Chapter 01: The Study of Body Function

basement membrane

-- A layer of proteins and polysaccharides -- Sandwiched between epithelial cells and connective tissue -- Blood vessels and nerves woven throughout

Sweat Glands (2 types)

-- Eccrine - more numerous; secrete a salty sweat; involved in thermoregulation -- Apocrine - located in underarm and pubic region; protein-rich sweat that bacteria feed on

Simple squamous epithelial tissue

-- Function: diffusion and filtration -- Location: capillary walls, pulmonary alveoli of lungs (allows for transport of oxygen to the blood), cover visceral (internal) organs and create linings of body cavities

Simple cuboidal

-- Function: excretion, secretion and absorption -- Location: surface of ovaries, linings of kidney tubules and salivary and pancreatic ducts

Simple columnar

-- Function: protection, secretion and absorption -- Location: lining of most of digestive tract

Feedback Control of Hormone Secretions

-- Hormones are SECRETED in response to specific STIMULI (i.e. increase in blood sugar --> release of insulin --> removes sugar from the blood; pregnancy favors progesterone) -- Secretion CAN BE INHIBITED by its own effects (negative feedback inhibition) (i.e. decreased blood sugar --> inhibits the release of insulin; postpartum progesterone levels fall)

Extrinsic Regulation: Neural and Endocrine Contributions

-- Nervous System - "innervates" organs with nerve fibers -- Endocrine System - releases hormones into the blood, which transports them to multiple target organs

Transitional Epithelium

-- Numerous layers of rounded, nonkeratinized cells -- distension -- walls of ureters, part of urethra, and urinary bladder

Immune System

-- bone marrow, lymphoid organs -- defense of the body against invading pathogens

Skeletal System

-- bones, cartilages -- movement and support

Pancreas

-- both exocrine and endocrine -- ____ juice released from ducts into small intestine; insulin released into circulation

Liver

-- both exocrine and endocrine -- bile is secreted into small intestine via ducts; glucose is released into circulation following glycogenolysis

Testes and Ovaries

-- both exocrine and endocrine -- release gametes into reproductive tracts; secrete sex steroid hormones into circulation

Nervous System

-- brain, spinal cord, nerves -- regulation of other body systems

Maintaining Homeostasis: Antagonistic Effectors

-- by OPPOSING EFFECTORS that move conditions in opposite directions (this maintains conditions within a certain NORMAL RANGE, or DYNAMIC CONSTANCY)(hot = sweat; cold = shiver)

What is the definition of the Study of Biological Function (how the body works)?

-- concerned with the normal function of cells -- emphasizes mechanisms (how it works) -- explains cause and effect -- derived from scientific experiments

Muscle Tissue

-- contraction: movement, pumping -- three types: skeletal (striated); cardiac (striated); smooth (non-striated) (skeletal and cardiac have similar contractile mechanisms)

exocrine glands

-- derived from epithelial tissues -- secretions go out (are transported by ducts to surface of body) (not circulation like endocrine which lack ducts)(secretory portions may be tubes or acini groups)(Examples: lacrimal (tears), sweat, and sebaceous glands (sebum); digestive enzyme glands; mammary glands and the prostate)

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

-- excretion, secretion, or absorption -- surface of ovaries; linings of kidney tubules, salivary ducts, and pancreatic ducts

Epithelial Tissue

-- forms the membranes that cover body surfaces, line the inside of hollow organs, and glands -- epithelial membranes are classified by the number of layers: 1. simple epithelium (one layer - specialized for transport of substances); 2. stratified epithelium (multiple layers and provides protection -- classified by shape of cells: 1. squamous (flattened cells); 2. cuboidal (as tall as long); 3. columnar (tall cells) -- some modifications can occur (i.e. columnar tissues that have goblet cells that secrete mucus and cilia that move in a coordinated fashion)

Nervous Tissue

-- found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves -- composed of neurons and neuroglia (glial cells - provide support and protection; are not neuronal cells and do not conduct impulses) -- neurons conduct impulses -- 3 parts to neuronal structure: 1. dendrites (short, highly branched, cytoplasmic extensions that receive signals); 2. axon (long, single extension that sends signal); 3. cell body (soma)(metabolic center containing the nucleus

Simple Epithelia

-- function varies with type -- covering visceral organs; linings of body cavities, tubes, and ducts

Stratified Epithelia

-- function varies with type -- epidermal layer of skin; linings of body openings, ducts, and urinary bladder

Stratified Epithelial Tissues

-- function: to provide protection -- held together by structures called junctional complexes -- nonkeratinized membranes have living cells in all layers -- keratinized membranes contain dead cells filled with a water-resistant protein called keratin (Example: skin is keratinized while lining of esophagus and vagina is nonkeratinized) -- Epithelial membranes continually renew by losing (shedding) surface cells and replacing with new cells (Example: skin every 2 weeks, stomach lining every 2-3 days) -- Pap smear is actually collecting shed epithilial cells of the reproductive tract

Reproductive System

-- gonads, external genitalia, associated glands and ducts -- continuation of the human species

Circulatory System

-- heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels -- movement of blood and lympth

Endocrine System

-- hormone-secreting glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals -- secretion of regulatory molecules called hormones

What is the definition of Pathophysiology?

