Chapter 10, Psychology of adjustment

Physical vs. relational vs. verbal aggression.

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Give two forms of economic discrimination against females.

1) Differential access to jobs and differential treatment once on the job. Concerning job access- the problem is that women still lack the same employment opportunities as men. Women are over-represented in "pink collar ghetto" occupations, such as secretary, and preschool and kindergarten teachers. 2) Differential treatment on the job. Women typically earn less money on the job. When women demonstrate leadership qualities such as confidence, ambitiousness and assertiveness, they are evaluated less favorably, b/c these are behaviors are seen as male.

give the four sources of gender role messages

1) parents, 2) peers, 3) schools and 4) media.

Role expectations for females / Problem with female roles.

Females: 1) The marriage mandate, 2) The motherhood mandate. 3) Work outside the home. **** problems with roles: dimished career aspirations, juggling multiple roles, ambivalence about sexuality.

corpus callosum

Gender differences have been found in the size of this which is the band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain. Some say the females is larger. This greater size may be responsible for better interhemispheric transfer of information, which in turn might underlie the more bilateral organization of female brains.

Gender similarities and differences

Gender differences have not been found in overall intelligence. Girls and women tend to have the advantage in verbal area. Mathematical abilities: in problem solving-boys tend to start slightly outperforming girls when they reach high school. Boys also do better with spacial abilities. (engineering chemistry, and the building trades)

hormones

Hormones are chemical substances released into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands.

Psychological disorders and gender differences

In terms of overall incidence of mental disorders, only minimal gender differences have been found. It seems that about one out of every three people will develop a psychological disorder over the course of their lives. Anti-social behavior, alcoholism, and other drug-related disorders are far more prevalent among men than among women. Women are twice as more likely to suffer from depression and anxiety disorders. Females have more eating disorders too. Women attempt suicide more often than men, but men complete suicide more.

instrumental vs. expressive style.

Men are more likely to use an "instrumental style" of communication, and women, a more "expressive" style. Instrumental style focuses on reaching practiced goals and finding solutions to problems; an expressive style: is characterized by being able to express tender emotions easilty and being sensitive to the feelings of others. Women are more skilled than men at non-verbal communication.

Role expectations for males

Men-1) achievement, 2) aggression,3) autonomy (men should be self-reliant and not admit to being dependent on others)4) sexuality-5) stoicism (men should not share their pain or show their "soft" feelings. They should be cool and calm under pressure.

meta-analysis

Meta-analysis combines the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable's effects.

What are some common communication style problems between men and women?

Mismatches- people expect their friends and partners to support and reassure them. When a mismatch occurs between their expectations and reality, they become confused, frustrated, and possibly hurt or angry. ****Lecturing and listening...***The Woman's Double-Bind"

evolutionary origins of gender differences.

Natural selection favors behaviors that maximize the chances of passing on genes to the next generation (reproductive success) To support their assertions, evolutionary psychologists look for gender differences that are consistent across culture. / For example: males supposedly are more sexually active and permissive because they invest less than females in the process of procreation and can maximize their reproductive success by seeking many sexual partners.

Brain organization

Some theorists believe that male and female brains are organized differently, which might account for gender differences in some cognitive abilities.

Gender role transcendence

The gender-role transcendence perspective proposes that to be fully human, people need to move beyond gender roles as a way of organizing their perceptions of themselves and others.

cerebral hemispheres

The human brain is separated into two halves. The cerebral hemispheres are the right and left halves of the cerebrum, which is the convoluted outer layer of the brain.

gender schemas

These are cognitive structures that guide the processing of gender-relevant information.

social constructionism

This asserts that individuals construct their own reality based on societal expectations, conditioning , and self-socialization.

social role theory (Alice Eagly 1987)

This asserts that minor gender differences are exaggerated by the different social roles that males and females occupy.

Gender difference in communication styles.

according to socio-linguist Deborah Tannen,(1990) males and females are typically socialized in different "cultures". That is, males are likely to learn a language of "status and independence", while females learn a language of "connection and intimacy". Males and females have many opportunities to misunderstand one another.

Instrumentality

an orientation toward action and accomplishment, whereas the stereotypes for females reflect the quality of expressiveness, an orientation toward emotion and relationships.

Expressiveness

an orientation toward emotion and relationships.

gender roles

are cultural expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each gender.

Aggression

involves behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally.

Gender-role identity

is a person's identification with the qualities regarded as masculine or feminine.

socialization

is the acquisition of the norms and roles expected of people in a particular society.

Homophobia,/ sexism.

is the intense fear and intolerance of homosexuality. /sexism is the discrimination against people on the basis of their gender.

androgyny

refers to the coexistence of both masculine and feminine personality traits in a single person.

Androcentrism

the belief that the male is the norm. In other words, our society is organized in a way that favors "masculine" characteristics and behavior.

Gender stereotypes

these are widely shared beliefs about males' and females' abilities, personality traits, and social behavior.

Conformity

this involves yielding to real or imagined social pressure.