Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation, 4: Skin and Body Membranes, Chapter 3 (Specifically Tissues), 3: Cells and Tissues, 2: Basic Chemistry, Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry, BIO 145 Chapter 1 Part 1, BIO 145 Chapter 1 Part 2, Anatomy Chapter 4 Terms

Typically, cells are bound together in three ways:

1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular glue. 2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove fashion. 3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed. These junctions vary structurally depending on their roles.

When the skin is burned and its cells are destroyed, two life-threatening problems result.

1. Without an intact boundary, the body loses its precious supply of fluids containing proteins and electrolytes as these seep from the burned surfaces 2. Infection

Each element is a unique substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. A total of __________ elements exists; they differ from one another in their chemical and physical properties.

118

_____________ varieties of amino acids are found in human proteins

20

Why do no skin cancers develop from stratum corneum cells?

Because stratum corneum cells are dead and thus no longer are dividing.

What are mitochondria known as the powerhouses of the cell?

Because they supply most of the ATP

cardiovascular system

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Are caused by inflammation of hair follicles and surrounding tissues, commonly on the dorsal neck

Boils

___________, sometimes called osseous tissue, is composed of osteocytes sitting in cavities called lacunae. These pits are surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix that contains calcium salts in addition to large numbers of collagen fibers. Because of its rocklike hardness, it has an exceptional ability to protect and support other body organs (for example, the skull protects the brain).

Bone

How do secretions of apocrine glands differ from those of the eccrine sweat glands?

Both are dilute salt solutions containing vitamins and wastes. Apocrine secretion also contains proteins and fatty acids.

digestive system

Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Small fluid-filled blisters that itch and sting, caused by human herpesvirus 1 infection. The virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve, where it remains dormant until activated by emotional upset, fever, or UV radiation. Usually occur around the lips and in the oral mucosa of the mouth and nose

Cold sores (fever blisters)

are responsible for the toughness of the dermis; they also attract and bind water and thus help to keep the skin hydrated

Collagen fibers

Which fiber type contributes strength to connective tissues?

Collagen fibers provide strength.

What is the special function of gap junctions? Of tight junctions?

Communication and binding together, respectively.

Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin, progressing to blistering. It is caused by exposure of the skin to chemicals (such as those in poison ivy) that provoke allergic responses in sensitive individuals

Contact dermatitis

involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms

Covalent bonds

What is cytokinesis? What results if cytokinesis does not happen?

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. If cytokinesis does not occur, the result is a binucleate cell.

Nucleic acids include ___ and ___

DNA and RNA

The two major kinds of nucleic acids are

DNA and RNA

How do DNA and RNA differ from each other in the kinds of bases and sugars they contain?

DNA contains the bases A, T, G, and C, and the sugar deoxyribose. RNA contains the bases A, G, C, and U, and its sugar is ribose.

How do the terms template strand and complementary relate to DNA synthesis?

DNA is double-stranded. When it is replicated, each strand serves as a template to build a complementary strand. Thus, if the template strand is ACT, the complementary strand formed at that site is TGA.

________________ precedes mitosis

DNA replication

_____________ is the template for transcription, and ______________ is the product

DNA, mRNA

Is the formation of glycogen from glucose an example of hydrolysis or dehydration synthesis?

Dehydration synthesis.

Which tissue type is the basis for scar tissue?

Dense fibrous connective tissue is the basis for fibrosis, or scar formation.

_________________ are anchoring junctions scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells

Desmosomes

The process by which molecules (and ions) move away from areas where they are more concentrated (more numerous) to areas where they are less concentrated (with fewer of them)

Diffusion

Passive Processes:

Diffusion and Filtration

Represents the most extreme example of a hypotonic fluid because it contains no solutes at all

Distilled water

the more numerous type of sweat gland found all over the body, but particularly abundant on the palms, soles of feet, and the forehead. Its secretions contain water, salts and metabolic wastes such as urea and uric acid.

Eccrine gland

This cell carries oxygen in the blood. Its biconcave disc shape provides extra surface area for the uptake of oxygen and streamlines the cell so it flows easily through the bloodstream. So much oxygen-carrying pigment is packed in them that all other organelles have been shed to make room.

Erythrocyte (red blood cell)

____________ reactions involve both the making and breaking of bonds. Atoms are replaced by other _________

Exchange, atoms

_______________ glands retain their ducts, and their secretions exit through the ducts to the epithelial surface.

Exocrine

glands that be be both internal and external

Exocrine glands

How do endocrine and exocrine glands differ in structure and function?

Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretion (typically a protein-containing secretion other than hormones) to a free body surface. Endocrine glands produce only hormones and are ductless glands

__________________ is the mechanism that cells use to actively secrete hormones, mucus, and other cell products or to eject certain cellular wastes.

Exocytosis

___________________ involves a "docking" process in which docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma membrane docking proteins and bind with them

Exocytosis

___________________________ provides passage for certain needed substances (notably glucose) that are both lipid-insoluble and too large to pass through the membrane pores, or charged, as in the case of chloride ions passing through a membrane protein channel

Facilitated diffusion

This cell has an elongated shape, like the cable-like fibers that it secretes. It has an abundant rough ER and a large Golgi apparatus to make and secrete the protein building blocks of these fibers.

Fibroblast

Cells that connect body parts

Fibroblasts and Erythrocytes

Which is more important for building body structures, fibrous or globular proteins?

Fibrous proteins

Some proteins float freely in the lipid bilayer of the membrane, whereas others are anchored in specific locations. What structure(s) could anchor the stationary proteins?

Filaments of the cytoskeleton attached to membrane proteins

_______________ is the process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane (or capillary wall) by fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure

Filtration

burn characterized by redness and swelling; affects only the epidermis.

First-degree burn

virus that causes cold sores

Human herpesvirus 1

_____________ bonds are fragile bonds that bind together water molecules or different parts of the same molecule (intramolecular bonds) but do not involve __________. They are common in large, complex organic molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids

Hydrogen, electrons

Pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (commonly around the mouth and nose) that develop a yellow crust and eventually rupture (Figure 4.9b). Caused by highly contagious staphylococcus or streptococcus infections, impetigo is common in elementary school-aged children

Impetigo

Explain the phrase "move down the concentration gradient."

"Down the concentration gradient" means to move from where there is a lot of something (high concentration) to where there is not a lot (low concentration).

neutralization

(1) a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base; (2) blockage of the harmful effects of bacterial exotoxins or viruses by the binding of antibodies to their functional sites.

tarsal

(1) one of the seven bones that form the ankle and heel; (2) relating to the ankle.

the ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma:

(A) Asymmetry. Any two sides of the pigmented spot or mole do not match. (B) Border irregularity. The borders of the lesion are not smooth but exhibit indentations. (C) Color. The pigmented spot contains areas of different colors (black, brown, tan, and sometimes blue or red). (D) Diameter. The lesion is larger than 6 millimeters (mm) in diameter (the size of a pencil eraser). (E) Evolution. One or more of these characteristics (ABCD) is evolving, or changing.

Is the least malignant and most common skin cancer

Basal cell carcinoma

When a body region is inflamed, the local ___________________ soaks up the excess fluid like a sponge, and the area swells and becomes puffy, a condition called edema

areolar tissue

three main types of loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, and reticular

axilla

armpit; pertaining to axillary region.

Small bands of smooth muscle cells—________________—connect each side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue. When these muscles contract (as when we are cold or frightened), the hair is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface with "goose bumps."

arrector pili

orbital model

atomic model that describes the regions around the atomic nucleus where electrons are likely to be located.

the structural ladder

atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms

decrease in size, can occur in an organ or body area that loses its normal stimulation

atrophy

_________________________________ is packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs called skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton. These muscles, which can be controlled voluntarily (or consciously), form the flesh of the body, the so-called muscular system.

Skeletal muscle tissue

Which muscle type(s) is(are) injured when you pull a muscle while exercising?

Skeletal muscle.

These cells are elongated and filled with abundant contractile filaments, so they can shorten forcefully and move the bones, pump blood, or change the size of internal organs to move substances around the body.

Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle cells

a dry body membrane exposed to air; also called cutaneous membrane.

Skin

structures developing from the epidermis; includes sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair follicles and hairs, and nails.

Skin appendages

________________________________________ arises from the cells of the stratum spinosum. The lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules (small, rounded swellings) that gradually form shallow ulcers with firm, raised borders (Figure 4.11b). This variety of skin cancer appears most often on the scalp, ears, back of the hands, and lower lip, but can appear anywhere on the skin. It grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes if not removed. This epidermal cancer is also believed to be induced by UV exposure. If it is caught early and removed surgically or by radiation therapy, the chance of complete cure is good

Squamous cell carcinoma

____________ are basically flat molecules formed of four interlocking carbon rings (see Figure 2.15c); thus, their structure differs quite a bit from that of other lipids. However, like fats, they are made largely of hydrogen and carbon atoms and are fat-soluble.

Steroids

Like all other epithelial tissues, the epidermis is ________________; that is, it has no blood supply of its own

avascular

atomic weight

average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.

Inferior (caudal)

away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below

lateral

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of

Typically has just two cell layers with (at least) the surface cells being cuboidal in shape.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Both of these epithelia are fairly rare in the body, found mainly in the ducts of large glands.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium and stratified columnar epithelium

Consist of two or more cell layers. Being considerably more durable than the simple epithelia, these epithelia function primarily in protection.

Stratified epithelia

Is found in sites that receive a good deal of abuse or friction, such as the surface of the skin, the mouth, and the esophagus

Stratified squamous epithelium

Is the most common stratified epithelium in the body. It usually consists of many cell layers. The cells at the free edge are squamous cells, whereas those close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or columnar.

Stratified squamous epithelium

deepest, dividing cell layer of the epidermis, also called stratum germinativum.

Stratum basale

most superficial epidermal layer; composed of dead, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Stratum corneum

epidermal layer just superficial to stratum spinosum; cells begin to flatten and become keratinized.

Stratum granulosum

epidermal layer found only in thick skin, just superficial to stratum granulosum; cells secrete glycolipid that resists water and also begin to die in this layer.

Stratum lucidum

epidermal layer just superficial to stratum basale; cells in this layer are filled with pre-keratin.

Stratum spinosum

beneath the skin.