-- how disease or injury affects physiological processes (like what happens if we remove an ovary, spleen, or tonsils?) -- aids in understanding of normal processes

Fat

-- is considered an immune organ -- is an inflammatory organ

Urinary System

-- kidneys, ureters, urethra -- regulation of blood volume and composition

Respiratory System

-- lungs, airways -- gas exchange

Digestive System

-- mouth, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas -- breakdown of food into molecules that enter the body

Negative Feedback Loops: Mechanisms

-- moves in the OPPOSITE DIRECTION from the change -- makes the change from the set-point smaller ("normal" range) -- reverses the change in the set-point -- this is a CONTINUOUS process, always making FINE ADJUSTMENTS to stay in homeostasis

Stratified Squamous Epithelium (keratinized)

-- numerous layers containing keratin, with outer layers flattened and dead -- protection -- epidermis of skin

Stratified Squamous Epithelium (nonkeratinized)

-- numerous layers lacking keratin, with outer layers moistened and alive -- protection and pliability -- linings of oral and nasal cavities, vagina, and anal canal

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

-- only in the heart -- involuntary -- fibers are short, branched, and interconnected physically and electrically -- striated (different in structure and action from skeletal muscle) -- intercalated discs allow passage of sodium ions between cells (dark cell connections) -- no graded contraction...what you get is what you get

simple epithelium tissue

-- provide little protection -- specialized for transport of substances between internal and external environments (lumen and extracellular space for example)

Developing Pharmaceuticals

-- research is conducted for years before a drug is ever given to a person 1. study effects of a chemical on cells in vitro (in a culture dish)(cellular and molecular mechanisms)(targets for drug development) 2. study on animals (usually rats and mice) to see if the same effects occur in vivo (in a living creature) and if there are any toxic side effects (evaluating cell and molecular mechanisms)(rats and mice are genetically modified to be susceptible to particular diseases - dogs and chimps are typically not genetically modified)(animal trials may take several years)

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

-- single layer of ciliated, irregularly shaped cells; many goblet cells -- protection, secretion, ciliary movement -- lining of respiratory passageways

Simple Squamous Epithelium

-- single layer of flattened, tightly bound cells -- diffusion and filtration -- capillary walls; pulmonary alveoli of lungs; covering visceral organs; lining of body cavities

Simple Columnar Epithelium

-- single layer of nonciliated, tall, column-shaped cells -- protection, secretion, and absorption -- lining of most of digestive tract

Muscular System

-- skeletal muscles -- movements of the skeleton

Integumentary System

-- skin, hair, nails -- protection, thermoregulation

What is the definition of Comparative Physiology?

-- studies the differences and similarities in the functions of invertebrates and vertebrates -- aids in the development of pharmaceutical drugs

Positive Feedback Loops: Mechanisms

-- the END PRODUCT in a process STIMULATES the process -- action amplifies the changes that stimulated the effectors -- positive feedback could not work alone, but it does CONTRIBUTE TO MANY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS (ex. blood vessel is damaged, a process is begun to form a clot [pos. feedback]. Once the damage is fixed, clotting ends [neg. feedback].

Simple Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

-- transportive role through ciliary motion -- lining of uterine tubes

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

-- usually two layers of cube-shaped cells -- strenthening of luminal walls -- large ducts of sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

-- voluntary (consciously control) -- (most) attached to bones (via tendons) to produce movement (do not cause skeletal movement but are conscious control = tongue, esophagus, sphincters, and diaphragm -- cells organized in striations (light + dark) -- can produce graded response (force varies)(i.e. lifting can or 25 lb. bag of rice) -- myofibrils ---> muscle fibre (bundle) ---> whole muscle (include nucleus and fibers)

Smooth Muscle Tissue

-- walls of digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs, blood vessels, and bronchioles (HOLLOW ORGANS) -- non-striated -- involuntary -- generally found in LAYERS THAT RUN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS -- PERISTALSIS - coordinated, WAVE-LIKE CONTRACTIONS to move substances through the organs

What are the Phases of Clinical Trials?

