Chapter 1 An Orientation to Lifespan Development

Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research.

researchers measure age-related change through longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies and sequential studies

•Piaget suggested that the growth of children's understanding of the world can be explained by two principles:

-Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. -Accomodation is the process that changes existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.

Assessing Information Processing Approaches

-Pay little attention to behavior such as creativity. -Do not take into account the social context in which development takes place.

•Ethical Guidelines for Researchers (APA, SRCD)

-Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm -Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before their involvement in a study -The use of deception in research must be justified and cause no harm -Participants' privacy must be maintained

Assessing Piaget's Theory

-Thousands of investigations have shown it to be largely accurate. -Some cognitive skills emerge earlier than Piaget suggested. -Some cognitive skills emerge according to a different timetable in non-Western countries. -In every culture, some adults never reach Piaget's highest level of cognitive thought—formal, logical thought. •Some developmentalists believe cognitive thought does not develop discontinuously, but slowly, steadily, and continuously.

Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover.

-developmentalists focus on physical development, cogntive development and personality and social development. in addition to choosing to specialize in a particular topical area, developmentalists also typically look at a particular age range

Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development.

-four important issues in lifespan development are continuity vs discontinuity in development, the importance of critical periods, whether to focus on certain periods or on the entire lifespan and the nature-nurture controversy

what is the difference between critical and sensitive periods?

-in critical periods, it is assumed that the absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent irreversible consequences for the developin individual -in contrast, although the absence of a particular environmental influences during a sensitive period may hinder development, it is possible for later experiences to overcome the earlier deficients. the concept of sensitive period recognizes the plasticity of developing humans

There are substantial ______ ______ in the timing of events in ppl's lives

-individual differences -people mature at different rates and reach development milestones at different points -environmental factors also play a significant role in determining the age at which a particular event is likely to occur •In addition, age ranges are averages and some people will show substantial deviation.

Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses

-lifespan development, a scientific approach ot understanding human growth and change throughout life, encompasses physical, cognitive, social and personality development

Describe some of the basic influences on human development

-membership in a cohort, based on age and place of birth, subjects people to influcnes based on historical events (history-graded influences). people are also subject to age-graded influences, sociocultural-graded influences, and non-normative life events. Culture and ethincity also play an important role in development-both broad culture and aspects of culture, such as race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status

What are broad age ranges?!

-social constructions -the age ranges within a period and even the period itself, are in ways arbitrary and culturally defined

Describe how the psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, contextual, evolutionary, perspectives explain lifespan development.

-the psychodynamic perspective looks primarily at the influence of internal, unconcious forces on development -the behavioral perspective focuses on external, observable behaviors as the key to development -the cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand and htink about the world -the humanistic perspective concentrates on the theory that each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity and that people naturally seek to reach their full potential -the contextual perspective focuses on the relationship between individuals and the social context in which they lead their lives -the evolutionary perspective seeks to identify behavioral that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

three steps of scientific method

1. make observation/state problem 2. form hypothesis 3. preform experiment

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested

What is a theory?

A theory is a statement that has not been tested

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Compare the two major categories of lifespan development research

Correlation research seeks to identify whether an association or relationship b/w 2 factors exists. experimental research is designed to show casual relationships b/w various factors

Assessing the Bioecological Approach

There are several advantages to taking a bioecological approach to development. -It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. -It illustrates that influences are multidirectional. -It stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. ▪The dominant Western philosophy is individualism, emphasizing personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. ▪Collectivism is the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual.

What is Erikson's theory?

psychosocial development -•Psychosocial development is the approach that encompasses changes in our understanding of individuals, their interactions with others, and their standing as members of society. -•Each stage emerges in a fixed pattern and is similar for all people. •Each stage presents a crisis or conflict that each individual must address sufficiently at a particular age. •Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continued throughout the life span.

Identify different types of correlational studies and their relationship to cause and effect.

naturalistic observation, case studies and survey research are types of correlational studies. some developmental researchers also make use of psychophysiological methods

VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Vygotsky, a Russian child developmentalist, developed sociocultural theory, an approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture.

Topical areas of development

physical, cognitive, personality, social

fMRI

a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain

CAT scan

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

correlational coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables -A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase. -A negative correlation informs us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines. •Finding that two variables are correlated with one another proves nothing about causality.