Subcutaneous

Serves as a shock absorber and insulates the deeper tissues from extreme temperature changes occurring outside the body. It is also responsible for the curves that are more a part of a woman's anatomy than a man's.

Subcutaneous tissue

Are composed of loose areolar connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells at all

Synovial membranes

These membranes line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints , where they provide a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid. They also line small sacs of connective tissue called bursae and the tube-like tendon sheaths

Synovial membranes

Chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific cell type. Most are stored nutrients or cell products floating in the cytosol. They include the lipid droplets common in fat cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver and muscle cells, pigments such as melanin in skin and hair cells, mucus and other secretory products, and various kinds of crystals

Inclusions

A solution containing small amounts of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and salts, dissolved in water

Intracellular fluid (collectively, the nucleoplasm and the cytosol)

All matter consists of elements. The greatest part of living matter is organized using only four elements. Which of the following elements does NOT make up the bulk of living matter?

Iron

_____________ solutions cause no visible changes in cells, and when such solutions are infused into the bloodstream, red blood cells (RBCs) retain their normal size and disclike shape

Isotonic

________________ solutions (such as 5 percent glucose and 0.9 percent saline) have the same solute and water concentrations as cells do.

Isotonic

_______________ are different atomic forms of the same element; they differ only in the number of ___________ . Many of the heavier isotopes are unstable and decompose to a more stable form by ejecting particles or energy from the nucleus, a phenomenon called __________________. Such radioisotopes are useful in medical diagnosis and treatment and in biochemical research.

Isotopes, neutrons, radioactivity,

How does the extended length of a neuron's processes aid its function in the body?

It allows neurons to control structures some distance away

Which statement best describes energy?

It does not have mass or occupy space.

If an atom has 10 electrons in its valence shell, how will it interact with atoms of a different element?

It will give away 2 valence electrons to other atoms.

You have just gotten a paper cut, but it doesn't bleed. Which layer(s) of the skin has/have the cut penetrated?

Just the epidermis.

respiratory system

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

____________, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black, is produced by special spider-shaped cells called melanocytes, found chiefly in the _________________. Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot

Melanin, stratum basale

a cell that produces melanin.

Melanocyte

cells associated with nerve endings that serve as touch receptors.

Merkel cell

Seen here and there at the epidermal-dermal junction are ____________________________, which are associated with sensory nerve endings and serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs.

Merkel cells

_________________________ molecules are long, single nucleotide strands that resemble half of a DNA molecule. They carry the "message" containing instructions for protein synthesis from the DNA (gene) in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

In this short stage, the chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate (the center of the spindle midway between the centrioles) so that a straight line of chromosomes is seen.

Metaphase

Which two types of cytoskeletal elements are involved in cell mobility?

Microtubules and microfilaments are involved in cell mobility.

________________ are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane that project from an exposed cell surface. They increase the cell's surface area tremendously and so are usually found on the surface of cells active in absorption such as intestinal and kidney tubule cells

Microvilli

_______________have a core of actin filaments that extend into the internal cytoskeleton of the cell and stiffen the microvillus

Microvilli

The major function of cilia is to move substances across the free cell surface. What is the major role of microvilli?

Microvilli increase the cell surface area for absorption.

___________________ are usually depicted as tiny, lozenge-like or sausage-shaped organelles, but in living cells they lengthen and change shape almost continuously

Mitochondria

Which organelle is the major site of ATP synthesis? Which packages proteins.

Mitochondria are the major site of ATP synthesis. The Golgi apparatus is the packaging site.

The process of dividing a nucleus into two daughter nuclei with exactly the same genes as the "mother" nucleus

Mitosis

In all cells other than bacteria and some cells of the reproductive system, cell division consists of two events. ____________ or division of the nucleus, occurs first. The second event is division of the cytoplasm, _____________________, which begins when mitosis is nearly completed.

Mitosis, cytokinesis

membrane that forms the linings of body cavities open to the exterior (digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts).

Mucous membrane (mucosa)

modified epidermal tissue; scale-like protection for ends of digits.

Nail

What cellular error allows a neoplasm to form?

Neoplasm means "new growth." It is an abnormal growth that occurs when normal control of cell division is lost; this was also described as "mitosis gone wild."

Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

Nerve cell (neuron)

This cell has long processes (extensions) for receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the body. The processes are covered with an extensive plasma membrane, and a plentiful rough ER synthesizes membrane components and signaling molecules called neurotransmitters.

Nerve cell (neuron)

Nervous tissue is irritable. What does this mean?

Nervous tissue is irritable, meaning it is able to respond to stimuli.

What is the main function of a neuron?

Neurons gather information and control body functions

When a factory worker caught his finger in a machine, the entire nail, plus the nail matrix and bed, was torn off. Will his nail grow back? Why or why not?

No, the nail won't regrow, because the growth region (nail matrix) is torn off.

Which nuclear component produces protein-building factories?

Nucleoli

___________________ are sites where cell structures called ribosomes are assembled

Nucleoli

What is the general function of nucleoli?

Nucleoli are the sites of synthesis of ribosomes, which are important in protein synthesis.

superficial layer of dermis bordering epidermis; contains dermal papillae, the cause of fingerprints.

Papillary layer

A scalpel penetrates the left lung and enters the heart. Name the six serous membrane layers the blade passes through as it moves from the body surface into the heart.

Parietal pleura, visceral pleura, (lung), visceral pleura, parietal pleura, parietal pericardium, visceral pericardium, (heart).

burn extending through only part of skin; first-degree affects only epidermis, whereas second-degree burns damage the epidermis and part of the dermis. Healing will occur, and skin grafts are not necessary.

Partial-thickness burn

the membranous sac enveloping the heart.

Pericardium

What determines the net direction of any diffusion process?

The concentration gradient determines the direction that water and solutes move by diffusion. Movement is from high to low concentration of a given substance.

How do the cytosol and the cytoplasm differ?

The cytosol is the liquid portion of the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm includes cytosol, organelles, and inclusions.

Which structure(s) are responsible for fingerprints?

The dermal papillae in the papillary layer of the dermis are responsible for fingerprints.

How does an enzyme recognize its substrate(s)?

The enzyme is able to specifically bind with its substrate(s).

also called covering and lining membranes, include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the mucous membranes, and the serous membrane

The epithelial membranes

How would you explain the meaning of a "generalized cell" to a classmate?

The generalized cell is a concept that describes organelles and functions common to all cells.

What does the molecular formula CO2 mean?

The molecule contains one atom of carbon (C) and two atoms of oxygen (O).

What occurs when acid is added to a solution with a pH of 7?

The pH drops below 7.

Why do phospholipids (which form the bulk of plasma membranes) organize into a bilayer, tail to tail, in a watery environment?

The phospholipids have both polar (heads) and nonpolar (tails) regions. Polar aligns with polar (water and other polar molecules inside and outside the cell). Nonpolar aligns with nonpolar in the membrane interior.

digestion

The process by which the body breaks down food into small nutrient molecules

This method divides the body into 11 areas, each accounting for 9 percent of the total body surface area, plus an additional area surrounding the genitals (the perineum) representing 1 percent of body surface area

The rule of nines

What is the source of the vernix caseosa that covers the skin of the newborn baby?

The sebaceous glands of the baby.

Which of the cutaneous gland types can make your hair limp and oily?

The sebaceous glands, which produce oily secretions.

What are the two stages of protein synthesis, and in which stage are proteins actually synthesized? What occurs in the other stages?

Transcription and translation. Proteins are synthesized during translation. Transcription is the production of mRNA using DNA as a template.

__________________________ molecules are small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules that escort amino acids to the ribosome

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium that forms the lining of only a few organs—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra

Transitional epithelium

represent the body's most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy

Triglycerides

True or False: Because lysosomal enzymes are capable of digesting worn-out or nonusable cell structures and most foreign substances that enter the cell, lysosomes function as cellular "stomachs."

True

True or False: Filtration is not very selective. For the most part, only blood cells and protein molecules too large to pass through the membrane pores are held back

True

True or False: Most chemical reactions are reversible

True

True or False: Rough ER is especially abundant in cells that make (synthesize) and export (secrete) proteins—for example, pancreatic cells, which produce digestive enzymes to be delivered to the small intestine

True

True or False: Smooth muscle contracts much more slowly than the other two muscle types, and these contractions tend to last longer

True

True or False: The dermis has a rich blood and nerve supply

True

True or False: When the nucleus divides, each daughter nucleus ends up with exactly the same genetic information as the original mother cell

True

the serous membrane lining the interior of the abdominal cavity and covering the surfaces of the abdominal organs.

Peritoneum

Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde. However, their most important function is to "disarm" dangerous free radicals.

Peroxisomes

Which vesicular transport process moves large particles into the cell?

Phagocytosis moves large particles into the cell.

Which type(s) of lipid(s) is/are found in cellular membranes?

Phospholipids and cholesterol are in cellular membranes; phospholipids are the most abundant.

lymphatic system

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells involved in immunity.

Name the three basic parts of a cell, and give the location of each.

Plasma membrane = external barrier that regulates what enters and leaves the cell. Cytoplasm = the area where most cell activities occur. Nucleus = control center of the cell.

Excretion

Process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body

Method of computing the extent of burns by dividing the body into 11 areas, each accounting for 9 percent of the total body area plus an area around the genitals representing 1 percent of the body.

Rule of nines

glands that empty their sebum secretion into hair follicles.

Sebaceous glands

skin lesions due to overactivity of the sebaceous glands in infants that becomes yellow and crusty; called cradle cap.

Seborrhea

__________________ is essentially prophase in reverse. The chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again. The spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass, and nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei.

Telophase

________________________ burns involve injury to the epidermis and the superficial part of the dermis. The skin is red, painful, and blistered. Because sufficient numbers of epithelial cells are still present, regrowth (regeneration) of the epithelium can occur. Ordinarily, no permanent scars result if care is taken to prevent infection

Second-degree

burn damaging all of the epidermis and the superficial part of the dermis; blisters are often present.

Second-degree burn

a clear, watery fluid secreted by the cells of a serous membrane.

Serous fluid

membrane that lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body (except for joint cavities, which have a synovial membrane); serosa.

Serous membrane

How do the body locations of serous and mucous membranes differ?