1. Phase I - test drug on HEALTHY HUMAN volunteers for side effects, rates of passage, dosage, etc. (is the drug toxic?) 2. Phase II - test drug effectiveness on PEOPLE WITH THE PARTICULAR DISEASE (target population) 3. Phase III - clinical trials are conducted on a LARGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE TO INCLUDE BOTH SEXES, MANY AGE GROUPS AND ETHNICITY, AND PEOPLE WITH MORE THAN THE ONE HEALTH CONDITION. FDA can approve drug for sale from here (less than 10% of tested drugs) 4. Phase IV - trials test OTHER APPLICATIONS for the drug.

What is the Scientific Method?

1. Purpose - state the problem 2. Research - find out about the topic 3. Hypothesis - predict the outcome to the problem (good research is hypothesis driven) 4. Experiment - develop a procedure to test the hypothesis (must be reproducible) 5. Analysis - record the results of the experiment (method can affect your conclusions) 6. Conclusion - compare the hypothesis to the experiment's conclusion

Good physiological research requires what?

1. Quantifiable measurements (a number)(qualitative is yes/no) 2. Experimental group and a Control group control = baseline) 3. Statistical analysis (tests significance of results) 4. Review and Publication by a well-respected peer-reviewed journal

Negative Feedback Loops: Pathway What are the 3 Components?

1. SENSORS detect change and send information 2. INTEGRATING CENTER assesses change and sends instructions 3. EFFECTOR makes appropriate adjustments to counter the change (i.e. hot = sweat; cold = shiver or goose bumps - these are antagonistic effectors)

What is Physiology?

1. Study of biological function (how the body works) 2. Pathophysiology 3. Comparative Physiology

Innervation

1. The arrangement or distribution of nerves to an organ or body part. 2. The amount or degree of stimulation of a muscle or organ by nerves.

When Designing an Experiment, what do you need to have?

1. Topic (ex. extended time in zero gravity results in muscle weakness) 2. Suspected Mechanism 3. Hypothesis (ex. extended time in zero gravity results in muscle weakness due to atrophy) 4. Experimental Design including: -- treatment -- controls (ex. astronauts before going into space and when in space) -- data to be measured (ex. weights - muscle fatigue and stats; controlled diet - same as prior to space flight) -- how data will be analyzed

What is an example of a Positive Feedback Loop?

1. blood clotting 2. ovulation (via luteinizing hormone) 3. contractions in child birth (via oxytocin) 4. increased metabolic rate associated with increased respiration

basement

A 40-year old male is diagnosed with GoodPasture's syndrome. The patient's immune system in this situation most likely attacks a structure which is part of the _______ membrane.

a

A hormone called parathyroid hormone acts to help raise the blood calcium concentration. According to the principles of negative feedback, an effective stimulus for parathyroid hormone secretion would be a. a fall in blood calcium b. a rise in blood calcium

Maintaining Homeostasis: Quantitative Measurements

A knowledge of normal ranges aids in diagnosing diseases and in assessing the effects of drugs and other treatments in experiments.

hypothesis

A testable ________ must be formulated to design experiments to prove.

a

About 65% of the total body water is in the a. intracellular compartment b. plasma c. interstitial fluid d. extracellular fluid

c

Adult stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow, brain, or hair follicles, can best be described as ____, whereas embryonic stem cells are described as ____. a. totipotent; pluripotent b. pluripotent; multipotent c. multipotent; pluripotent d. totipotent; multipotent

Circadian Rythm

Affects sleep patters which when messed up can create more problems such as weight and stress issues

d

Antidiuretic hormone acts on kidney tubules to increase the reabsorption of water. Which of the specific epithelium is involved in this process? A. Simple columnar. B. Stratified squamous. C. Simple squamous. D. Simple cuboidal. E. Stratified cuboidal.

eacbd

Arrange the following from the simplest to the most complex order: a. Cells b. Organs c. Tissues d. Organ systems e. Molecules

cadb

Arrange the following in the correct order: a. Experiment b. Conclusion(s) c. Hypothesis d. Results

A, B

Assuming a normal range of a physiological condition above, mark the letter which represents the activation of a sensor _____ and mark the letter that represents the activation of an effector _____. (graph goes up then comes back down; A = goes up; B = comes down)

b

Blood vessels and nerves are usually located within a. nervous tissue b. connective tissue c. muscle tissue d. epithelial tissue

b

Cells are separated by large extracellular spaces in a. nervous tissue b. connective tissue c. muscle tissue d. epithelial tissue

d

Cells joined tightly together are characteristic of a. nervous tissue b. connective tissue c. muscle tissue d. epithelial tissue

Intrinsic Regulation

Cells within the organ sense a change and signal to neighboring cells to respond appropriately. (i.e. endothelium narrowing = increased blood pressure; nitric oxide = intrinsic opens up arteries and decreased blood pressure)

c

Choose the term that best describes the following: "the internal environment is never absolutely constant...conditions are stabilized above and below the set point". A. Negative feedback. B. Positive feedback. C. Dynamic constancy. D. Equilibrium.

