Chapter 10: The Social Welfare of Immigrants

Immigration Policy: 1900s-1967

- Early immigrants were sought after to help develop the country; official policies were designed to support the arrival of the "best" immigrants and exclude undesirables. e.g. *Chinese Head Tax*(levied on each member of the household) and *Continuous Journey Requirement*(prevented many South Asian from entering Canada) - WWII: increased demand for labour lead to policy reform to meet needs of business and industry. Professionals and skilled workers were sought after to populate urban environment. There was still an effort to find the "right" kind of immigrant. Explicitly racist policies weren't allowed but it was still a thing

immigration classes

- economic: skilled workers, business owners, entrepreneurs - family: requires a sponsor to provide economic and personal support for 3 to 10 years. - refugee: includes individuals who need protection from protection in their home country.

Canadian Multicultural Policy

1971 Overall goal: reframe ethnic/racial differences as a national agenda of "unity within diversity" Core Objectives: - assist all cultural groups that demonstrate a desire and effort to develop a capacity to grow and contribute to Canada. - assist members of all cultural groups to overcome cultural barriers to full participation in Canadian society - promote creative encounters and interchange among all Canadian cultural groups in the interest of national unity. - continue to assist immigrants to acquire at least one of Canada's official languages.

4 Principles to Guide the Discussion on Immigration Policy Reforms

- policy should be based on mainly long-term social and economic objectives and a commitment to citizenship. - policy should be evidence-based, comprehensive, fair, and respectful of human rights. - policy should be developed though public engagement, federal-provincial consultation, and democratic processes. - should nehance Canada's reputation around the world.

Challenges Faced by New Immigrants

- struggling with language and accessing educational programs - experiencing difficulties finding suitable and affordable housing - having to deal with racism, exclusion, and discrimination - learning to navigate complex health and social service system. Many newcomers have to leave family/friends behind so they also have to deal with concerns of family reunification and a lack of extended kinship and social networks.

The Points System

1967 Effectively eliminated nationality and race as determining factors in immigration decisions - purpose: meet the economic and labour needs of Canada while ensuring justice and fairness - qualities considered: education, personal attributes, demand for the person's occupation, level of skill, whether employment is arranged, knowledge of English/French, relatives already in Canada. - Continues to be used for *Economic class* immigrants (skilled workers, business owners, entrepreneurs etc.)

Employment Equity Act

1984: legislation introduced to new legislation designed to recognize and remove the barriers that have historically characterized the Canadian employment system. - aim was to achieve equality in the workplace so no person shall be denied employment opportunities/benefits for reasons unrelated to ability and to correct the conditions of disadvantage in employment of marginalized groups Canadians support this *in principle* but reactions to the policy are mixed; people worried about "reverse discrimination" and gaining priority access not because of merit, but because of race/gender.

Multicultural Canada

Canada was one of the first countries to develop an explicit commitment to promoting ethnic/racial diversity (1971 Multicultural Policy) - multiculturalism is now engraved in Canadian social, political, and moral order.

Chinese Head Tax

Canadian Pacific Railway was built in the late 1800's with mostly Chinese immigrant labour. - many Canadians believed that the number of Chinese immigrants needed to be "managed" but because of the need for labour, it wasn't possible to outright restrict immigration. - tax imposed a $50 head tax on all incoming persons of Chinese origin with very few exceptions; was eventually increased to $100 to $500 which was nearly impossible for many people to pay.

Family Class Sponsorship

Canadian citizens/permanent residents can sponsor a spouse, conjugal or common-law partner, dependent child or other eligible relative to become a permanent resident under the Family Class. Two Different Processes: - one for sponsoring a spouse, conjugal or common-law partner and/or dependent children - one for other eligible relatives.

Saris, samosas, and steel band syndrome

Displaying superficial aspects of culture to mainstream audiences at ethnic and cultural fairs and festivals - doesn't encourage a deep/meaningful understanding of customs and traditions of different ethnic or cultural groups. - doesn't result in changes to the existing power structures that sustain inequalities b/w mainstream Canadians and ethno-racial minorities.

culturally biased hiring practices

During the early stages of looking for work, culturally biased hiring practices that *favour certain skills and behaviours* can make it difficult for newcomers to find appropriate employment. e.g. you have to "sell yourself" in North America to find a job, but this is a problem for people from other cultures because "selling yourself" is seen by them as a rude/undesirable behaviour. Personal prejudices on the part of potential employers can prevent an immigrant from a visible minority group from being hired.