Serous membranes line ventral body cavities closed to the exterior. Mucous membranes line body cavities open to the exterior (respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive organ cavities).

_____________________________ occur in pairs. The _________________ layer lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity. It folds in on itself to form the ____________ layer, which covers the outside of the organ(s) in that cavity.

Serous membranes, parietal, visceral,

Goblet cells, which produce a lubricating mucus, are often seen in this type of epithelium

Simple columnar epithelium

Is made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together

Simple columnar epithelium

Lines the entire length of the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus

Simple columnar epithelium

one layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basement membrane, is common in glands and their associated small tubes called ducts (for example, the salivary glands and pancreas). It also forms the walls of the kidney tubules and covers the surface of the ovaries

Simple cuboidal epithelium

_____________________ epithelium forms serous membranes, or serosae , the slick membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that cavity

Simple squamous

Because it is essential that all body cells have the same genetic material, an important event always precedes cell division:

The DNA molecule (the genetic material) is duplicated exactly in a process called DNA replication. This occurs toward the end of interphase.

______________________ epithelium is in the air sacs of the lungs (called alveoli), where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, and it forms the walls of capillaries, where nutrients and gases pass between the blood in the capillaries and the interstitial fluid.

Simple squamous

This type of epithelium usually forms membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs

Simple squamous epithelium

a single layer of thin squamous cells resting on a basement membrane. The cells fit closely together, much like floor tiles

Simple squamous epithelium

Which of the cytoskeletal elements is the basis of centrioles? Of microvilli?

The basis of centrioles is microtubules; that of microvilli is a core of actin filaments.

This cell extends long pseudopods ("false feet") to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites. The many lysosomes within the cell digest the infectious microorganisms (such as bacteria) that it "eats."

White blood cells such as the macrophage (a phagocytic cell)

covalent bond

a bond involving the sharing of electrons between atoms

fatty acid

a building block of fats.

periodic table

a chart listing known elements and their properties.

exchange reaction

a chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

organic compound

a compound containing carbon; examples include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

inorganic compound

a compound that lacks carbon; for example, water.

decomposition reaction

a destructive chemical reaction in which complex substances are broken down into simpler ones.

homeostatic imbalance

a disturbance or change in homeostasis that effects function.

oxygen

a gas required by body cells for aerobic respiration and the production of ATP

organ system

a group of organs that work together to perform a vital body function; e.g., nervous system

The huge spherical shape of a fat cell is produced by

a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm

pH scale

a logarithmic scale based on the concentration of hydrogen ions.

polymer

a long, chainlike molecule consisting of many similar or repeated units.

Saggital Section/Plane

a longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left portions.

Frontal (coronal) section (plane)

a longitudinal plane that divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions.

Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)

a modified nucleotide with two phosphates instead of one.

phospholipid

a modified triglyceride containing phosphorus.

A compound is defined as __________.

a molecule composed of two or more elements

all cells have three main regions or parts—

a nucleus, a plasma membrane, and the cytoplasm

An atomic symbol is __________.

a one- or two-letter abbreviation for an element

atomic symbol

a one-or two-letter symbol indicating a particular element.

organ

a part of the body formed of two or more tissues that performs a specialized function.

globular protein

a protein whose functional structure is basically spherical. Also referred to as functional protein; includes hemoglobin, enzymes, and some hormones

Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)

a special version of computed tomography (CT) that assembles computerized three dimensional images of organs from any angle.

homeostasis

a state of dynamic body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body.

fibrous protein

a strandlike protein that appears most often in body structures; very important in binding structures together and for providing strength in certain body tissues; also called structural protein.

Two main elements of extracellular matrix

a structureless ground substance and fibers

enzyme

a substance formed by living cells that acts as a catalyst in chemical reactions in the body

buffer

a substance or substances that help to stabilize the pH of a solution.

electrolyte

a substance that breaks down into ions when in solution and is capable of conducting an electric current.

acid

a substance that liberates hydrogen ions when in an aqueous solution; proton donor; compare with base.

glycerol

a sugar alcohol; one of the building blocks of fats.

Sweat is _________ (pH from 4 to 6), a characteristic that inhibits the growth of certain bacteria, which are always present on the skin surface

acidic

an active infection of the sebaceous glands in the skin accompanied by pimples.

acne

movement

actions generated by the muscular system including whole body movements and moving substances within the body.

In ____________ processes, the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) that drives the transport process.

active

Whenever a cell uses ATP to move substances across the membrane, the process is ____________

active

The two most important active processes are

active transport and vesicular transport.

The epithelium of mucosae is often

adapted for absorption or secretion

The bases come in five varieties:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)

What organic molecule provides an immediate source of chemical energy within all cells?

adenosine triphosphate

Active transport usually moves substances _____________ the concentration gradient.

against

ion

an atom with a positive or negative electric charge.

chemical bond

an energy relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of electrons.

growth

an increase in cell size or body size to to an increase in the number of cells

organism

an individual living thing

Effector

an organ, gland, or muscle capable of being activated by nerve endings.

amino acid

an organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the building block of protein.

During __________________, the centromeres that have held the chromatids together split. The chromatids (now called chromosomes again) begin to move slowly apart, drawn toward opposite ends of the cell. The chromosomes seem to be pulled by their half-centromeres, with their "arms" dangling behind them. This careful division of sister chromatids ensures that each daughter cell gets one copy of every chromosome.

anaphase

Directional Terms

anatomical language used to accurately describe where one body structure is in relation to another.

The ____________ (basal) surface of epithelium rests on a ______________________, a structureless material secreted by both the epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells deep to the epithelium

anchored, basement membrane

digestive cavity

another term used to describe the digestive tract.

orbital cavity

anterior facial cavity that houses the eyeball; also called orbit.

antecubital

anterior surface of the elbow.

element

any of the building blocks of matter; oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, for example.

matter

anything that occupies space and has mass.

The membranes of epithelial tissue cells always have one free (unattached) surface or edge. This ___________surface is exposed to the body's exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ. The exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface modifications, such as microvilli or cilia.

apical

The epidermis is composed of up to five layers, or strata. From the inside out these are the:

stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum

The outermost layer, the ___________________________, is 20 to 30 cell layers thick, but it accounts for about three-quarters of the epidermal thickness. The shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely filled with keratin, are referred to as cornified, or horny, cells

stratum corneum

Stratum lucidum is located between

stratum granulosum and stratum corneum

This latter epidermal layer is not present in all skin regions. It occurs only where the skin is hairless and extra thick, that is, on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

stratum lucidum

Gross Anatomy

study of large structures that are easily observable

Proton (p+)

subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus.

compound

substance composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are chemically united.

catalyst

substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changed or part of the product;

Disaccharides include

sucrose, lactose, and maltose

the glands that produce a saline solution called sweat

sudoriferous glands or sweat glands

Burns are classified according to their severity (depth) as first-degree (______________), second-degree (_________________________), third-degree (_________________________), or fourth-degree (_______________________________________)

superficial, superficial partial-thickness burns, full-thickness burns, full-thickness burns with deep-tissue involvement

Overall role of connective tissues

support

aqueous secretion produced by sweat glands; contains salts, metabolic wastes such as urea and uric acid, and other substances.

sweat

Reactions that result in larger, more complex molecules and involve strong energy in the bonds formed

synthesis reactions

digestive system

system that processes food into absorbable units and eliminates indigestible wastes.

What is the role of tRNA in protein synthesis?

tRNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome and "checks" the location by recognizing the mRNA codon with its anticodon

The ability of water to absorb heat and thus buffer changes in temperature is important for __________.

temperature homeostasis

attach skeletal muscles to bones

tendons

Each change in one pH unit represents a _____ change in the hydrogen ion concentration

tenfold

epigastric region

the abdominal region superior to the umbilical region.

energy

the ability to do work

responsivness (irritability)

the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then react to them

Responsiveness (irritability)

the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then to react to them;

normal body temperature

the average temperature of a healthy body; 37 degrees Celsius, or 98 degrees Fahrenheit.

digestion

the body process of breaking down foods chemically and mechanically.

The series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it divides

the cell life cycle

atomic nucleus

the center of an atom where protons and neutrons are located.

umbilical region

the centermost of the nine abdominal regions deep to the navel (umbilicus).

Anaphase is over when

the chromosomes stop moving.

different amino acid sequences result in

the construction of different proteins

excretion

the elimination of waste products from the body.

sacral

the lower portion of the back, just superior to the buttocks at the base of the spine.

Fibrous (structural) proteins are

the major building materials for cells

The atomic weight is approximately equal to

the mass number of the most abundant isotope of any element

oral cavity

the mouth; contains teeth and the tongue.

The nucleus has three recognizable regions or structures:

the nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin.

Each epithelium is given two names. The first indicates _______________________________________________________________________. The second describes ________________________________________.

the number of cell layers it has, the shape of its cells

atomic number

the number of protons in an atom.

valence shell

the outermost energy level of an atom that contains electrons; the electrons in the valence shell determine the bonding behavior of the atom.

Abdominopelvic cavity

the part of the ventral body cavity inferior to the diaphragm.

lumbar

the portion of the back between the thorax and the pelvis; the loin.

glucose

the principal sugar in the blood; a monosaccharide.

hydrolysis

the process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles.

radioactivity

the process of spontaneous decay seen in some of the heavier isotopes, during which particles or energy is emitted from the atomic nucleus; results in the atom becoming more stable.

reproduction

the production of offspring

reproduction

the production of offspring.

electron shell

the region of space around an atomic nucleus where electrons are found, also called energy level.

physiology

the science of the functioning of living organisms.

Anatomy

the science of the structure of living organisms.

Because the driving force (source of energy) is the kinetic energy of the molecules themselves, the speed of diffusion is affected by:

the size of the molecules (the smaller the faster) and temperature (the warmer the faster).

integumenary system

the skin and its accessory organs.

atom

the smallest part of an element; indivisible by ordinary chemical means.

spinal cavity

the space from the cranial cavity to the end of the spinal cord; part of the dorsal body cavity.

cranial cavity

the space inside the bony skull that houses the brain; part of the dorsal body cavity.

Physiology

the study of how the body and its parts work or function

Anatomy

the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another

atomic mass

the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom; also known as mass number.

The atomic mass number is equal to

the sum of the protons and neutrons in the atom's nucleus.