Test Your Understanding

Compare bone, blood, and the dermis of the skin in terms of their similarities. What are the major strucutral differences between these tissues?

b

Damage to a specific neuron in the brain could control a vital function such as breathing. This example suggests that a. all neurons are involved in controlling breathing. b. different levels of organizations are interdependent. c. any cell can affect any function. d. the neuron's function is to regulate breathing only.

Test Your Understanding

Describe the role of antagonistic negative feedback processes in the maintenance of homeostasis.

Test Your Understanding

Describe the steps in the development of pharmaceutical drugs and evaluate the role of animal research in this process.

Test Your Understanding

Describe the structure of the various epithelial membranes and explain how their structures relate to their functions?

nourished by connective tissues beneath

Epithelial cells are too closely packed together to house blood vessels, so how do they receive nutrients?

Test Your Analytical Ability

Examine figure 1.5 and determine when the compensatory physiological responses began to act, and how many minutes they required to restore the initial set point of blood glucose concentration. Comment on the importance of quantitative measurements in physiology.

a

Extracellular fluid a. consists of the interstitial fluid and plasma. b. is part of the cytoplasm and surrounds the organelles. c. makes up about two-thirds of the body fluids.

Test Your Analytical Ability

Give examples of adult stem cells and explain their abilities and limitations. Why are adult stem cells needed in the body?

d

Glands are derived from a. nervous tissue b. connective tissue c. muscle tissue d. epithelial tissue

melanocyte

Graying of hair with age is caused by the loss of ______ stem cells.

1. BALANCE of the internal environment 2. MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS is the main purpose of physiological mechanisms 3. DEVIATION indicates DISEASE 4. accomplished most often via NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS

Homeostasis is Critical for Survival, Why?

increase

If the blood concentration of sodium deviates below normal (normal range: 135-145 mEq/L), a typical response expected would be a(an) _______ in sodium concentration.

theory

If the hypothesis survives its testing, it might be incorporated into a more general scientific ________ as it is based on reproducible data.

blind

If the person conducting experiments does not know whether a subject is part of the experimental group or control group, it is called _______ measurement.

b

In a negative feedback loop, the effector organ produces changes that are a. in the same direction as the change produced by the initial stimulus b. opposite in direction to the change produced by the initial stimulus c. unrelated to the initial stiumulus

d

Internal environment refers to a. plasma. b. intracellular fluid. c. interstitial fluid. d. extracellular fluid.

dcba

Match the tissue type to its characteristic feature: Tissue type 1. Nervous tissue 2. Muscular tissue 3. Connective tissue 4. Epithelial tissue Characteristic a. forms membranes b. supports and anchors body parts c. specialized for contraction d. specialized for generation and conduction of electrical impulses

1. c 2. d 3. b 4. a

Match to a., b., c., or d. 1. Phase I 2. Phase II 3. Phase III 4. Phase IV a. test other potential uses of the drug b. if successful, seek FDA approval c. drug testing on healthy d. drug testing on target population

d

Most organs are composed of a. epithelial tissue b. muscle tissue c. connective tissue d. all of these

POA of Hypothalamus

Receptors and neurons are the temperature regulators (cold = shiver or goose bumps; hot = sweat which dissipates heat)

urinary

Regulation of blood volume and composition is part of the ________ system.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Regulation

Regulation of processes within organs can occur via what?