Changing Countries of Origin in Canada

Early history: immigrants from the UK, FR, and other Northern European countries. Post-WWII: other parts of Europe (Italy, Portugal, Greece) 1960s: important changes to immigration policy, the "point system" resulted in the arrival of increasing numbers of newcomers from non-European countries. Brought a new dimension to multiculturalism in Canada.

2008 Immigration Policy Reforms

Fundamentally, altering the nature of immigration and character of the country. - used to focus bringing immigrants on a permanent basis with a view to them quickly becoming citizens. The new trend favouring *temporary-class workers* creates a *two-step immigration process* where newcomers come on a temporary basis with *reduced rights* before proving themselves worthy of permanent status. - their rights aren't fully protected, leaving them vulnerable to abuse. Increased restrcitions on "permanent" immigrants, tightened rules for obtaining citizenship, larger numbers of "temporary" workers, and increased ministerial powers. Problems with the policy changes: - short-term fixes over long-term solutions - temporary entrants v. permanent residents. - reliance on provinces, employers, and educational institutions for immigration selection.

Ottawa's Immigration Sponsorship Rules

Harper gov. made it tougher for people to settle foreign parents/grandparents in Canada by *hiking sponsorship qualifications to make it less-likely newcomers will become a financial burden for taxpayers.* The new rules make sponsors financially responsible for these arrivals. - amount of time sponsors have to cover any provincial social benefits incurred by their relatives has been *doubled* - minimum required annual income of sponsors has risen by *30%* - sponsors have to demonstrate they meet the minimum income for *3 years* instead of 12 months. - sponsor responsibility period increased to *20 years* from 10. Harper's gov. called it "fiscally responsible" because after the 10 year responsibility period ends, the amount of welfare usage by the newcomers jumps significantly. - gov. is also trying to restrict dependent children that can come with the newcomers (makes the cutoff age 18)

Criticisms of Multicultural Policy

Has failed in reaching its intended goals and aspects of it are detrimental to Canadian society. - promotes "celebration of diversity" that distract from racial inequality in society. (aka "saris, samosas, and steel band syndrome) - ends up trivializing people's cultural practices and undermining the belief in equality that Canadians claim to protect/promote. "Celebratory" view of ethno-racial differences ends up homogenizing people of color. - stressing the differences between people with diverse ethno-racial backgrounds and mainstream Canadians, multiculturalism threatens the cohesiveness of Canadian society.

Sponsoring a spouse, partner or children

If a Canadian citizen/permanent resident sponsors a family member to come to Canada as a permanent resident, the sponsor must make every reasonable effort to provide for their own essential needs and those of the sponsor's family. - sponsor is responsible for supporting the relative financially when they arrive. - sponsor must also make sure the spouse/relative doesn't need to seek social assistance from the gov. Sponsored spouses/partners must live together for two years from the day they receive permanent resident status in Canada.

Permanent Residents and Refugees: income security and eligibility

Immigrants or "non-Canadians" are considered permanent residents if they have lived in Canada for at least 2 consecutive years during any five-year period. - get the same rights as citizens but can't vote or have public office job until they are citizens. Permanent residents are eligible for Child Tax Benefits and if they have a history of employment in Canada, they're also eligible for various income security programs, Gov. sponsored refugees are eligible to receive the Child Tax Benefit and are also provided with financial resettlement assistance under the *Resettlement Assistance Program*, as well as a one-time initial household start-up allowance. - not eligible to receive benefits for retirement, job-related injuries, or job loss until they get paid employment.

Personal Characteristics/Resource Barriers to Finding Work

Immigrants who are younger often become employed more quickly than those who are older. - may reflect the general tendency in our society to value youth over age. - may be that youth are more comfortable with the dominant language and may posses the proper resources. Gender is also a significant factor in determining how successful they will be in gaining suitable employment - women experience more stressors and discrimination as a combined effect of their ethno-racial background and gender.