The cutaneous membrane is composed of two layers:

the superficial epidermis and the underlying dermis

Examples of exocrine glands:

the sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas

pH

the symbol for hydrogen ion concentration; a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Functional proteins become denatured or inactivated when

their hydrogen bonds are disrupted

Like the epidermis, the dermis varies in

thickness

In ________________________ burns, regeneration is not possible, and skin grafting must be done to cover the underlying exposed tissues.

third-degree

burn characterized by damage to all of epidermis and all of dermis; often extends into subcutaneous tissue and requires skin graft to cover underlying tissues.

third-degree burn

DNA's information is encoded in the sequence of bases. Each sequence of ___________________________ calls for a particular ____________________

three bases (a triplet), amino acid

nucleotides join in a complementary way: Adenine (A) always bonds to _______________, and guanine (G) always bonds to _________________

thymine (T), cytosine (C)

Examples of endocrine glands include the

thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary.

The ______________ is the superficial dermal region. It is uneven and has peg-like projections from its superior surface, called dermal papillae, which indent the epidermis above

papillary layer

The connective tissue making up the dermis consists of two major regions—the ______________ and the _________________ areas, which are composed of ____________ and __________________________________________, respectively

papillary, reticular, areolar, dense irregular connective tissue

pelvic cavity

part of the abdominopelvic cavity containing the reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum

Abdominal cavity

part of the abdominopelvic cavity containing the stomach, liver, and intestines.

thoracic cavity

part of the ventral body cavity containing the heart and lungs.

molecule

particle consisting of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

subatomic particles

particles that makeup an atom

In _______________ processes, substances are transported across the membrane without any energy input from the cell.

passive

In the small intestine _____________ junctions prevent digestive enzymes from seeping into the bloodstream.

tight

In _______________________ , adjacent plasma membranes fuse together tightly like a zipper and prevent substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells.

tight junctions

the main types of junctions:

tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are called

tissues

Superficial (external)

toward or at the body surface

anterior (ventral)

toward or at the front of the body; in front of

medial

toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of

superior (cranial or cephalic)

toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

common in many margarines and baked products, are oils that have been solidified by the addition of hydrogen atoms at sites of double carbon bonds, which reduces those bonds to single carbon bonds.

trans fats

involves the transfer of information from the sequence of bases in a DNA gene into the complementary sequence of mRNA by an enzyme

transcription

Protein synthesis involves two major phases: ____________________, when complementary mRNA (the messenger) is made using the information in the DNA gene, and _____________________, when the information carried in mRNA molecules is "decoded" and translated from nucleic acids into proteins

transcription, translation

Like diffusion, filtration is a _______________ process, and a gradient is involved. In filtration, however, the gradient is a _______________________that actually pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from the _________________-pressure area through the filter to the _____________-pressure area

passive, pressure gradient, higher, lower

Substances move through the plasma membrane in basically two ways—

passively or actively

The flexible _________________________ is a fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment

plasma membrane

the serous membrane covering the lung and lining the thoracic cavity.

pleura

The membranes surrounding the lungs are the __________________; those around the heart are the ________________

pleurae, pericardia

The __________"____________" of the lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic ("water loving")

polar heads

Amino acids are joined together in chains to form ___________________ (fewer than 50 amino acids); ________________ (more than 50 amino acids); and large, _______________ (50 to thousands of amino acids)

polypeptides, proteins, complex proteins

Protons are _________________ charged, electrons are __________________ charged, and neutrons are _____________.

positively, negatively, neutral

anatomical position

reference point for regional and directional terminology; standing, feet parallel, palms facing forward.

Thoratic

refers to the area between the neck and abdomen supported by the ribs, costal cartilages and sternum; chest.

cervical

refers to the neck or the necklike portion of an organ or structure

If well nourished, epithelial cells _______________ themselves easily.

regenerate

The replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells

regeneration

active site

region on the surface of a globular protein (such as an enzyme) where it interacts with other molecules of complementary shape and charge (such as substrate).

popliteal

related to the posterior knee

sural

related to the posterior leg; calf.

patellar

relating to the anterior knee

oral

relating to the mouth.

It contains dense irregular connective tissue, as well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called lamellar corpuscles

reticular layer

the deepest skin layer

reticular layer

DNA requires not only a decoder but also a trusted messenger to carry the instructions for building proteins to the ribosomes. These messenger and decoder functions are carried out by a second type of nucleic acid, called __________________________

ribonucleic acid, or RNA.

Most ___________________ eventually migrate into the cytoplasm, where they serve as the actual sites of protein synthesis

ribosomes

the actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell

ribosomes

Although the smooth endoplasmic reticulum communicates with the rough variety, it plays no role in protein synthesis, because it lacks __________________. Instead, it functions in __________________ (cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown) and _________________________ of drugs and pesticides

ribosomes, lipid metabolism, detoxification

Fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms

saturated fats

The __________________, or oil glands, are found all over the skin, except on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet

sebaceous glands

two groups of cutaneous glands

sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

The product of the sebaceous glands, a mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells

sebum

a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist and prevents the hair from becoming brittle

sebum

contains chemicals that kill bacteria, so it is important in preventing bacterial infection of the skin

sebum

the oily secretion of sebaceous glands.

sebum

Beta (b)-pleated sheet

secondary structure of protein folding in which side-by-side amino acid chains fold into a ribbonlike structure similar to an accordion.

Alpha (a)-helix

secondary structure of protein folding in which the amino acid chain coils into a shape like a spring.

main energy source for the formation of ATP

carbohydrates (and glucose in particular)

Inorganic compounds making up living matter do not contain __________ (exceptions include CO2 and CO). They include water, salts, and some acids and bases

carbon

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids all contain

carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen

nucleic acid

class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.

In dense connective tissue, also called dense fibrous tissue, _______________________ are the main matrix element

collagen fibers

Strong acids dissociate

completely

control center

component of homeostatic control receiving sensory input and sending motor output.

Triglycerides

compounds composed of fatty acids and glycerol; fats and oils; also called neutral fats.

prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress (such as heart muscle cells and skin cells) from being pulled apart. Structurally, these junctions are buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes (plaques) that are connected by fine protein filaments. Thicker protein filaments extend from the plaques inside the cells to the plaques on the cells' opposite sides, thus forming an internal system of strong "guy wires."

desmosomes

all enzymes, biological catalysts that speed up every chemical reaction that occurs in cells, are _______________

functional proteins

globular (functional) proteins, perform

functional roles in the body

In _____________ junctions, the neighboring cells are connected by hollow cylinders composed of proteins (called connexons) that span the entire width of the abutting membranes (which are therefore called transmembrane proteins). Chemical molecules, such as nutrients or ions, can pass directly through the water-filled connexon channels from one cell to another.

gap

These junctions are commonly found in the heart and between embryonic cells.

gap junctions

a DNA segment that carries the information for building one protein

gene

what in DNA carries the instructions for building proteins?

genes

Papillary patterns are __________________ determined

genetically

A ____________ consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product. This product, a ______________, typically contains protein molecules in an aqueous (water-based) fluid

gland, secretion,

perform functional roles in the body

globular (functional) proteins

also called functional proteins

globular proteins

Monosaccharides include

glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and deoxyribose

________________ determine your blood type, act as receptors that certain bacteria, viruses, or toxins can bind to, and play a role in cell-to-cell recognition and interactions

glycoproteins

The ___________________________ of the matrix is composed largely of water plus some cell adhesion proteins and large, charged polysaccharide molecules

ground substance

flexible epithelial structure composed of keratinized cells; produced by hair follicle.

hair

Hair pigment is made by melanocytes in the __________, and varying amounts of different types of melanin

hair bulb

the deepest part of the hair follicle

hair bulb

Structure with inner root sheath of epithelial tissue that produces the hair; the outer root sheath is dermal connective tissue that provides the blood supply to epithelial cells.

hair follicle

A ____________ is a flexible epithelial structure. The part of the hair enclosed in the hair follicle is called the ________, and the part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called the _______

hair, root, shaft

The most widespread cartilage is

hyaline cartilage

has abundant collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix with a glassy, blue-white appearance. It forms the trachea, or windpipe, attaches the ribs to the breastbone, and covers bone ends at joints

hyaline cartilage

The skeleton of a fetus is made largely of ________________; but by the time the baby is born, most of that cartilage has been replaced by bone. The exceptions include the epiphyseal, or growth, plates in long bones, which allow the bones to grow in length.

hyaline cartilage,

are fragile and are easily broken by heat and excesses of pH

hydrogen bonds

When dissolved in water acids release

hydrogen ions

Water is a reactant in __________ reactions

hydrolysis

When the high-energy bonds of ATP are broken by ________________, energy is liberated and can be used immediately by the cell to do work or power a particular activity

hydrolysis

Like carbohydrates, lipids are degraded by ____________ and synthesized by ____________________________

hydrolysis, dehydration synthesis

the charged region is _____________ ("water loving"), meaning it attracts and interacts with water and ions.

hydrophilic

The fatty acid chains (the nonpolar "tail") are __________ ("water fearing") and do not interact with polar or charged molecules.

hydrophobic

The ______________ makeup of the membrane interior makes the plasma membrane relatively ________________ to most water-soluble molecules

hydrophobic, impermeable

The most important inorganic bases are

hydroxides

Certain body tissues (or organs) may enlarge because there is some local irritant or condition that stimulates the cells. This response is called _____________________

hyperplasia

A solution that contains more solutes, or dissolved substances, than there are inside the cells—

hypertonic solution—

Deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous tissue, or ____________________, which essentially is adipose (fat) tissue. It is not considered part of the skin, but it does anchor the skin to underlying organs and provides a site for nutrient storage.

hypodermis

adipose tissue beneath the skin

hypodermis

When a solution contains fewer solutes (and therefore more water) than the cell does, it is

hypotonic

plane

imaginary line cutting through a body wall or organ, usually for imaging or viewing purposes.

bone densitometry

imaging technique diagnostic for osteoporosis; detects amount of calcium and minerals in bone.

Ultrasound imaging (ultrasonography)

imaging technique that uses sound waves to visualize internal structures.

Functional Magnetic Resonance (fMRI)

imaging technique using a strong magnetic field to track blood flow in the brain in real time.