AB, negative

Shiv is at a football game on a very cold night and begins to shiver. Mark the letter(s) which indicate(s) when he began shivering _______. This graph is an example of ________ feedback. (graph goes down then comes back up)

Test Your Analytical Ability

Suppose a person has collapsed due to a rapid drop in blood pressure. What would you expect to find regarding the rate and strength of this person's pulse? Explain how this illustrates the principle of negative feedback regulation.

c

Sweat is secreted by exocrine glands. This means that a. it is produced by endocrine cells b. it is a hormone c. it is secreted into a duct d. it is produced outside the body

c

The act of breathing raises the blood oxygen level, lowers the blood carbon dioxide concentration, and raises the blood pH. According to the principles of negative feedback, sensors that regulate breathing should respond to a. a rise in blood oxygen b. a rise in blood pH c. a rise in blood carbon dioxide concentation d. all of these

Extrinsic Regulation

The brain (or other organs) regulates an organ using the endocrine or nervous system

b

The connective tissue matrix is part of the a. intracellular fluid. b. extracellular fluid. c. plasma.

b

The endocrine glands release their secretions a. into their own ducts. b. into plasma. c. into intracellular fluid. d. on the surface of their epithelial membranes.

positive feedback mechanism

The increasingly forceful uterine contractions during childbirth are an example of _____________.

b

The loss of elastin will affect which of the following types of tissues? A. Epithelial tissue. B. Connective tissue. C. Muscular tissue. D. Nervous tissue.

simple (single layer) and stratified (multi layers)

There are 2 classes of epithelial cells based on layers, what are they?

b

Thermoregulation is a function of all of the following systems except the A. integumentary system. B. skeletal system. C. muscular system. D. nervous system.

True

True or False Chronic obesity is a state of inflammation?

True

True or False Diabetes is a state of inflammation?

True

True or False Each tissue has particular structures and functions that dictate the physiology of the organ?

True

True or False Intracellular fluid is more acidic?

True

True or False Maintaining homeostasis includes neural components as well as endocrine components?

True

True or False Physiology benefits us in developing Pharmaceuticals?

True

True or False Some glands are both exocrine and endocrine?

Test Your Understanding

Using insulin as an example, explain how the secretion of a hormone is controlled by the effects of that hormone's actions.

1. Muscle tissue 2. Nervous tissue 3. Epithelial tissue 4. Connective tissue

What are the Primary Tissues?

cells ---> tissues ---> organ ---> system ---> organism (human, etc.)

What are the levels of organization?

-- squamous -- cuboidal -- columnar

What are the three types of simple epithelium tissue?

Test Your Analytical Ability

What do you think would happen if most of your physiological regulatory mechanisms were to operate by positive feedback rather than by negative feedback? Would life even be possible?

Decreased Blood Sugar ---> pancreas ---> glucagon released (alpha) ---> liver releases glucose (glycogenolysis) ---> normal blood sugar level achieved

What is the Negative Feedback Loop for Decreased Blood Sugar levels?

Increased Blood Sugar ---> pancreas ---> insulin released (beta) ---> fat takes in glucose ---> normal blood sugar level achieved

What is the Negative Feedback Loop for Increased Blood Sugar levels?

c

Which of the following relationships between the tissue type and its major function is incorrect? A. Epithelial tissue: protection. B. Connective tissue: support. C. Muscular tissue: secretion. D. Nervous tissue: communication.

c

Which of these consists of dense parallel arrangements of collagen fibers? a. skeletal muscle tissue b. nervous tissue c. tendons d. dermis of the skin

b

Which of these statements about homeostasis is true? a. the internal environment is maintained absolutely constant b. negative feedback mechanisms act to correct deviations from a normal range within the internal environment c. homeostasis is maintained by turning effectors on and off d. all of these are true

Test Your Analytical Ability

Why are interactions between the body-fluid compartments essential for sustaining life?

Test Your Understanding

Why is Claude Bernard considered the father of modern physiology? Why is the concept he introduced so important in physiology and medicine?

keratin

allows water to roll off (dead cells)(in hair and skin)(vagina papsmear collects keratin cells)

movement

articular

Differentiated Cell Types

basic unit of life

stem cells

blank slate of cells

-- endocrine organ -- fibroblast growth factor - 23 (FGF-23) to reduce phosphate reabsorption -- osteocalcin to regulate blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition (increases insulin secretion and sensitivity and boosts the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat

bones secrete what?

psoriasis

buildup of skin cells that do not slough off normally

basal

connected to basement layer

lymph

fluid (mucus, wbc, infection) this is how the doctor can tell you have an infection (swollen)

apical

free (inside toward gut lumen)

action potential

gets cell to react (NOT at rest)

Endocrine

goes inside (to blood)(no ducts)

Organ System

group of organs...related function

Leaky Gut Syndrome

gut leaks which can lead to bacteria in the blood system and cause sepsis.

polysaccharides

mini sugars

cilia

movement in a coordinated fashion

myokines

muscles secrete what?

pounds per square inch

psi

goblet cells

secrete mucos

Tissues

similar cells with a similar function

Organism

systems working together (human, etc.)

Organ

two or more tissues...function

Acinar Cells

type of cell in glands