What is an experiment?

a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact. -•These are called treatments, procedures applied by an investigator based on two different experiences devised for participants. •The group receiving the treatment is known as the treatment group or experimental group. •The control group is the group that receives either no treatment or alternative treatment.

Fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

why are field studies more typical of correlational then experiment designs?

bc it is difficult to control the situation and environment enough to run an experiment in a real-world setting -most developmental research experiments are conducted in laboratory studies

Describe some ethical issues that affect psychological research.

developmental researchers must follow ethical standards for conducting research. ethical guidelines for researchers cover freedom from harm, informed consent, the use of deception and preservation of participant privacy.

Explain the main features of an experiment.

experimental research seeks to discover cause-and-effect relationships by the use of a treatment group and a control group. by manipulating the IV and observaing changes in the DV, researchers find evidence of casual links b/w variables. research studies may be conducted in field settings, where participants are subject to natural conditions or in laboratories, where conditions can be controlled.

What approach does lifespan development take?!

scientific approach -researchers in lifespan development test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods. they develop theories about development, and they use methodical, scientific techniques to validate the accuracy of their assumptions systematically -all developmentalists view development as continuing across the lifespan -as they focus on change throughout the lifespan, they also consider stability. they ask in which areas and periods, do people show change and growth, and when and how their behavior reveals consistency and continuity with prior behavior -developmeantalists assume that the process of development persists from the moment of conception and until death, with people changing in some ways right up to the end of their lives an din other ways exhibting remarkable stablity. they believe that no single period governs all development, but instead that people maintain the capacity for substantial growth and change throughout their lives.

what is the central feature of all experiments?

the comparison of the consequences of different treatments. the use of both treatment and control groups allows researchers to rule out the possibility that something other than the experimental manipulation produced the results found in the experiment

Discuss the value of applying multiple perspectives to lifespan development.

the various theoretical perspectives provide different ways of looking at development. an eclectic approach paints a more complete picture of the ways humans change over the life span

Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research

theoritical research is designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge, whereas applied research is meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems

CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE PERIODS: GAUGING THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS

•A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. •Because individuals are now considered more malleable than was first thought, developmentalists are more likely to speak of sensitive periods as a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences.

ASSESSING THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

•According to classical and operant conditioning, people and organisms are black boxes in which nothing that occurs inside is understood or even cared about. •Social-cognitive learning theory argues that what makes people different from rats and pigeons is mental activity, which must be taken into account. •Social-cognitive learning theory has come to predominate over classical and operant conditioning.

The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings

•According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. •This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. •Carl Rogers suggests that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. •Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way, is a primary goal in life.

SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY: LEARNING THROUGH IMITATION

•Albert Bandura suggests that a certain amount of learning occurs in the form of social-cognitive learning theory, which is learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model. •Observer must pay attention to model's behavior. -Observer must successfully recall the behavior. -Behavior must be reproduced accurately. -Observer must be motivated to learn and carry out behavior.

ASSESSING THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE

•Contemporary psychological research supports the idea that unconscious memories have an influence on our behavior. •The notion that people pass through stages in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little research support. •Because Freud based his theory on a small sample of upper-middle-class Austrians living during a strict, puritanical era, it is questionable how applicable the theory is to multicultural populations. •Because his theory focuses on men, it has been criticized as sexist and devaluing women.

CONTINUOUS CHANGE VERSUS DISCONTINUOUS CHANGE

•Continuous change involves gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels. •Discontinuous change is development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages.

Key Debates in Lifespan Development

•Continuous versus discontinuous change •Critical periods versus sensitive periods •Lifespan approach versus particular-periods approach •The relative influence of nature and nurture

Assessing Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches

•Definitely a new frontier •Results of investigations are often more descriptive than explanatory

Why "Which Approach is Right?" Is the Wrong Question

•Each emphasizes different aspects of development. -Psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior. -Behavioral approaches emphasize overt behavior. -Cognitive and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do. -The evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development.

LIFESPAN APPROACHES VERSUS A FOCUS ON PARTICULAR PERIODS

•Early developmentalists focused on "infancy" and "adolescence." •Today, the entire life span is seen as important for several reasons. -Growth and change continue throughout life. -An important part of every person's environment is the other people around him or her, the person's social environment.