Atoms with a stable valence shell (two electrons in shell 1, or eight in the subsequent shells) are chemically ____________. Those with an incomplete valence shell interact by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons to achieve stability (that is, to either fill the valence shell or meet the rule of eight).

inactive

Many enzymes are produced in an ____________ form or are __________ immediately after use

inactive, inactivated

Weak acids dissociate

incompletely

A general (nonspecific) body response that attempts to prevent further injury

inflammation

Solutes transported through simple diffusion are

lipid soluble (such as fats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen, carbon dioxide).

disaccharide

literally, double sugar; examples include sucrose and lactose.

polysaccharide

literally, many sugars; a polymer of linked monosaccharides; examples include starch and glycogen.

monosaccharide

literally, one sugar; the building block of carbohydrates; examples include glucose and fructose.

are softer and have more cells and fewer fibers than any other connective tissue type except blood

loose connective tissues

underlies virtually every disease

loss of cell homeostasis

mammogram

low-dose X-ray exam of breast tissue.

The term ___________________ also indicates an active process in which the glandular cells obtain needed materials from the blood and use them to make their products, which they then discharge by exocytosis

secretion

Overall role of muscle tissues

movement

Epithelial membranes that line body cavities open to the body exterior are called

mucosae, or mucous membranes

A __________________ is composed of epithelium (the type varies with the site) resting on a loose connective tissue membrane called a lamina propria

mucous membrane

Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface

mucus membrane

Because skeletal muscle cells are elongated to provide a long axis for contraction, they are often called _____________________

muscle fibers

highly specialized to contract, or shorten, which generates the force required to produce movement

muscle tissues

The stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the __________________. Its thickened proximal area, called the ________________, is responsible for nail growth

nail bed, nail matrix

The borders of the nail are overlapped by folds of skin called __________________. The edge of the thick proximal nail fold is commonly called the cuticle

nail folds, cuticle

polyunsaturated

name given to fats with more than one double bond.

monounsaturated

name given to fats with one double bond.

electron

negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atomic nucleus.

A special group of supporting cells called ______________ insulate, support, and protect the delicate neurons in the structures of the nervous system—the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

neuroglia

A pH of 7 is

neutral

Occurs when bases and acids interact

neutralization (the formation of salt and water)

Proteins and nucleic acids contain substantial amounts of ______________ and nucleic acids also contain ________________.

nitrogen, phosphorus

Smooth (visceral) muscle is so called because

no striations are visible

In the body, the serous layers are separated not by air but by a scanty amount of thin, clear fluid, called _____________, which is secreted by both membranes

serous fluid

The lubricating _____________________ allows the organs to slide easily across the cavity walls and one another without friction as they carry out their routine functions

serous fluid

If the electrons are shared equally, the molecule is a ____________ covalent molecule. If the electrons are not shared equally, the molecule is a ________covalent molecule. _____________________ orient themselves toward charged particles and other molecules.

nonpolar, polar, polar molecules

___________ fatty acid "___________," being hydrophobic ("water fearing"), avoid water and line up in the _________ (interior) of the membrane

nonpolar, tails, center

Although phagocytosis and pinocytosis are important, they are ________________________ compared to receptor-mediated endocytosis

not very selective

The nuclear boundary is a double membrane barrier called the

nuclear envelope, or nuclear membrane

At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, generating openings called

nuclear pores

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

nucleic acid found in all living cells: carries the organism's hereditary information.

composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms and are the largest biological molecules in the body

nucleic acids

In the translation phase of protein synthesis, the language of ______________ (base sequence) is "translated" into the language of ______________ (amino acid sequence)

nucleic acids, proteins

The nucleus contains one or more small, dark-staining, essentially round bodies called

nucleoli ).

The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid called ____________________ in which other nuclear elements are suspended.

nucleoplasm

In the thorax, __________________________ isolate the lungs and heart from one another.

serous membranes

line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that cavity

serous membranes, or serosae

Hypertonic solutions cause cells to

shrink

The unassisted diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane (or any selectively permeable membrane) is called

simple diffusion

The classifications by cell arrangement (layers) are

simple epithelium (one layer of cells) and stratified epithelium (more than one cell layer)

planetary model

simplified atomic model that describes fixed round orbits around the atomic nucleus as likely locations where electrons can be found.

The surface cells are columnar cells, but their basal cells vary in size and shape.

stratified columnar epithelium

trans fats

oils that have been made solid by the addition of hydrogen atoms at sites of double carbon bonds.

The epidermis is composed of ____________________________, whereas the dermis is mostly ______________________________________.

stratified squamous epithelium, dense (fibrous) connective tissue

The outer epidermis is made up of _____________________________ that is capable of becoming hard and tough. The underlying dermis is made up mostly of __________________________. The epidermis and dermis are firmly connected and the _______________ is fairly tear resistant.

stratified squamous epithelium, dense connective tissue, dermis

Stem cells in this layer are constantly dividing, and millions of new cells are produced daily; hence its alternate name, stratum germinativum

stratum basale

The deepest cell layer of the epidermis

stratum basale

This basal layer contains the most adequately nourished of the epidermal cells because nutrients diffusing from the dermis reach them first.

stratum basale

lies closest to the dermis and is connected to it along a wavy border that resembles corrugated cardboard

stratum basale

The polar heads lie

on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane

Cells of reproduction

oocyte (female) and sperm (male)

In contrast to mucous membranes, which line ____________________________, serous membranes line body cavities ______________________________ (except for the dorsal body cavity and joint cavities).

open body cavities, that are closed to the exterior

nasal cavity

open space inside and posterior to the nose; part of the respiratory passages

muscular system

organ system consisting of skeletal muscles and their connective tissue attachments.

Specialized cellular compartments that are the metabolic machinery of the cell. Each type is specialized to carry out a specific function for the cell as a whole, much like the organs carry out specialized functions for the whole body. Some synthesize proteins, others package those proteins, and so on

organelles

lipid

organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.

carbon-containing compounds that comprise living matter

organic compounds

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane such as the plasma membrane is specifically called ________________. Because water is highly polar, it is repelled by the (nonpolar) lipid core of the _______________________, but it can and does pass easily through special pores called ________________________ ("water pores") created by _____________ in the membrane

osmosis, plasma membrane, aquaporins, proteins

The tendency of a solution to hold water or "pull" water into it is called

osmotic pressure

RNA functions __________ the nucleus and can be considered the "molecular assistant" of DNA; that is, RNA carries out the orders for ____________ issued by DNA.

outside, protein synthesis

reproductive system

overall function of the reproductive system is the production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn

A pH below 7 is

acidic

the cell theory:

1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. So, when you define cell properties, you are in fact defining the properties of life. 2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells. 3. According to the principle of complementarity, the activities of cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy), which determines function (physiology). 4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

Proteins account for over _____________ of the organic matter in the body, and they have the most varied functions of all organic molecules

50%

living cells are about ______ water

60%

Normal blood pH ranges from

7.35 to 7.45

What are the two types of facilitated diffusion, and how do they differ?

A channel protein is an opening formed by membrane proteins for diffusion of certain small solutes. A carrier protein undergoes shape changes that allow diffusion of a specific substance through the membrane.

Why is a denatured enzyme no longer functional?

A denatured protein has lost its normal three-dimensional shape; if that protein is an enzyme, denaturing can change the shape of its active site.

Is composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue

A serous membrane, or serosa,

Deep (internal)

Away from the body surface; more internal

____ and _____ are large, nitrogen-containing bases made up of two carbon rings, whereas ____, ______ and _____ are smaller, single-ring structure

A, G, C, T, U

The RNA bases are ____________________________ and its sugar is ____________ instead of deoxyribose.

A, G, C, and U (U replaces the T found in DNA), ribose

What name is given to the rule for recognizing the signs of melanoma?

ABCDE rule.

universal energy compound used by all body cells

ATP

When sebaceous gland ducts are blocked by sebum, acne appears on the skin surface. __________ is an active infection of the sebaceous glands. If the accumulated material oxidizes and dries, it darkens, forming a _____________________. If the material does not dry or darken, a _____________ forms.

Acne, blackhead, whitehead

nucleotides join in a complementary way: _________________ always bonds to thymine (T), and _________________ always bonds to cytosine (C)

Adenine (A), guanine (G)

Commonly called fat. Basically, it is an areolar tissue in which fat cells predominate

Adipose tissue

forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates the body and protects it from bumps and extremes of both heat and cold. Adipose tissue also protects some organs individually—the kidneys are surrounded by a capsule of fat, and adipose tissue cushions the eyeballs in their sockets. There are also fat "depots" in the body, such as the hips, breasts, and belly, where fat is stored and available for fuel if needed

Adipose tissue

Why are salts referred to as electrolytes?

After salts dissolve in a solution, the resulting ions can conduct an electrical current.

metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.

are transported by solute pumps

Amino acids, some sugars, and most ions

the less numerous type of sweat gland. Its secretions contain water, salts, fatty acids, and proteins.

Apocrine gland

Are largely confined to the axillary (armpit) and genital areas of the body. They are usually larger than eccrine glands, and their ducts empty into hair follicles.

Apocrine glands

Their secretion contains fatty acids and proteins, as well as all the substances present in eccrine sweat; consequently, it may have a milky or yellowish color. The secretion is odorless, but when bacteria that live on the skin use its proteins and fats as a source of nutrients for their growth, it can take on a musky, sometimes unpleasant odor.

Apocrine glands

begin to function during puberty under the influence of androgens

Apocrine glands

the most widely distributed connective tissue variety in the body a soft, pliable, "cobwebby" tissue that cushions and protects the body organs it wraps. It functions as a universal packing tissue and connective tissue "glue" because it helps to hold the internal organs together and in their proper positions.

Areolar connective tissue

tiny, smooth muscles attached to hair follicles; when activated, they cause the hair to stand upright.

Arrector pili

An itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin between the toes, resulting from an infection with the fungus Tinea pedis

Athlete's foot

Which of the following properties apply to epithelial tissues: has blood vessels; can repair itself; cells have specialized cell junctions?

Can repair itself; cells have specialized cell junctions.

Are clusters of boils often caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus.

Carbuncles

____________ is less hard and more flexible than bone. Its major cell type is chondrocytes (cartilage cells). It is found in only a few places in the body

Cartilage

What two criteria are used to classify epithelial tissues?