History of Canadian Immigration Policy

Immigration policies have always been shaped by the economic requirements of the country. - in addition, explicitly racist and discriminatory policies have been used in the past to control the influx of people from certain groups. (still common)

Language/Culture Barriers to Finding Work

In cases where foriegn-obtained credentials are recognized, the lack of "Canadian" experience often prevents newcomers from getting the jobs they have been trained to do. - but it's difficult to gain experience when not having it prevents people from acquiring appropriate employment in the first place. Problems with the language can interfere with how work is performed and can make communicating with colleagues difficult.

Skill/Training Barriers to Finding Work

In theory, the points system is intended to safeguard people from experiencing unemployment or underemployment and its financial consequences. - does this by ensuring that there is a need for the skills and experiences the newcomer brings to this country. Problem: for many individuals, the advanced and professional degrees granted by their countries of origin and their job skills and experiences gained prior to entry into Canada are not recognized or transferable in their current circumstances. - these immigrants are then required to go back to school or take intensive exams in order to become "recredentialized" a costly time-consuming process.

Continuous Journey Policy

Late 1800's and early 1900s +2000 individuals form the Indian subcontinent came to Canada hoping to create a better financial climate for their families. - Fear and racism among mainstream Canadians led to strict policies that discouraged South Asian immigration. - Since Indians were part of the British commonwealth, they couldn't be explicitly denied entry but were required to have $200 on their person which was an insane amount for the time. - Permitted entry only if they came from their country of citizenship by a continuous journey on through tickets purchased before leaving a country. (extremely hard to achieve)

New Immigrant Challenges: Low-Income

Most pressing challenge experienced by newcomers is probably income-security and problems that come with it. - too many recent immigrants are searching for employment or are underemployed and are more likely to face low income than mainstream Canadians; seems to be worsening over time even though more than half are college educated.

Workplace Discrimination

Racism *within* the workplace can make it difficult to stay in an employment setting. - over racism: discriminatory remarks or ostracizing behaviours; creates a toxic work environment and negative psychological consequences. - subtle racism: gross earnings differentials b/w immigrants and the mainstream. Newcomers often make less money compared to mainstream Canadians (especially true for visible minority groups) - acts of racism and discrimination within the work environment threaten an immigrant's emotional and psychological well-being and can result in them leaving the workplace.

Barriers to Finding and Keeping Work

Recent immigrants are more likely to be employed in low-paying jobs; further compounded when the immigrant is a member of a *visible minority* group, since racial discrimination results in people of colour earning less than new comers who are white

anti racist approach to understanding immigrant experiences

Sees racism as an ideology used to justify a society in which those who are white are privileged socially, economically, and politically at the expense of people of color. - colonial period: white Europeans used racial distinctions to make legitimate an economic system in which people of colour were viewed as property. They were seen as "less human"; white superiority was used to justify the exploitation of people and exploiting their possessions/land. - today's problem: a results of a system where the majority enjoy certain socio-economic and political benefits, while minority groups are over-represented in categories reflecting a lower socio-economic status and less political representation.

Sponsoring other relatives

The sponsor must make every reasonable effort to provide for their essential needs and their relative. - responsible for financial support - must make sure the relative doesn't need social assistance from the gov.

"glass ceiling effect"

allowing people of colour to advance only to a point in the organizational ranks, with top-level management positions reserved for those who are usually white and typically men. - referred as the glass ceiling effect since the racial barrier is not apparent and therefore not seen as a formal obstacle

Labour Market Approach

argues that the labour market dictates employment levels among newcomers. - focuses on the local job market and the demand for certain skills.

the live-in caregiver program

high-demand for quality child-care with various options available; increasingly popular arrangement is *in-home child care provision* with babysitters or nannies working and living within the family home. The *Federal Live-in Caregiver Program*: designed to fill a labour market demand that is difficult to fill locally. - mostly women - offered full-time live-in employment prior to entry into Canada and receive temporary status in the country. - they're fired, they're subject to deportation. - after two years of employment, they're allowed to apply for landed immigrant status (full citizen rights w/o voting) Challenges and Abuses: - unclear break times - unclear where they're supposed to live. - forced into domestic stituations involving financia, physical and even sexual abuse. Limitations that threaten basic human rights: - significant policy changes that address these concerns are required - education about how to create a respectful, productive, and caring work environment should be provided to potential employers and employees.