Certain proteins become activated in short- and long-term memory formation and learning. These proteins change preexisting synaptic connections and cause the growth of new synapses. What this means is that learning is the growth of new synapses. Synaptic connections between neurons become stronger and even grow during long-term associative learning. The brain literally grows and changes as we learn. The development and frequent use of new synaptic connections in response to stimulation from the environment strengthen the associated memories and make learning easier. When we do not use the synaptic connections regularly, they will weaken and we will lose our learning. Practice and rehearsal.
Imitation and Mirror Neurons
For some Neurons in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex, the experience of watching someone else do something is like doing it yourself. Mirror neurons play a key role in EMBODIED COGNITION: a term for the thought processes involved in representing parts of the body and/or reenacting bodily actions in thought. The same motor neurons fire when one observes someone doing something as it would if they were doing it themselves. -Imitation by infants may be a result of mirror neuron systems (MNS) in the brain, although evidence suggests that the MNS only becomes functional sometime between 3-6 mo. -It has been suggested that autistic children may have deficits in mirror neurons.
Forward Conditioning/Backward Conditioning
Forward: when the neutral stimulus is presented before the UCS. Can also present them simultaneously. Backward: When the neutral stimulus follows the UCS. Less successful method.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. The environmental input that always produces the same, unlearned, involuntary response (UR) The UCS always produces the UCR
Why does classical conditioning work?
It may be adaptive in an evolutionary sense. We need to be able to associate certain types of stimuli with potential harm and to respond quickly to new stimuli that present threats.
LITTLE ALBERT (JOHN WATSON)
John Watson believed classical conditioning could be used to shape human behavior. Watson conditioned a baby, known as Little Albert, to fear white rats and, through stimulus generalization, other white, fluffy objects. Ethics today would not allow Watson to do his research on little Albert. Watson is known as the FATHER OF BEHAVIORISM.
Environmental effect on learning:
Laboratory mice can have identical "childhoods" (the first 21 days of their lives) and then be randomly assigned to three different environments: no enrichment, short enrichment (68 days), and long enrichment (6 months). The longer they live in an enriched environment, the more neural growth there is in the hippocampus. More importantly, however, simply being in an enriched environment is not even the best way to stimulate the growth of new neurons: Being in an enriched environment that continues to have new and novel forms of stimulation is even better. What is more, enrichment can reverse age-related reductions in neural growth (neurogenesis) in rats.
Secondary reinforcers
Learned or conditioned reinforcers, such as money, grades, and peer approval. Things that are learned by association. That is, a neutral object or situation acquires reinforcing properties by virtue of its association with inherently rewarding objects or situations (such as food or sex)
Association
Occurs when you experience one object/situation that is linked with another. Learning by connection.
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
The consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
NATURE, NURTURE, AND LEARNING
The hippocampus in particular, given its important role in memory, is a major player in learning
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA)
The kind of behavior that occurs when we model the behavior of others Observational learning: Learning influenced by watching the behavior of others Modeling: Bandura's term for observational learning that involves imitation. The imitation of behaviors performed by others. A kind of observational learning. Social learning also works through reinforcement-- in operant conditioning, the consequences of our behaviors influence whether we repeat them or not. Bandura noted that reinforcement, as well as punishment, matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior but also for those who watch.
OPERANT CONDITIONING (SKINNER)
The process of modifying behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior. The basic idea behind operant conditioning is that any behavior that is reinforced becomes strengthened and is more likely to occur in the future. Behaviors are reinforced because they are instrumental in obtaining particular results. Substance abuse can be learned through operant conditioning.
Shaping
The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior. Gradually reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior will eventually produce the target behavior.
Spontaneous recovery
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.
Applied Behavioral Analysis (Lovaas)
The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior (also called behavior modification) Used to treat autism. Uses reinforcement to increase the frequency of adaptive behaviors and use punishment to decrease the likelihood of maladaptive behaviors in children with autism. Although ABA appears to be quite effective in reducing many harmful and aggressive behaviors in young autistic children and in improving cognitive functions across many age groups, it appears to be a bit less effective in improving the social and emotional challenges of autism
Extinction
The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response. Occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS. In operant conditioning, it occurs when a behavior stops being reinforced. Sometimes takes over 100 of more presentations of the CS without the UCS to achieve extinction, and the behavior may still return Research suggests that extinction never completely eliminates the response, only suppresses it.