Cell shape and cell arrangement (layers) are the two criteria used to classify epithelium.

In which epidermal layer do cells begin to die?

Cells begin to die as they leave the stratum granulosum.

Are best known for their role in generating microtubules and also for directing the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division

Centrioles

___________ is found in cell membranes and is the raw material used to make vitamin D, steroid hormones (chemical signaling molecules in the body), and bile salts (which help break down fats during digestion).

Cholesterol

Are whip-like cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface

Cilia

proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

_____________________ is found in structures with elasticity, such as the external ear.

Elastic cartilage

give the skin its elasticity when we are young

Elastic fibers

Select the best answer. Which of these statements reflects the relationship between elements, atoms, and chemical symbols? 1. All atoms have a unique chemical symbol. 2. Elements are composed of atoms. 3. Atoms are composed of elements.

Elements are composed of atoms.

urinary system or excretory system

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

How does the activity of endocrine glands change as the body ages?

Endocrine activity tends to decline with age.

________________ includes those ATP-requiring processes that take up, or engulf, extracellular substances by enclosing them in a vesicle

Endocytosis

______________ are capable of catalyzing millions of reactions each minute. However, they do more than just increase the speed of chemical reactions; they also determine just which reactions are possible at a particular time. No enzyme, no reaction!

Enzymes

functional proteins that act as biological catalysts

Enzymes

phagocytic cell that protects the skin from infection and alerts the immune system when needed.

Epidermal dendritic cell

_______________tissues have no blood supply of their own (that is, they are avascular) and depend on diffusion from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for food and oxygen.

Epithelial

Cells that cover and line body organs

Epithelial cells

The hexagonal shape of this cell is exactly like a "cell" in a honeycomb of a beehive. This shape allows them to pack together in sheets.

Epithelial cells

membranes composed of epithelial tissue with an underlying layer of connective tissue; covering and lining membranes. See mucous membrane and serous membrane.

Epithelial membranes

Which of the four types of tissue is most likely to remain mitotic throughout life?

Epithelium and some connective tissues remain mitotic.

What are the criteria for classifying burns as first-, second-, third-, or fourth-degree?

First-degree burns are red and swollen; only epidermis damaged. Second-degree burns damage the epidermis and the superficial part of the dermis; blisters appear, but epithelial regeneration can occur. Third-degree burns destroy the entire skin thickness and can extend into the subcutaneous tissue; the burn is gray and painless; must graft. Fourth-degree burns destroy all layers of the skin; appear charred; extend into deep tissues such as muscle or bone.

integumentary system

Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

___________________ burns are also full-thickness burns, but they extend into deeper tissues such as bone, muscle, or tendons. These burns appear dry and leathery, and they require surgery and grafting to cover exposed tissue. In severe cases, amputation may be required to save the patient's life.

Fourth-degree

full-thickness burn characterized by damage to underlying structures including tendons, muscle, and bone.

Fourth-degree burn

Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can damage the structure of proteins and nucleic acids. They are normal by-products of cellular metabolism, but if allowed to accumulate, they can have devastating effects on cells.

Free radicals

burns extending through all of epidermis and all of dermis; includes third- and fourth-degree burns.

Full-thickness burn

______________, or communicating junctions, function mainly to allow communication.

Gap junctions

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

__________________ are mobile, generally compact, spherical molecules that have at least tertiary structure. These water-soluble proteins play crucial roles in virtually all biological processes. Because they do things rather than just form structures, they are also called ___________________________________

Globular proteins, functional proteins

The ______________________ appears as a stack of flattened membranous sacs that are associated with swarms of tiny vesicles. It is generally found close to the ER and is the principal "traffic director" for cellular proteins.

Golgi apparatus

The major function of the _________________________ is to modify, package, and ship proteins (sent to it by the rough ER via transport vesicles) in specific ways, depending on their final destination

Golgi apparatus

Initially, all proteins leaving the Golgi apparatus accumulate in sacs called

Golgi vesicles

delicate pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries that grow into the damaged area from undamaged blood vessels nearby

Granulation tissue

keratin-producing cells of the epidermis.

Keratinocytes

What cell type is most abundant in the epidermis?

Keratinocytes are the most abundant cell type in the epidermis.

What is the energy source for all types of diffusion?

Kinetic energy is the energy source for diffusion.

Difference between ligaments and tendons

Ligaments are more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers than do tendons.

Where would you find a synovial membrane?

Lining a fibrous capsule surrounding a joint.

What are the two life-threatening consequences of a severe burn?

Loss of body fluids containing needed proteins and electrolytes, resulting in circulatory shock, and overwhelming infection.

What change in aging skin accounts for wrinkles and cold intolerance in older adults?

Loss of subcutaneous fat.

Are especially abundant in white blood cells called phagocytes, the cells that dispose of bacteria and cell debris.

Lysosomes

____________________, which appear in different sizes, are membranous "bags" containing powerful digestive enzymes.

Lysosomes

Which two organelles are sacs of enzymes, and what is the function of each of these organelles?

Lysosomes break down ingested bacteria, worn-out organelles, and dead cells. Peroxisomes detoxify a number of harmful toxic substances and disarm free radicals.

________________________________ is a cancer of melanocytes. It accounts for only about 5 percent of skin cancers, but it is often deadly

Malignant melanoma

the growth zone of a hair bulb where stratum basale cells divide

Matrix

the dark pigment synthesized by melanocytes; responsible for skin color.

Melanin

What pigments determine skin color?

Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin all contribute to skin color.

Stage of Mitosis. As cell division begins, the chromatin threads coil and shorten so that the bar-like chromosomes become visible under a microscope. Because DNA has already been replicated, each chromosome is actually made up of two identical strands called sister chromatids, held together by a small buttonlike body called a centromere. The centrioles separate from each other and begin to move toward opposite sides of the cell, directing the assembly of a mitotic spindle (composed of microtubules) between them as they move. The spindle provides scaffolding for the attachment and movement of the chromosomes during the later mitotic stages. By the end of prophase, the nuclear envelope and the nucleoli have broken down and temporarily disappeared, and the chromosomes have attached randomly to the spindle fibers by their centromeres.

Prophase

skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints, blood cells are formed within bones, stores minerals

important functions of the integumentary system

Protects deeper tissues, aids in body heat loss or heat retention, aids in excretion of urea and uric acid, synthesizes vitamin D

Characterized by reddened epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, and sometimes bleed. A chronic condition, psoriasis is believed to be an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks a person's own tissues, leading to the rapid overproduction of skin cells. Attacks are often triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or stress. When severe, psoriasis may be disfiguring.

Psoriasis

all amino acids are identical except for a single group of atoms called their ____________. Differences in this make each amino acid chemically unique

R-group

Structurally, ATP is a modified _______________; it consists of an adenine base, ribose sugar, and ___________ phosphate groups instead of one. The phosphate groups are attached by unique chemical bonds called ___________________________. These bonds are high energy because the phosphate groups are negatively charged and the like charges repel one another, generating tension at these sites

RNA nucleotide, three, high-energy phosphate bonds

Which process is more selective—pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis?

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

____________________________________ is the main cellular mechanism for taking up specific target molecules. In this process, receptor proteins on the plasma membrane bind exclusively with certain substances. Both the receptors and high concentrations of the attached target molecules are internalized in a vesicle, and then the contents of the vesicle are dealt with

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Consists of a delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells, which resemble fibroblast

Reticular connective tissue

Is limited to certain sites: It forms the stroma (literally, "bed" or "mattress"), or internal framework of an organ. The stroma can support many free blood cells (largely white blood cells called lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow.

Reticular connective tissue

deep layer of the dermis; contains hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands and is highly vascular.

Reticular layer

_________________________ helps form the ribosomes, where proteins are built

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

________________ are tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins and one variety of RNA called _____________________

Ribosomes, ribosomal RNA

discovered cells

Robert Hooke

Explain the relationships between the words skin, cutaneous membrane, integument, and integumentary system.

The skin is the epithelial membrane that covers the body surface. Cutaneous membrane is a synonym for skin, as is integument, which means "covering." The integumentary system is the skin and its derivatives (nails, hair, glands).

Which layer of the epidermis produces new epidermal cells?

The stratum basale.

Excess shedding of dead cells from the superficial layer of the skin of the scalp causes dandruff. What is the name of that skin layer?

The stratum corneum.

What are the structural units, or building blocks, of carbohydrates? Of lipids?

The structural units of carbohydrates are monosaccharides. Those of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids.

Which two characteristics are hallmarks (distinguishing characteristics) of epithelial tissue?

The two hallmarks of epithelial tissue include having one free surface and being avascular.

What are the two hallmarks of connective tissue?

The two unique features of connective tissues include variations in blood supply and the production of a nonliving, extracellular matrix that surrounds their living cells.

The external faces of some membrane proteins have sugar groups attached to them. What are three roles these sugar-coated proteins play in the life of a cell?

They act as receptors, determine blood type, and play a role in cell-to-cell interactions.

_____________________ burns destroy both the epidermis and the dermis and often extend into the subcutaneous tissue, reflecting their categorization as full thickness burns. Blisters are usually present, and the burned area appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened. Because the nerve endings in the area are destroyed, the burned area is not painful.

Third-degree

are impermeable junctions that encircle the cells and bind them together into leakproof sheets.

Tight junctions

posterior (dorsal)

Toward or at the backside of the body; behind

What is the single most common risk factor for skin cancer?

UV radiation exposure (sun or tanning bed).

The distinguishing characteristics of connective tissue:

Variations in blood supply and an extracellular matrix

___________________ transport, which involves help from ATP to fuse or separate membrane vesicles and the cell membrane, moves substances into or out of cells "in bulk" without their actually crossing the plasma membrane directly

Vesicular

What happens when K+ binds to the pump protein?

When K+ binds, phosphate is released

What happens when the Na+-K+ pump is phosphorylated?

When the pump protein is phosphorylated, it changes shape

Cells that fight disease

White blood cells such as the macrophage (a phagocytic cell)

left hypochondriac region

abdominal region flanking the epigastric region on the left side of the body

right hypochondriac region

abdominal region flanking the epigastric region on the right side of the body.

hypogastric (pubic region

abdominal region inferior to the umbilical region; also called the pubic region.

left lumbar region

abdominal region lateral to the umbilical region on the left side of the body.

right lumbar region

abdominal region lateral to the umbilical region on the right side of the body.