ASSESSING THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE (erikson though)

•Erikson's view that development continues throughout the life span is highly important and has received considerable support. •Erikson also focused more on men than women. •Much of Erikson's theory is too vague to test rigorously. •In sum, the psychodynamic perspective provides a good description of past behavior, but imprecise predictions of future behavior.

CHOOSING A RESEARCH SETTING

•First, researchers choose a sample, a group of participants chosen for the experiment. •Field study is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting. •Laboratory study is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant.

SEQUENTIAL STUDIES

•In sequential studies, researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time. -This combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research. -It can tell about age changes and age differences.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES

•Information processing approaches provide the model that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information. •The theory grew out of the computer age. •Theorists assume that even complex behaviors such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual steps. •They assume cognitive growth is more quantitative than qualitative. •They suggest that as people age, they are better able to control their mental processing and change the strategies they choose to process information.

PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

•Jean Piaget (1896-1980) proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. •In each stage, the quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well. •Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions.

What does Lifespan Development focus on?!

•Lifespan development focuses on human development. -Universal principles of development -Cultural, racial, and ethnic differences -Individual traits and characteristics •Lifespan developmentalists view development as a lifelong, continuing process. •Lifespan developmentalists focus on change and growth in addition to stability, consistency, and continuity in people's lives. •Lifespan developmentalists are interested in people's lives from the moment of conception until death. *all developmental specalists acknowledge that neither one alone can account for the full range of human development. we must look at the interaction of heredity and environment, attempting to grasp how both underlie human behavior

What is lifespan development?

•Lifespan development is a field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan •Developmental psychologists test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods.

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF NATURE AND NURTURE ON DEVELOPMENT

•Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one's parents. -It encompasses maturation, any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. •Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

•Psychophysiological methods focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. •Electroencephalogram (EEG) •Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan •Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan

how is behavior reinforced in operant conditioning?

•Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. •Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it will decrease the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. •When behavior receives no reinforcement, it is likely to be discontinued or extinguished. •Principles of operant conditioning are used in behavior modification, a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

ASSESSING THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

•Some developmentalists criticize the evolutionary perspective for paying insufficient attention to the environment and social factors. •Others argue that there is no good experimental way to support theories derived from evolution.

Assessing Vygotsky's Theory

•Some suggest the strong emphasis on culture and social experience ignores biological factors. •Vygostky minimizes the role individuals can play in shaping their own environment.

THE BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT

•The bioecological approach (Bronfenbrenner) is the perspective suggesting that different levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals. -The microsystem is the everyday, immediate environment such as homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers. -The mesosystem connects various aspects of the microsystem, linking children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends.

THE BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMEN

•The exosystem represents such broad influences as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. •The macrosystem represents larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, religious systems, and political thought. •The chronosystem involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affects children's development.

•INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

•The formation of treatment and control groups represents the independent variable, the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment. •In contrast, the dependent variable is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation. •A critical step in the design of an experiment is to assign participants to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone, called random assignment, allowing the researcher, through laws of statistics, to draw conclusions with confidence.

ASSESSING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

•The humanistic perspective has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. •It has not identified any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of age or experience. •Some criticize the theory's assumption that people are basically good, which is unverifiable.

The evolutionary perspective draws on the field of

•ethology (Konrad Lorenz, 1903-1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics, which studies the effects of heredity on behavior

Cognitive neuroscientists seek to

•identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity; for example, by using brain scans. •This innovative research has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders. Brains of children diagnosed with the disorder autism show explosive, dramatic growth in the first year of

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

•people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. -Differences may be due to cohort effects. -Selective dropout, where participants in some age groups are more likely to quit participating in the study than others. Changes in individuals or groups are unable to be explained

what does the behavioral perspective suggest?

•suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. -Behaviorists reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. -Development occurs as the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment. -Development is viewed as quantitative rather than qualitative.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES: MEASURING INDIVIDUAL CHANGE

•the behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subjects age. -They require a tremendous investment of time. -There is the possibility of participant attrition, or loss. -Participants may become "test-wise."

Evolutionary perspectives grew out of the work

•the work of Charles Darwin, who argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. •The evolutionary perspectives argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but also certain personality traits and social behaviors.

Vygotsky argued that children's understanding of the world is acquired through

•through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. •He also argued that to understand the course of development, we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. •Sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people in the child's environment and the child.