Bobo Doll Study (Bandura)
Their experiments showed how two key elements of social learning—modeling and reinforcement—affect behavior. The first study focused on the power of observational learning on aggressive behavior. Children observed an adult either being aggressive or not being aggressive with an inflatable doll, called a Bobo doll. Half saw the adult play politely with the Bobo doll. The others saw the adult sock the Bobo doll hard, hit it with a rubber mallet, and kick it around. Afterward, one at a time, the kids entered a room filled with toys (including the ones the model played with) and were allowed free play. Children who had seen the adults act aggressively with the doll were much more likely to be aggressive when they had the chance to play than those who had seen adults play pleasantly Bandura's studies proved that children often imitate the violence they see, especially if it is reinforced or rewarded.
Primary reinforcers
Unlearned, innate reinforcer that often serves to satisfy biological needs. E.g., food, water, sex, and even artificial sweeteners. Many drugs, such as caffeine and nicotine are primary reinforcers by virtue of their stimulating effects on the central nervous system.
B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning)
Viewed the consequences of an individuals actions as the most important determinants of behavior. According to skinner, the behavior that is rewarded is more likely to occur again.
condition taste aversion
development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association
REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Reinforcers have to be things that the learner wants in order to influence the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. TWO KINDS OF REINFORCERS: primary, and secondary
Instinctive Drift (Breland)
learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive, unlearned behavior tendencies.'] E.g., humans are geared towards learning language. Instinctive drift challenges the behaviorist conviction that learning always results either from associating an event with an unconditioned stimulus or from shaping by reinforcement or punishment. The Brelands' findings imply that there are biological limitations, or constraints, on learning. According to the biological constraint model of learning, some behaviors are naturally more likely to be learned than others. Biology constrains options so that the adaptive ones are more likely to occur than the maladaptive ones. Constraints on learning have positive evolutionary implications: They guide organisms in a direction that speeds up learning and aids survival or reproductive success.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
learning occurs as a result of pairing previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus with an unconditioned (involuntary) stimulus US (food) = UR (salivation) US (food) + CS (bell) = UR (salivation) CS (bell) = CR (salivation) Classical conditioning is the modification of these stimulus-response relationships with experience.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT: Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT: Does not occur after every response. Produces a stronger behavioral response than continuous reinforcement does. Uses memory and expectation. ———————————————————————————————————— FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE: -Reinforcement follows a set number of responses. -This pattern becomes predicable, so the response rate is not steady. -Typically there is a pause in response immediately after the reinforcement occurs, and then the response rate increases. -Produces a steep, stepwise pattern of response. VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE: -The number of responses needed for reinforcement varies. -Produces a very steady rate of response because the subject is unsure of how many responses are needed to obtain reinforcement. FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE: -Reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time; such as 4 seconds. -Produces a pattern in which the rate of response immediately following reinforcement is low. VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE: -The first response is reinforced after time periods of different durations have passed. Researcher sets a mean interval length around which the intervals will vary. -E.g., the mean interval may be 5 seconds, but sometimes reinforcement occurs after 10 seconds, 1 second, or 5 seconds. -The nature of the interval makes it difficult for the subject to predict when reinforcement will occur, therefore it produces a steady, moderate rate of response.
Conditioned Taste Aversion (John Garcia)
the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food that occurs at about the same time as nausea This learned association is not much different from Pavlov's dogs CHALLENGED TRADITIONAL LEARNING THEORY: Garcia's subsequent research derailed another assumption of traditional learning theory: that reflexive responses (such as nausea) could be conditioned to any kind of stimulus. The key finding here is that, contrary to the predictions of traditional learning theory, an organism cannot be conditioned to respond to just any "neutral" stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus. We can learn certain things only under certain conditions. In other words, nausea can be conditioned to a taste but not to a light, because taste is relevant to eating, but light is not.