Left iliac (inguinal) region

abdominal region to the left of the hypogastric region; also called left inguinal region.

Right iliac (inguinal) region

abdominal region to the right of the hypogastric region; also called right inguinal region.

Irritability

ability to respond to a stimulus.

The simple epithelia are most concerned with _______________________________________________. Because simple epithelia are usually very thin _____________________is not one of their specialties.

absorption, secretion, and filtration; protection

bases are proton

acceptors

A pH above 7 is

basic

Enzymes do not

become part of the product

intermediate

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

important bases in the body that act as buffers

bicarbonate ions

Enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by

binding temporarily and specifically with the reactants to hold them in the proper postions to react

Mitosis and cytokinesis usually go hand in hand, but in some cases the cytoplasm is not divided. This condition leads to the formation of ____________ (two nuclei) or ____________________ cells. This is fairly common in the liver and in the formation of skeletal muscle.

binucleate,

Mitosis and cytokinesis usually go hand in hand, but in some cases the cytoplasm is not divided. This condition leads to the formation of ____________ (two nuclei) or ____________________ cells. This is fairly common in ____________________________________________________________

binucleate, multinucleate, the liver and in the formation of skeletal muscle.

skin lesion formed when material blocking the sebaceous gland duct oxidizes, dries and turns dark.

blackhead

dorsal body cavity

body cavity housing the brain and spinal cord; composed of the cranial and spinal cavities.

Endocrine system

body system that includes internal organs that secrete hormones.

ionic bond

bond formed by the complete transfer of electron(s) from one atom to another (or others). The resulting charged atoms, or ions, are oppositely charged and attract each other.

From most rigid to softest or most fluid, the major connective tissue classes are

bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, and blood

How is active transport similar to facilitated diffusion?

both processes require protein carriers that interact specifically and reversibly with the substances to be transported across the membrane

sternal

breastbone area

nucleotide

building block of nucleic acids.

Tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn), or certain chemicals (such as acids), which denature proteins and cause cell death in the affected areas

burn

tissue damage resulting in cell death caused by electricity, chemicals, too much heat, or UV radiation. Burns vary in degree of severity. See rule of nines.

burn

Hypotonic solutions cause cells to

burst or swell

Two major ways tissue repair (wound healing) occurs

by regeneration and by fibrosis

distal

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Like skeletal muscle, ___________________ has striations, but cardiac cells have only a ____________ nucleus and are relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly together (like clasped fingers) at junctions called __________________. These junctions contain gap junctions that allow ions to pass freely from cell to cell. This ties the cardiac cells into a functional syncytium, resulting in rapid conduction of the electrical signal to contract across the heart

cardiac muscle, single, intercalated discs,

Pigment in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue

carotene

What facilitates facilitated diffusion?

carrier proteins or protein channels

active transport provides a way for the cell to be very selective in

cases where substances cannot pass by diffusion

a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming part of the product or being changed itself

catalyst

the structural units of all living things

cells

The paired ___________________, collectively called the centrosome, lie close to the nucleus

centrioles

Proton (H+) acceptor

chemical compound that is able to bind free protons;

Proton (H+) donor

chemical compound that is able to release free protons into solution

synthesis reaction

chemical reaction in which larger molecules are formed from simpler ones.

Energy forms that are important in body function include

chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant

The single most important steroid molecule

cholesterol

Major cell type of cartilage

chondrocytes

When a cell is not dividing, its DNA is carefully wound around proteins called histones to form a loose network of "beads on a string" called _______________ that is scattered throughout the nucleus

chromatin

Which nuclear component contains your genes?

chromatin

When a cell is dividing to form two daughter cells, the chromatin threads coil and condense to form dense, rodlike bodies called ________________________

chromosomes

____________ propel other substances across a cell's surface, whereas a __________propels the cell itself.

cilia, flagellum

When a cell is about to make ____________, its centrioles multiply and then line up beneath the __________________ at the free cell surface. Microtubules then begin to "sprout" from the _______________ and put pressure on the membrane, forming the projections.

cilia, plasma membrane, centrioles

represented by synovial membranes

connective tissue membranes,

Except for glandular epithelium , epithelial cells fit closely together to form ____________________

continuous sheets

Overall role of nervous tissues

control

Functions of body membranes

cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective (and often lubricating) sheets around organs

Overall role of epithelial tissues

covering

section

cut into a structure for viewing purposes.

The skin appendages include:

cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicles, and nails

the skin; composed of epidermal and dermal layers.

cutaneous membrane

The _____________ is the most heavily keratinized region; it provides strength and helps keep the inner hair layers tightly compacted

cuticle

When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and the skin of light-skinned people appear blue, a condition called ____________

cyanosis

a bluish coloration of the mucous membranes and skin caused by deficient oxygenation of the blood.

cyanosis

the division of the cytoplasm

cytokinesis

Translation occurs in the

cytoplasm

most ribosomes—the manufacturing sites for proteins—are in the ________________

cytoplasm

The _______________ is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane. It is the site of most cellular activities; the "factory floor" of the cell.

cytoplasm,

An elaborate network of protein structures extends throughout the cytoplasm. This network, or ______________________, acts as a cell's "bones and muscles" by furnishing an internal framework that determines cell shape, supports other organelles, and provides the machinery for intracellular transport and various types of cellular movements

cytoskeleton,

The semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements. Is largely water. Has nutrients and a variety of other solutes dissolved in it.

cytosol

three major components of cytoplasm:

cytosol, inclusions, organelles

Microscopic Anatomy

deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

In ___________________ reactions, larger molecules are broken down into simpler molecules or atoms. Bonds are broken, releasing energy.

decomposition

As we age, the number of collagen and elastic fibers ____________, and the __________________________ loses fat. As a result, the skin loses its elasticity and begins to sag and wrinkle.

decreases, subcutaneous tissue

bedsore; skin at pressure points that goes without adequate blood supply begins to die.

decubitus ulcer

What type of chemical reaction is used by liver cells when synthesizing glycogen from glucose?

dehydration synthesis

When their three-dimensional structures are destroyed, the proteins are said to be _______________ and can no longer perform their physiological roles

denatured

forms strong, ropelike structures such as tendons and ligaments

dense connective tissue

makes up the lower layers of the skin (dermis), where it is arranged in sheets.

dense connective tissue

Which of the following choices describes the structure of a nucleotide found in DNA?

deoxyribose sugar, nitrogen-containing base, phosphate group

projections of dermal tissue into the epidermis

dermal papillae

the deep layer of the skin; composed of dense, irregular connective tissue.

dermis

potential energy

stored energy; energy at rest;

Compounds exhibit properties _______________ from those of the atoms that comprise them.

different

isotope

different atomic form of the same element. Isotopes vary only in the number of neutrons they contain.

Acids are proton

donors

molecules move ____________ their concentration gradient in diffusion

down

Although facilitated diffusion follows the laws of diffusion—that is, the substances move ___________ their own concentration gradients—a protein membrane ______________________ is used, or a membrane protein that acts as a _________________ is needed to move glucose and certain other solutes ___________________ across the membrane into the cell

down, protein channel, carrier, passively

two types of sweat glands

eccrine and apocrine

The ________________ are far more numerous and are found all over the body. They produce sweat, a clear secretion that is primarily water plus some salts (sodium chloride), vitamin C, traces of metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid), and lactic acid (a chemical that accumulates during vigorous muscle activity)

eccrine glands

determines the chemical behavior of an atom

electrons in the valence shell

glands lose their ducts; thus they are often called ductless glands. Their secretions (all hormones) diffuse directly into the blood vessels that weave through the glands.

endocrine

Two major types of glands develop from epithelial sheets:

endocrine and exocrine

The _________________________________ ("network within the cytoplasm"), or ER, is a system of fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that coil and twist through the cytoplasm. It is continuous with the nuclear envelope and accounts for about half of a cell's membranes. It serves as a ________________________ for the cell because it provides a network of channels for carrying substances (primarily proteins) from one part of the cell to another

endoplasmic reticulum, mini circulatory system,

mechanical energy

energy form directly involved in putting matter into motion.

electrical energy

energy form resulting from the movement of charged particles.

chemical energy

energy form stored in chemical bonds.

kinetic energy

energy of motion.

radiant energy

energy of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes heat, light, ultraviolet waves, infrared waves, and other forms.

examples of globular proteins

enzymes, hormones, and hemoglobin

Scattered in the epidermis are _________________________________, which are important "sentries" that alert and activate immune system cells to a threat such as bacterial or viral invasion.

epidermal dendritic cells

the outer layers of the skin; an epithelium.

epidermis

The two major categories of body membranes—___________________________—are classified in part according to their ___________________

epithelial and connective tissue, tissue makeup.

An _______________________ has abundant intermediate filaments and desmosomes that resist tearing when the epithelium is rubbed or pulled.

epithelial cell

include the cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes

epithelial membranes

Two major groups of body membranes:

epithelial membranes and connective tissue membranes

The four primary tissue types—

epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle tissues

At the beginning of glycolysis, ATP transfers a phosphate group to glucose. What type of chemical reaction is this?

exchange reaction

The cutaneous glands are all __________________ glands that release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts.

exocrine

The two types of vesicular transport are

exocytosis and endocytosis

Intracellular fluid (collectively, the nucleoplasm and the cytosol) is a solution containing small amounts of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and salts, dissolved in water. So too is _____________________________________________, the fluid that continuously bathes the exterior of our cells.

extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid

all connective tissues consist of living cells surrounded by

extracellular matrix

orbital

eye area.

nervous system

fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands

The greater the difference in concentration between the two areas, the _________________ diffusion occurs.

faster

Cell that stores nutrients

fat cells

saturated fats

fatty acid chains with only single carbon bonds

unsaturated fats

fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

Triglycerides are found primarily in _____________ where they provide _________ and reserve body fuel

fatty tissue, insulation

positive feedback

feedback that tends to cause a variable to change in the same direction as the initial change; enhances the stimulus.

manufacture the building blocks of the collagen fibers in dense connective tissue

fibroblasts

Highly compressible _____________________ forms the cushion-like disks between the vertebrae of the spinal column

fibrocartilage

Involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue, that is, by the formation of scar tissue

fibrosis

Basic structural materials of the body

fibrous or structural proteins

Sunburn without blistering is a

first degree burn

In _____________________- burns, only the superficial epidermis is damaged. The area becomes red and swollen. Except for temporary discomfort, they are not usually serious and generally heal in two to three days

first-degree

If the projections formed by the centrioles are substantially longer, they are called

flagella

For atoms to intersect chemically, they must collide _________

forcefully

Cardiac muscle is found only in the

heart wall

Pigment in the dermal blood vessels

hemoglobin

Which of the properties of water is most closely associated with the body's ability to maintain a relatively constant internal temperature?

high heat capacity

Hair follicles are actually compound structures. The _________________________ is composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair. The _________________ is actually dermal connective tissue. This dermal region supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portion and reinforces it. Its nipplelike hair papilla provides the blood supply to the matrix in the hair bulb

inner epithelial root sheath, outer fibrous sheath

"covering"; skin

integument

the skin and its accessory organs.

integumentary system

The strong, stable, ropelike _________________ are made up of fibrous subunits. They help form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell

intermediate filaments

By far the longer phase of the cell cycle

interphase

DNA never leaves the nucleus during _______________

interphase

The cell life cycle has two major periods: __________________, in which the cell grows and carries on its usual metabolic activities, and __________________, during which it reproduces itself

interphase, cell division

__________ bonds are common in salts.

ionic

salt

ionic compound that dissociates into charged particles (other than hydrogen or hydroxyl ions) when dissolved in water.

formed when valence electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another

ions

major functional characteristics of neurons

irritability and conductivity

Interstitial fluid and most intravenous solutions are _____________ solutions.

isotonic

radioisotope

isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so called because

it is studded with ribosomes.

a tough, insoluble protein found in tissues such as hair, nails, and epidermis of the skin.

keratin

Most cells of the epidermis are _____________________________, which produce keratin, the fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a tough protective layer in a process called keratinization. These keratinocytes are connected by __________________________ throughout the epidermis

keratinocytes (keratin cells), desmosomes

ventral body cavity

large body cavity containing organs in the chest and abdominal areas; composed of the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Cytokinesis, or the division of the cytoplasm, usually begins during _____________ and completes during ______________

late anaphase, telophase

connect bones to bones at joints

ligaments

What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?

mRNA carries the coded information for building proteins from the DNA to the ribosome where protein synthesis occurs

Pigment in epidermis

melanin

Three pigments contribute to skin color:

melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin

Many organelles are bounded by a

membrane

Three varieties of RNA

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

____________________ (such as actin and myosin) are most involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell shape.

microfilaments

In cytokinesis, a contractile ring made of ________________ forms a _________________over the midline of the spindle, and it eventually squeezes, or pinches, the original cytoplasmic mass into two parts. Thus, at the end of cell division, ________ daughter cells exist. Each is smaller with less cytoplasm than the mother cell had but is genetically identical to the mother cell.

microfilaments, cleavage furrow, two

the cytoskeleton is made up of

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

Tubelike __________________ are made up of repeating subunits of the protein tubulin. They determine the overall shape of a cell and the distribution of organelles. They are very important during cell division

microtubules

microvilli are "alcoves" projecting off one cell surface and do not involve _______________.

microtubules

The ___________________________ consists of a double membrane, equal to two plasma membranes placed side by side. The outer membrane is smooth and featureless, but the inner membrane has shelflike protrusions called ________________

mitochondrial wall, cristae

Building blocks of carbohydrates

monosaccharides

More acidic =

more hydrogen ions

The serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs is the ______________________

peritoneum

Although _______________ look like small lysosomes, they do not arise by budding from the Golgi apparatus. Instead, one way they replicate themselves is by simply pinching in half, like mitochondria, but most appear to bud directly from the ER.

peroxisomes

Convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a function indicated in their naming

peroxisomes

occipital

pertaining to area at the back of the head

pelvic

pertaining to the anterior area overlying the pelvis

Abdominal

pertaining to the anterior body trunk inferior to the ribs.

crural

pertaining to the anterior leg; shin.

fibular

pertaining to the area of the fibula, the lateral bone of the leg.

brachial

pertaining to the arm

gluteal

pertaining to the buttock.

buccal

pertaining to the cheek.

pectoral

pertaining to the chest

mental

pertaining to the chin.

digital

pertaining to the digits; fingers, toes.

antebrachial

pertaining to the forearm.

frontal

pertaining to the forehead.

pubic

pertaining to the genital region

Inguinal

pertaining to the groin region.

cephalic

pertaining to the head

calcaneal

pertaining to the heel of the foot

coxal

pertaining to the hip

deltoid

pertaining to the lateral curve of the shoulder formed by the large deltoid muscle.

umbilical

pertaining to the navel area.

nasal

pertaining to the nose.

Acromial

pertaining to the point of the shoulder.

olecranal

pertaining to the posterior surface of the elbow

scapular

pertaining to the shoulder blade.

plantar

pertaining to the sole of the foot.

vertebral

pertaining to the spine.

femoral

pertaining to the thigh.

__________________ is a protective mechanism—a way to "clean house"—not a means of getting nutrients

phagocytosis

Cells eat by _________________ and drink by a form of endocytosis called ____________________, during which the cell "gulps" droplets of extracellular fluid.

phagocytosis, pinocytosis

The structure of the plasma membrane consists of two __________________ (fat) layers arranged "_____________________," with cholesterol and floating proteins scattered among them. Some phospholipids may also have sugar groups attached, forming __________________. The proteins, some of which are free to move and bob in the lipid layer, form a constantly changing pattern or ____________, hence the name of the model that describes the plasma membrane.

phospholipid, tail to tail, glycolipids, mosaic

What is the main type of lipid found in cellular membranes?

phospholipids

Found in all cell membranes

phospholipids and cholesterol

transverse section

plane that divides the body or its parts into superior and inferior parts; cross section.

The ___________________ of the atom portrays all the mass of the atom (protons and neutrons) concentrated in a central nucleus. Electrons orbit the nucleus along specific orbits. The _________________ also locates protons and neutrons in a central nucleus, but it depicts electrons as occupying areas of space called orbitals and forming an electron cloud of negative charge around the nucleus.

planetary model, orbital model

atmospheric pressure

pressure pushing down on the body due to the weight of the atmosphere above the ground.

dehydration synthesis

process by which a larger molecule is synthesized from smaller ones by removal of a water molecule at each site of bond formation.

chemical reaction

process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down.

The function of cell division is to

produce more cells for growth and repair processes

Stages of Mitosis

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Connective tissues are primarily involved in

protecting, supporting, and binding together other body tissues

Epithelial functions include

protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion

In addition to its packaging-for-release functions, the Golgi apparatus pinches off sacs containing _________________________________ destined for a "home" in the _________________________ or other cellular membranes. It also packages ________________________ into membrane-bound organelles called ______________________ that remain in the cell

proteins and phospholipids, plasma membrane, hydrolytic enzymes, lysosomes

Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles:

protons, electrons, and neutrons.

If the engulfed substances are relatively large particles, such as bacteria or dead body cells, and the cell separates them from the external environment by ___________, the endocytosis process is more specifically called ___________________ , a term that means "cell eating"

pseudopods, phagocytosis

The mucus produced by the goblet cells in this epithelium acts as a "sticky trap" to catch dust and other debris, and the cilia propel the mucus upward and away from the lungs

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

lines most of the respiratory tract

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

All of the cells of _____________________________________ rest on a basement membrane. However, some of its cells are shorter than others, and their nuclei appear at different heights above the basement membrane

pseudostratified columnar epithelium,

this epithelium gives the false (pseudo) impression that it is stratified

pseudostratified columnar epithelium,

monomer

single repeating unit that combines to form a polymer;

Three ways RNA is different from DNA

single strand, uracil instead of thymine, ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose

Whereas DNA is double-stranded, RNA molecules are __________ nucleotide strands. Three major varieties of RNA exist—messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA—and each has a specific role to play in carrying out DNA's instructions for building proteins.

single,

The cells of ___________________ are long, cylindrical, and multinucleate, and they have obvious striations (stripes).

skeletal muscle

The three types of muscle tissue:

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

Cells that move organs and body parts

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle cells

Is found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels

smooth muscle

In our body, many salts dissociate into their ions. Which ions are essential for nerve impulses?

sodium and potassium

The "fibers" of blood are _________________ that become visible only during blood clotting

soluble proteins

Active transport is sometimes called

solute pumping

active transport uses ATP to energize its protein carriers, which are called _____________________

solute pumps

Osmotic pressure is directly related to the concentration of ______________ in the solution. The ____________ the solute concentration, the _____________ the osmotic pressure and the _____________ the tendency of water to move into the solution

solutes, higher, greater, greater

A homogeneous mixture of two or more components

solution

The fluid environment on both sides of the plasma membrane is an example of a

solution

median (midsagittal) section

specific sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline.

The only example of a flagellated cell in the human body is the _____________, which has a single propulsive flagellum called its tail

sperm

There are ________________________cells, flattened like fish scales (squam = scale), ____________cells, which are cube-shaped like dice, and _________________ cells, shaped like columns

squamous, cuboidal, columnar

polysaccharides include

starch and glycogen

Although _________________ are present in the body in only small quantities, they are vital to homeostasis

steroid hormones

lipids include

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Each three-base sequence specifying a particular amino acid on the DNA gene is called a ___________, and the corresponding three-base sequences on mRNA are called ____________

triplet, codons

True or False: the smooth ER plays no role in protein synthesis

true

best description for the term molecule

two or more atoms combined chemically

Neutron (n0)

uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus.

Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms are said to be _________________ (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated, respectively).

unsaturated fats

Omega-3 fatty acid

unsaturated, healthy fats found in some coldwater fish, such as salmon.

Which nitrogen-containing base is found only in RNA?

uracil

Blood, or ____________________, is considered a connective tissue because it consists of blood cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix called ____________________

vascular tissue, blood plasma

hydrogen bond

weak bond in which a hydrogen atom forms a bridge between two electron-hungry atoms. An important intramolecular bond.

Structure determines _____________

what functions can take place

white skin lesion caused by sebum blocking a sebaceous gland duct.

whitehead

cells are made up primarily of the same four elements

—carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen